Sacramentals

44. Definition. Etymologically, a sacramental signifies everything which pertains to a sacrament, but especially the sacramental ceremony which is observed in the administration of the sacraments.

But sacramentals properly and specifically, as they are understood in this question, can be defined: sacred signs (things or actions) instituted by the Church in some imitation of the sacraments, which she is accustomed to use for obtaining, by her impetration, effects especially spiritual.² Therefore three things belong to the notion of sacramentals: a. that they be sacred signs instituted by the Church; wherefore she herself, and she alone, exercises full power over sacramentals: she can constitute them, interpret them authentically, abolish or change some of them;³ b. that they produce supernatural effects, both spiritual and bodily; c. that they produce these effects by force of impetration.

a. Sacramentals, which theologians call lesser sacraments, must be defined in such a way that from one side they differ from the sacraments, and from the other side they exhibit the greatest likeness with the sacraments that can be admitted.

b. Sacred signs: sacramentals, however many there are, are either sacred things or sacred actions; but all agree in the common notion of a sacred sign, by which external worship is shown to God and which the Church uses for conferring supernatural effects. Sacramentals are practical signs, which not only signify effects, but also produce them; yet they do not signify them in the same apt and determinate way as the sacraments, nor do they produce them in the same way.

c. Instituted by the Church: sacramentals, according to the mode and form in which they are actually had and performed, have been instituted by the Church. By this it is only denied that sacramentals were instituted by Christ in the same way, in species and individually, as the sacraments were instituted by Him; but it is not denied that sacramentals also were instituted by Christ in a twofold sense: alpha. mediately, because the Church received from Christ the power of instituting and performing sacramentals; beta. in general, because Christ Himself instituted at least some sacramentals in general and committed only the specific form to be determined by the Church. And indeed Christ Himself instituted blessings and exorcisms in general; but the particular blessings and exorcisms which are employed for the utility of the faithful received their determinate form and mode from the Church. Therefore sacramentals depend on the power of the Church in an entirely different way than the sacraments, whose specific matter and form are independent of the power of the Church.

d. From the stated definition of sacramentals it follows that the following are not to be referred to the number of sacramentals: alpha. the Lord's Prayer, the prayers of the faithful, the sign of the cross, almsgiving, and blessing which parents invoke upon their children, both because they were not instituted by the Church and because they do not have their force from the impetration of the Church; beta. nor the prayers of the Church, the ceremonies of the eucharistic sacrifice, genuflections, beatings of the breast, etc., because they do not produce their effects from the prayer of the Church, although they have been instituted by the Church. For a work which produces a particular supernatural effect either by its nature, as the Lord's Prayer, which by reason of its author pleases God exceedingly, or from a special divine promise, as almsgiving does, does not pertain to sacramentals, which produce their effects by force of the prayer of the Church.

e. Sacramentals differ from sacraments: alpha. by reason of origin, because the sacraments were instituted by Christ, sacramentals by the Church; beta. by reason of effect, for the sacraments immediately produce grace and remit sins and the punishment of sins, while sacramentals cannot immediately confer grace or remit sins; gamma. by reason of the mode of operating, for the sacraments produce their effects ex opere operato, but sacramentals ex opere operantis (of the Church).

¹ Suarez, De sacramentis, disp. 15; J. B. Pighi, Liturgia sacramentalium; G. Arendt, S.J., De Sacramentalibus; Fr. Schmid, Die Sakramentalien der kath. Kirche; Probst, Sakramente und Sakramentalien; Kutschker, Die hl. Gebrauche; Amberger, Pastoraltheologie, Bd. 3, Abt. 2, S. 191 ff.; Kirchenlexikon^2, "Sakramentalien."

² Cn. 1144.

³ Cn. 1145.

45. Division. Sacramentals are of great multitude and variety, so that they are not contained under a determinate number. Several which were in use in antiquity have now gone into disuse, and when the circumstances of time require it the Church can repeatedly institute new ones; thus she has instituted some even in recent times, as is seen in the Roman Ritual, in whose appendix several most recent blessings are contained. Yet all sacramentals can be reduced to certain genera. They are divided:

1. By reason of the object, into actions and things, according as the effect is produced immediately by some action, e.g., by blessing, or mediately, namely through the blessed thing.

Actions are called transient sacramentals and are compared with the sacraments which are confected by a passing action; blessed things are called permanent sacramentals and are compared with the most holy sacrament of the altar, which remains in being and produces its effect by use.

2. By reason of the end, transient sacramentals are divided into blessings and exorcisms, according as they are employed for conferring a supernatural effect or for weakening or breaking the power of the devil. Further divisions are below (n. 52).

3. By reason of the minister, into reserved, which can be confected only by a determinate minister, and non-reserved, which can be performed indiscriminately by all ministers.

a. Some reserved sacramentals are reserved to the pope, as the blessing of the pallium, the Agnus Dei, the golden rose, etc.; others are reserved to bishops, which are of two kinds: alpha. real blessings, which are so proper to bishops that they cannot be delegated to a priest without apostolic indult; beta. verbal blessings, which are found in the Missal or Ritual under the title: Blessings reserved to bishops or to others having the faculty, to be made, which bishops can commit to priests either by ordinary or by delegated right.

The series of blessings which are reserved to certain religious orders and are found in the Ritual under the title Blessings proper to certain regular orders must be remembered.

b. Among the non-reserved sacramentals, which by force of order can be performed by any priest without delegation, those must be noted which are of parochial right, and therefore cannot be performed by another priest without the permission of the parish priest: the nuptial blessing, the blessing of the baptismal font, the blessing of a woman after childbirth, the blessing of houses on Holy Saturday, the blessing of fields and crops if it is done solemnly; generally, blessings are not to be made publicly and solemnly in a place which is subject to the jurisdiction of another.

Nothing prevents a simple priest, whether secular or regular, from being able by a private rite to bless fields, animals, and similar things, since these blessings are not of parochial right.¹ A private rite, insofar as it is opposed to public and solemn, does not exclude surplice and stole, but does exclude the gathering of the people summoned by the sign of the bell.

¹ S. C. R., 13 June 1893, n. 3801.

46. Minister. Subject. The legitimate minister of sacramentals in general is a cleric to whom power has been conferred for this and who has not been prohibited by ecclesiastical authority.¹ But according to the diverse dignity of sacramentals, diverse ministers are assigned:

a. For consecrations the episcopal character is required, unless law or an apostolic indult grants the power also to a priest.

b. Any priest can give blessings, unless they are reserved; but even reserved blessings, if they are given by a priest without permission, are illicit, not invalid, unless something else is expressed.

c. Deacons and lectors can give validly and licitly only those blessings which are expressly permitted to them by law.²

d. The ministers of exorcisms which occur in baptism and in consecrations or blessings are the same as those who are the legitimate ministers of the same sacred rites.³

Therefore lay persons cannot confer sacramentals; nevertheless the use of certain permanent sacramentals is permitted immediately to lay persons themselves, as holy water, the Agnus Dei, a blessed medal, etc.; but other permanent sacramentals, as blessed ashes, etc., must be applied to the faithful through the ministry of priests.

Subject. a. Blessings, which are especially to be imparted to Catholics, can also be given to catechumens, indeed, unless the prohibition of the Church stands in the way, even to non-Catholics for obtaining the light of faith or, together with it, bodily health.⁴

Sacramentals which can be given even to catechumens must also be understood to include public sacramentals, and therefore catechumens can be admitted to the imposition of ashes and the distribution of candles and palms.⁵

b. Exorcisms can be performed not only over the faithful and catechumens, but also over non-Catholics or excommunicated persons.⁶

¹ Cn. 1146.

² Cn. 1147.

³ Cn. 1153.

⁴ Cn. 1149.

⁵ S. R. C., 8 Mar. 1919.

⁶ Cn. 1152.

47. Efficacy of sacramentals. That there is in sacramentals a special force and efficacy of producing certain supernatural effects, whether spiritual or bodily, is evident both from the persuasion of the Church and from the power conferred upon her. Concerning these effects it must be explained: a. what they are; b. what is the power conferred on the Church; c. in what way they are produced.

a. The efficacy of sacramentals is called special so that it may be distinguished both from the force and efficacy of impetrating which belongs to the prayers of the faithful, and from the meritorious force which is in the good works of the just.

b. The special efficacy of sacramentals does not consist in this, that by their own nature, insofar as they are sacred signs, they excite pious movements, by which afterward supernatural help is obtained ex opere operantis, but in this, that by the very action or by the blessed thing itself, by force of the blessing conferred, supernatural effect is obtained.

48. What effects they produce. The effects which are produced by sacramentals can be reduced especially to four:

1. The conferral of actual grace, which must be called the primary and principal effect of sacramentals; thus the blessing of an abbot, the coronation of a king, minor orders insofar as they are sacramentals, the nuptial blessing, etc., confer actual graces for rightly carrying out the offices received. Moreover, actual graces are judged to be not only sufficient but also efficacious for the effects of sacramentals.

2. The remission of venial sin, which all theologians attribute to sacramentals, although they dispute concerning the mode by which venial sins are destroyed by them. Thus holy water, ashes blessed at the beginning of Lent, the Confiteor with the prayers joined to it, chiefly have the force of destroying venial sins.

Whether sacramentals have the force of remitting temporal punishment is not evident; "nor do I see," says Suarez, "on what sufficient foundation this could be affirmed."¹

3. The restraining of the devil. The dominion of the devil over men arising from sin exerts itself by divine permission especially in a threefold way: a. in that he inflicts physical evils on men or on their goods; b. in that interiorly he urges them to sin by evil temptations; c. in that he possesses the very bodies of men. Now for restraining, weakening, or repelling these malignant influences of the devil, several sacramentals, and especially the manifold exorcisms, are employed.

a. Sacramentals produce this effect in various ways according to the variety of diabolical influence: for they either move the good angels to repel the malignant infestations of the devil with greater force and virtue, or confer helps of grace for overcoming temptations more easily, or prevent evil spirits from harming men or their goods, or finally expel the devil entirely from possessed bodies, or at least weaken his influence.

b. From ordinary exorcism, which is numbered among the sacramentals, there must be distinguished an extraordinary charism by which God sometimes confers upon holy men the power of miraculously expelling devils from possessed bodies. For the force and efficacy of ordinary exorcisms, although it is always valid for weakening the power of the devil, is not always valid for fully expelling the devil himself.

4. The producing of a temporal good, as of bodily health or of other benefits. Sacramentals produce this effect in diverse ways: by the fact that, through the special providence of God, man and his goods are preserved from future evils; or by the fact that present evils are removed and health is restored to bodies; or by the fact that temporal prosperity is conferred. Thus the blessing of the sick and most blessings which are conferred upon irrational creatures chiefly intend these effects.

Note 1. Yet individual sacramentals do not produce all these effects: for both from their institution and from the mode by which they are performed, they are diverse and destined for diverse ends, and therefore they also produce diverse effects. But what fruits each one confers must be gathered both from their institution and from the prayers by which the Church administers them.²

Note 2. Blessings and consecrations by which things or persons are consecrated by the Church and deputed to divine worship, as the consecration of a church, the consecration of a chalice, the blessing of an abbot or abbess, first tonsure, minor orders, etc., are sacramentals insofar as the consecration itself or the use of the consecrated thing has the force of conferring supernatural effects, but not insofar as they have the force of constituting a thing or person truly sacred and deputed to divine worship. For the Church consecrates things and persons and permanently destines them to divine worship not by that power by which she institutes and confects sacramentals, but by the power with which she is furnished for ruling and ordering the external worship of God in the religious society instituted by Christ. Indeed, sacramentals also are ordered to divine worship, since by their own nature they are acts of divine worship; but the power of ruling external worship does not suffice for instituting and confecting sacramentals, unless there accedes the special power of blessing and the power of restraining devils.

¹ De sacramentis, disp. 15, sect. 4, n. 9.

² Cf. Amberger III, 2, p. 197 ff.

49. On the power of the Church. For instituting and confecting sacramentals the Church is furnished with a twofold power: the power of blessing and the power of restraining devils.

1. On the power of blessing. a. That this power was handed down by Christ to the apostles, and in them to the ministers of the Church, is evident from these words of Scripture: "Into whatever house you enter, first say: Peace to this house; and if there be there a son of peace, your peace shall rest upon him."¹ For the words Peace to this house do not exhibit a commonly used greeting, but a blessing by which supernatural goods are asked, as is evident from the following words.²

b. Christ taught the apostles by His example how they ought to exercise the power of blessing for the utility of men: for He Himself, imposing hands on little children, blessed them;³ He blessed the loaves and fishes afterward to be multiplied;⁴ He blessed the bread to be changed into His body;⁵ and finally, before His ascension into heaven, with hands lifted up He blessed the apostles and disciples.⁶

2. On the power over devils. That this power was handed down to the apostles and disciples, and in them to the ministers of the Church, is demonstrated by these words of Scripture: "And having called together the twelve apostles, He gave them power and authority over all devils."⁷

Note. That the Church exercises the power handed down to her by Christ especially through her priests is already evident from the very office of priests, and is expressly signified by the words which she uses in the ordination of a priest: "Deign, O Lord, to consecrate these hands ... so that whatever they bless may be blessed, and whatever they consecrate may be consecrated and sanctified." And although she confers on clerics in the ordination of exorcists the power of imposing hands over the possessed and by imposition of hands restraining unclean spirits, nevertheless it is not permitted to use this power except for priests.⁸

¹ Luke 10, 5, 6.

² Cf. Knabenbauer, Commentarius in quatuor evangelia, I, p. 387.

³ Mark 10, 16; Matt. 19, 15.

⁴ Mark 6, 41; Matt. 14, 19.

⁵ Matt. 26, 26.

⁶ Luke 24, 50.

⁷ Luke 9, 1; cf. Matt. 10, 1; Luke 10, 17.

⁸ Pontificale Romanum, De ordinatione presbyteri, De ordinatione exorcistarum.

50. In what way they produce effects. Sacramentals produce effects from the impetratory force of the Church, which, while she confects sacramentals through her ministers, herself begs God for those to whom sacramentals are administered or who afterward use them. To the question whether sacramentals produce their effect ex opere operato or ex opere operantis, it seems one must answer thus:

a. Not ex opere operantis: for by this term it is signified that the effect depends on the sanctity of the minister or on the disposition of the subject; but sacramentals have their force and efficacy not from the sanctity and devotion of the minister nor from the disposition of the subject, but from the impetratory force of the Church.

alpha. If we sometimes read that sacramentals produced richer and almost wonderful effects where they were performed by holy men, this must be attributed not to the ordinary efficacy of sacramentals, but to a singular charism conferred by God upon a determinate person in view of sanctity. Yet by these things it is not denied that the ordinary effect of sacramentals, even apart from a special charism, can be increased, and actually is increased, from the merit of the minister who exceedingly pleases God, just as the fruits of the Mass are sometimes increased in view of the sanctity of the minister offering.

beta. For perceiving the effects of sacramentals, the due disposition of the subject is required, just as the due disposition is necessary for perceiving the fruits of the sacraments. Hence it must be conceded that the effect of sacramentals is richer in proportion as the disposition, or sanctity, faith, and devotion of the subject, is more perfect; but the force of producing these effects belongs to the impetration of the Church.

b. Nor ex opere operato: for by this term it is signified that the effect is produced by force of divine institution, so that the sign itself, by force of this institution, is efficacious for producing the effects; but sacramentals are efficacious not by force of institution, but by force of the Church praying and impetrating.

c. But ex opere operantis ecclesiae. The mode by which sacramentals operate agrees with the mode of operation of the sacraments in this, that their efficacy does not depend on the merit of the minister nor on the sanctity of the subject; but it differs from the mode of operation of the sacraments in this, that efficacy belongs to them not by force of institution, but by force of the impetration of the Church performing the sacramentals. Therefore although it can truly be affirmed that sacramentals act ex opere operato, if only the negative force of this term is considered, nevertheless sacramentals are more aptly said to produce their effects ex opere operantis ecclesiae, so that for the singular mode by which the sacraments operate, the singular term ex opere operato may also be reserved.

51. The effect of sacramentals must be called infallible: for the effect is produced by the prayer of the Church; but the prayers of the Church are always heard. Yet if the effect which is intended does not always actually come from the administration or use of sacramentals, this must especially be explained from the twofold condition on which the infallible efficacy of all prayers depends. For if temporal goods are sought, such as health of body, abundance of crops, etc., it can happen that the granting of them does not conduce to the salvation of the soul; and if supernatural goods are sought, it can happen that the granting of them is not conformed to the order of divine providence and predestination.

a. Although the proximate and immediate subject of sacramentals is most diverse, namely a creature both rational and irrational, nevertheless the remote and ultimate subject is always man as wayfarer, to whose spiritual utility every effect produced through sacramentals yields.

b. From these things it is concluded that those sacramentals (as sacramentals) are worth nothing for which the impetration of the Church does not assist; but this does not assist those which are not performed with that matter and form which she herself prescribes. Therefore sacramentals in whose confection or use the conditions designated by the Church are not observed have no effect; and in this matter neither inculpable ignorance nor good faith can supply anything: for the whole force of ecclesiastical blessings, says Gardellini, is placed in the prayer and invocation of the Church, which is made through her ministers, who must use no other words or formulas than those which have been constituted for them by the Church.¹ And cn. 1148, 2 has these words: Consecrations and blessings, whether constitutive or invocative, are invalid if the formula prescribed by the Church was not used.

Article Third. On Blessings and Exorcisms

Since blessings and exorcisms are the two great genera to which all transient sacramentals are reduced, it is useful to add a few things about them specifically.

¹ Decreta authentica S. C. R. (ed. Gardellini, Rome, 1857), note to n. 4782.

MERELY external religion, without devotion of mind and heart to the service of God, is hypocrisy, but though we should serve God in spirit and in truth, external rites and ceremonies are not excluded from religion. On the contrary, they form an essential part of it. Man is composed of body and soul; both come from God, and both should share in the worship due to their Creator. Besides, internal religion will be faint and likely to evaporate altogether, unless it sometimes finds expression in outward acts. God has provided for these wants of human nature by instituting the sacred rites, which we call sacraments, as essential parts of true religion. They serve also as signs by which the faithful are known to and united among themselves and distinguished from those outside the fold. They serve, too, as an external profession of faith, and as a means of practising the very salutary virtue of humility, inasmuch as we are compelled to seek in external rites the spiritual help of which we stand in need, whereby intellectual pride is humbled.

There were sacraments under the Old Law as there are under the New, although the latter are far more efficacious than the former. As expressing what is common to the sacraments of Judaism and Christianity, a sacrament may be defined to be an outward sign of inward grace. A sacrament, then, is some outward rite or ceremony instituted by God, to show forth and make known the grace which he thereby bestows on the soul of the recipient. Thus circumcision signified separation from the idolatrous world, incorporation among the people of God, and the infusion of grace into the soul for the remission of original sin. The sacraments of the Old Law produced their effects by exciting the faith of the ministers and recipients of them and by the profession of faith in the coming Redeemer which their use contained.

The sacraments of the New Law were instituted by Christ our Lord, and they confer the grace which they signify, not on account of the meritorious dispositions with which they are ministered or received, but on account of their dignity and intrinsic excellence. They were instituted by Christ, they are administered in his name and by his authority, and thus they are in a true sense the actions of Christ our Lord executed by his ministers. Divines express this by saying that the sacraments of the Christian Church confer grace ex opere operato, while those of the Old Law produced it ex opere operantis. A sacrament, then, of the New Law may be defined to be an outward sign of invisible grace instituted by Christ to confer the grace which it signifies.

There are certain rites and ceremonies in use in the Church which are called sacramentals. Of these we may mention the consecration of abbots, the first tonsure of clerics, the sacring of kings, the blessing of chalices and bells, holy water, Agnus Dei, scapulars, and many more. They are called sacramentals because they are sacred rites which, if properly used according to the mind of the Church, confer spiritual graces on the soul of him who uses them. They do this through the approbation and blessing of the Church, the Spouse of Christ, whose prayers and desires Christ always listens to, and through the good dispositions of those who use them. They thus differ from sacraments, as also in the grace which they produce. They confer actual graces, special helps to do good and avoid evil, given by God in answer to the prayers of the Church and the pious desires of those who use them properly (Can. 1144).

I. Notion. Sacramentals are things or actions which the Church, in some imitation of the sacraments, is accustomed to use for obtaining from her own impetration effects, especially spiritual effects (can. 1144). This notion handed down by the Code will become clearer from what is to be said. Sacramentals are, for example, consecrations and blessings to be performed in the name of the Church, exorcisms, prayers prescribed by the Church and to be recited in her name, such as the breviary, and blessed things, such as water, Agnus Dei, ashes, palms, etc.

II. Institution. With regard to the institution of sacramentals, it seems more probable that one must speak thus: most derive their origin from ecclesiastical institution; but certain ones of them, such as exorcisms and blessings, were instituted by Christ at least in a general way and entrusted to the Church, yet in such a way that afterwards they were more determinately circumscribed by the Church both as to mode and as to effect.¹ To add new things to the sacramentals, or to change anything in them, belongs to the Apostolic See alone, as is clear from canon 1145. The reason is that sacramentals draw their force from the impetration of the Church alone. Therefore it belongs to the Head of the Church alone to constitute or change them.

¹ Cf. Schmid, Die Sacramentalien der Katholischen Kirche, p. 149.

III. Effects. 1. The effects of sacramentals are either the special deputation of some person or thing to divine worship, as, for example, the blessing of an abbot or the administration of minor orders, supposing that these do not enjoy the character of a sacrament, and the consecration of a church or chalice; or the attainment of some good, whether spiritual, such as actual grace, the removal of venial guilt and temporal punishment, or bodily, such as health of body or immunity from calamity by which the person himself or his goods can be affected. Special deputation to divine worship is the effect of those sacramentals which consist in consecrations and constitutive blessings; the attainment of a good, whether spiritual or bodily, is obtained by the sacramentals of exorcism, prayer, and blessed objects.

2. As regards the mode by which diverse sacramentals produce their diverse effects, it can generally be established that they produce them by way of impetration, as if ex opere operato, that is, from the work of the working or praying Church, and this independently of the disposition either of the minister or of the subject, and indeed with that infallibility by which God promised to hear the prayer of His most beloved spouse, namely the Church. Some effects, however, are received immediately, others mediately through the sacramentals; wherefore concerning the individual effects in species one can speak thus:

a) The special deputation of some person or thing to divine worship is obtained by way of impetration ex opere operato, infallibly and immediately.

b) Actual graces are obtained in the same way, and through acts placed by means of these graces, the remission of sins and other goods which the just man can acquire for himself supernaturally.

c) The expulsion and restraint of demons is obtained both by way of impetration and by way of adjuration or command.

d) Finally, temporal goods, such as health, fertility of the earth, and the removal of threatening evil, are obtained both by way of impetration and by way of adjuration directed against demons.

IV. Ministration or use. 1. In general, the legitimate minister of sacramentals is a cleric to whom power has been granted for this and who has not been prohibited by competent ecclesiastical authority from exercising the same power (can. 1146). In species, with regard to legitimate ministers, the following are established:

a) No one who lacks the episcopal character can validly perform consecrations unless this is permitted to him either by law or by apostolic indult (can. 1147, § 1).¹

b) Any priest can impart blessings, except those which are reserved to the Roman Pontiff or to Bishops or others.² A reserved blessing which is given by a priest without the necessary permission is illicit but valid, unless in the reservation the Apostolic See has expressed otherwise (can. 1147, §§ 2 and 3). Deacons and lectors can validly and licitly give only those blessings which are expressly permitted to them by law (can. 1147, § 4).

c) With regard to exorcisms, see vol. I, n. 700.

2. In confecting or administering sacramentals, the rites approved by the Church are to be accurately observed (can. 1148, § 1). Consecrations,³ and blessings whether constitutive or invocative,⁴ are invalid if the formula prescribed by the Church has not been used (can. 1148, § 2).

3. Blessings, which are chiefly to be imparted to Catholics, can also be given to catechumens, indeed, unless a prohibition of the Church stands in the way, even to non-Catholics, for obtaining the light of faith or, together with it, health of body (can. 1149).

4. Things consecrated or blessed with a constitutive blessing are to be treated reverently and not applied to profane or improper use, even if they are in the ownership of private persons (can. 1150).

Note. Let the ministers of the Church explain to the faithful the nature and efficacy of sacramentals. Moreover, let the ministers of the Church show themselves ready in ministering sacramentals, and prudently accustom the faithful who neglect sacramentals to the use of them. Yet let them beware lest they apply ecclesiastical blessings, under whatever pretext, to ends other than those for which they were instituted by the Church, and lest by an imprudent use of them they expose this most holy institution to contempt, or stain it with the reputation of superstition or of dishonest gain.

¹ That law permits this to Cardinals (can. 239, § 1, n. 20); Vicars and Prefects Apostolic (can. 294, § 2); Pro-vicars and Pro-prefects (can. 310, § 2); Abbots and Prelates nullius (can. 383, § 2), according to the norm of the cited canons.

² Cf. with regard to blessings reserved to the pastor, can. 462, 6 and 7; with regard to sacred furnishings to be blessed, can. 1304; with regard to exorcisms to be pronounced, vol. I, n. 700.

³ Consecrations are made by anointing with chrism or sacred oil.

⁴ A constitutive blessing is one which orders a person or thing to divine worship, and so constitutes it sacred; an invocative blessing regards things, for example a ship, destined for profane use.

I. No venial sin is remitted while mortal sin remains. For one who remains in divine enmity and does not offer fitting compensation for the grave injury inflicted upon God is unworthy for pardon of a lighter injury to be granted to him (St. Thomas, 3, question 87, article 4).

II. One venial sin can be remitted without another being remitted. The reason is that one can detest one venial sin, namely because of its greater malice or from its own proper motive, without detesting another.

III. Venial sins are remitted by:

1. An act of perfect contrition, according to some, remits the venial sins to which it extends formally or virtually. But others say better that perfect contrition concerning one venial sin necessarily extends itself to all, and therefore remits all. For just as in relation to mortal sins contrition is detestation and sorrow concerning sin insofar as it is an offense against God loved above all things, and therefore necessarily extends itself to all mortal sins, so also in relation to venial sins, which are offenses against God in a qualified sense, contrition is detestation and sorrow concerning venial sin insofar as it is an offense in a qualified sense against God loved above all things, and therefore necessarily extends itself to all venial sins.¹

2. An act of perfect charity remits venial sins, of which it involves virtual penance. Hence all venial sins are pardoned by charity "when someone is borne in affection toward God and divine things in such a way that whatever should occur to him which would hinder him from this movement would displease him, and he would sorrow that he had committed it, even if he is not actually thinking about it" (St. Thomas, part 3, question 87, article 1).

3. Any attrition, whether formal or virtual,² seems to suffice for the remission of certain venial sins (St. Thomas, 3, question 87, article 2 and ad 3, and article 3): both because the light offenses of friends are more easily pardoned than the grave injuries of enemies, so that perfect contrition does not seem to be required for the remission of venial sins as it is - at least in the absence of the sacrament - for the remission of mortal sins; and because this attrition, as a meritorious act of a friend and son, has a greater proportion to pardon than the act of an unjust man attrite concerning mortal sins. Nevertheless, it is disputed whether any attrition suffices to destroy all venial sins to which it extends formally or virtually, or whether a more perfect attrition is required if the matter concerns a graver venial sin.³

4. The sacraments. Concerning these, note:

a) It is certain that Baptism, Extreme Unction, Penance, and the Holy Eucharist, at least in some sense, remit venial sins. For Baptism is a perfect washing; absolution extends itself to all things which are subjected to the keys; and the form of Extreme Unction is universal. As regards the Holy Eucharist, this is established from Trent.⁴ The same is taught rather commonly concerning the three other sacraments (St. Thomas, part 3, question 87, article 2).

b) The sacraments certainly remit venial sins insofar as they move one to the acts explained under 1, 2, and 3, that is, to perfect contrition, to perfect charity, and to attrition.

It is disputed whether, besides this, the sacraments remit venial sins in another way. Moreover, some who deny that outside the sacrament any attrition suffices for destroying the venial sins to which it extends judge that in the sacrament any attrition suffices for the sacraments directly to remit the venial sins to which the attrition extends. Others - such as Suarez and many of those who teach that any attrition of itself alone suffices for the remission of venial sins - think that in the sacraments, at least in the Holy Eucharist, it is enough that "a man approach without actual complacency in venial sin and with the desire of receiving the sacrament and its fruit."⁵ Finally, others teach that venial sins are never remitted immediately through the sacraments, but only by means of pious movements which are opposed to venial sin either explicitly or implicitly; concerning these see pp. 209-210, under 1, 2, and 3.

5. Sacramentals. Of these, some remit venial sins because and insofar as they have joined to them an act remissive of venial sins, for example attrition, as the striking of the breast, the Confiteor. Others conduce to their remission insofar as, from the impetration of the Church, God often - not infallibly - confers some pious movement upon those using them, for example blessed water.

Note. It is disputed in what way venial sins are remitted in those who have departed this life with the guilt of venial fault. St. Thomas, to whom St. Alphonsus adheres (Opera dogmatica, vol. I, p. 675), says as follows: "Venial sins are remitted in them after this life even as regards guilt by an act of charity toward God, repugnant to the venial sins committed in this life. Yet because after this life there is not the state of meriting, that movement of love in them indeed removes the impediment of venial fault, but does not merit absolution or diminution of punishment, as in this life" (De Malo, question 7, article 11).

IV. Venial sins are formally remitted by a contrary act, not by the infusion of grace, although this remission does not take place without a concomitant infusion or increase of grace, or at least without a right to this increase. The reason for the former is that no degree of sanctifying grace is incompatible with venial sin; this is clear from the fact that a man having however much grace can sin venially without losing anything of sanctifying grace. Therefore no degree of grace formally expels venial sins. The latter is clear from the fact that no venial sin is remitted without some penance, and therefore without a work meritorious of an increase of grace, or of a right to this increase.

¹ Cf. the Salmanticenses, Commentary on part 3, question 87, article 1, nn. 3-4, and De sacramentis in communi, disputation 10, doubt 2, n. 11.

² Virtual attrition is involved, for example, by a petition for pardon from God, the purpose of not committing such a sin again, an act of the opposite virtue, and any meritorious act referred to obtaining pardon (cf. St. Thomas, part 3, question 87, article 3).

³ There are also some, though few, who require an act of formal penance for the remission of venial sins. Thus, for example, Durandus (IV Sentences, distinction 16, question 2).

⁴ Session 13, on the Eucharist, chapter 2.

⁵ Suarez, disputation 12, section 1, n. 9.

Sacramentals.—The sacramentals are the sacred things (e.g., rosaries, scapulars, agnus deis) and actions (e.g., consecrations, blessings, exorcisms) used by the Church in imitation of the Sacraments to obtain through her intercession blessings chiefly of a spiritual sort (Canon 1144).

(a) Necessity.—Our Lord gave to the Church the power of instituting sacramentals, and certain of those used by the Church are but developments of the blessings and exorcisms that He used. Some of the sacramentals are commanded by the Church (viz, those that are used in the administration of the Sacraments or in other sacred services); others are recommended, but not commanded.

(b) Use.—The virtue of religion requires that the sacramentals be administered, received and treated with devotion and respect, the extremes of irreligion and superstition being avoided (see 2244). The laws of the Church on the ministers, recipients, and rites of the sacramentals are treated in works on Canon Law and liturgy.

1. Whereas the object of the Sacraments is to bring the more important events of human life into relation with the grace of God, and thereby to sanctify them, the Sacramentals¹ were instituted for the purpose of placing the whole of life under the special protection of Providence, either by warding off the influence of the devil and his cohorts, or by calling down the blessing of God upon certain persons and things and dedicating them to His service and the pious use of the faithful.²

¹ Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 33, Suppl., qu. 29, art. 1: "The difference is this: that action of the Church which attains the effect principally intended in the administration of the Sacraments is called a Sacrament; but an action which, although it does not attain that effect, is nevertheless ordered in some way to that principal action is called a sacramental."

² Matt. XX, i; Mark XVI, 17 sq.; 1 Tim. IV, 4 sq. —St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 65, art. 1, ad 3 and 6.

2. The Catholic, who is expected to employ all things for the honor of God,³ has a special duty in connection with the Sacramentals, namely, to respect and use them with faith and confidence and with a contrite and humble heart for the salvation of his soul as well as to obtain temporal blessings.

³ 1 Cor. X, 31.

The number of the Sacramentals may not be limited. The most popular are: the sign of the cross, pronouncing the holy name of Jesus,⁴ the use of Holy Water,⁵ and various blessings of objects commonly employed by man, e. g., the house in which he lives, the field he tills, the fruits he raises, etc. Needless to say, these objects, when blessed by the Church, should be used with due respect but without superstition.

⁴ Cfr. Tertullian, De Corona, c. 3: "At every advance and movement, at every entrance and departure, when dressing and putting on shoes, at baths, at tables, at lights, at beds, at seats—whatever occupation engages us—we mark the forehead with the sign of the cross." (Ed. Leopold, P. I, 188). —St. Jerome, Epist., 22, n. 37: "At every action, at every step, let the hand trace the Lord’s cross." (Migne, P. L., XXII, 421).—St. Augustine, De Cat. Rud., c. 20, n. 34 (P. L., XL, 335).

⁵ A. Gastoué, L'Eau Benite, Paris 1907.—A. A. King, Holy Water: A Short Account of the Use of Water for Ceremonial and Purificatory Purposes in Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Times, London 1926.

"It would be quite natural to apprehend that the blessing of ordinary objects should lead to a profanation and degradation of sacred things. However, this is not the case. These objects are in reality destined for a higher service and a superior form of existence than that which they now have, and the blessing pronounced upon them by the Church is but an anticipation of that supernatural form of being which was typified in Paradise immediately after the Creation. That the use of the Sacramentals sometimes gives rise to profanation or superstition does not diminish their religious and moral importance." ⁶

⁶ F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, p. 248.

READINGS. —Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. I, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1917, pp. 111 sqq. —Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 141 sqq. —G. Arendt, S.J., De Sacramentalibus Disquisitio, 2nd ed., Rome 1900. —A. A. Lambing, The Sacramentals of the Holy Catholic Church, New York 1892. —F. Probst, Die kirchlichen Benediktionen, Tubingen 1857. —H. Leclercq, O.S.B., art. "Sacramentals," in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII. —Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Compendium Theologiae Moralis, pp. 531 sqq. —H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. III, pp. 49 sqq.

(cc. 1144-1153)

Utility. - By a distinct notion of sacramentals the priest will be helped so that he can spread a right estimation of them and a use alien from all superstition; for his own action it will help to know what blessings he can validly and licitly impart and what rites and rules are to be observed in the dispensation of sacramentals.

— Notion and definition. Already before the middle of the twelfth century they began, by the name sacramentals (substantively), to call certain things or actions which imitate the sacraments in some manner, yet deficiently. 1. Since sacraments are sacred things or observances and work the grace which they signify, already, on account of the former note, all observances of external worship, with only the sacraments and sacrifice excluded, and especially the ceremonies of the sacraments, were called sacramentals by theologians before Suarez and Bellarmine.

2. Afterward, however, it pleased them to attend more to an efficacy which is not merely connatural or from the one operating, i.e., to the other note of the sacraments; and then, with mere ceremonies also excluded, sacramentals could be said to be of six kinds, which are counted in the well-known verse:

Orans, tinctus, edens, confessus, dans, benedictus;

Orans designates the Lord's prayer and the prayers of the Church, especially public ones;

Tinctus alludes to blessed water and to the various blessed or consecrated oils.

Edens recalls blessed bread (eulogiae) and blessed foods;

Confessus refers to the recitation of the Confiteor and other acts of humiliation;

Dans denotes alms and works of mercy;

Benedictus is said of blessed things and of the blessing of persons.

You should observe that some blessings are constitutive, like all consecrations, while others are merely invocative. Thus a church, baptismal or lustral water, and chrism are adorned by a permanent constitutive blessing, so that they are now no longer profane; while a house, animals, and, for the most part, persons themselves are endowed with a merely invocative blessing. (The blessing of an abbot, however, must be called constitutive.) When the blessing is constitutive, the sacramental is the thing itself thus blessed; while, when it is invocative, the sacramental consists rather in the blessing itself.

3. If, moreover, you require the notion of sign, then almsgiving is not to be placed among sacramentals properly so called.

4. If you require the strictly such use of the Church, private actions, for example the sign of the cross, are no longer sacramentals properly so called.

5. The Code, in its description of sacramentals, besides things or observances, does not urge the notion of sign; but it requires the habitual use of the Church, spiritual effects hoped for from the impetration of the Church; and it defines sacramentals, c. 1144: "Sacramentals are things or actions which the Church is accustomed to use, in some imitation of the sacraments, to obtain from her impetration effects especially spiritual" (c. 1144).

Things are blessed water, the paschal candle, the Agnus Dei.

Actions are the blessing of persons or even of things, the sign of the cross, the recitation of the Confiteor, the invocation of the name of Jesus. An action can be joined with a thing, as in the sprinkling of lustral water, in an anointing made by a minister of the Church.

The use of the Church is understood properly as instrumental through her ministers, as in the sacraments.

But the effect is never immediately habitual grace itself, or formal remission of sin, even venial sin. Yet the effects are said to be especially spiritual, and they are the consecration or deputation of a person or thing to God and divine worship; a certain flight of the devil and liberation from his infestation; a certain excitation, through pious movements, of faith, hope, penitence, charity, whence also remission of punishments and of venial faults. By this reason, sacramentals either remove impediments or dispose toward sanctification.

But bodily or temporal benefits are to be referred to liberation from the devil, insofar as all temporal evils, in the present order, have a certain connection with sin.

Moreover, what the peculiar effects of individual sacramentals are must be gathered from the words or prayer of the Church when she confects sacramentals, or from the very nature of the action which is the sacramental.

The efficacy of sacramentals is attributed to the impetration of the Church. For the Church, when she blesses things or performs certain things for obtaining spiritual effects, or when she sanctions the use of sacramentals, formally or virtually asks from God that the indicated effects be granted by God and by Christ the Spouse.

But, while it expresses this efficacy, the Code does not deny another source of efficacy, if any is probably demonstrated. Now, whether from Sacred Scripture itself or from tradition, it is established that in the Church there is an imperative blessing and an imperative coercion of the devil. Wherefore the very positing of the sacred sign by the Church seems already to require certain effects, especially spiritual ones, instrumentally; to which efficacy, which is more strictly from the work worked, the efficacy of the prayer of the Church is then added. Thus it happens that consecrated and blessed things acquire spiritual power inchoatively; i.e., by force of the blessing, there is induced in the blessed thing a permanent real relation to God, the author of every help, by which the conferral of help by God is either required or commanded (cf. Arendt, De sacramentalibus disquisitio scholastica-dogmatica, p. 53 ff.).

— Infallibility of the effect. That the things or persons which the Church blesses or consecrates are consecrated and blessed is not doubted, so that things permanently blessed by a constitutive blessing truly possess that inchoative supernatural power of which above. It is also established that the Church, the beloved spouse of Christ, is always heard, so that no prayer of hers is fruitless. But when there is question of a definite and particular effect, which is not absolutely necessary for salvation, its obtaining is always subordinated to the order of divine Providence, which sometimes also hears us better when, in place of the good hoped for, it substitutes another more profitable to us. Moreover, in the very subject to whom application is to be made, disposition can be lacking.

— Constitution. 1. Sacramentals are not of merely ecclesiastical origin. For God alone can execute supernatural effects and connect them with a sensible sign. He alone also gave to the Church the power of blessing imperatively or of coercing demons.

2. Christ can more specifically be called the author of exorcism, since he willed that in his name demons be cast out; the adviser, by example and promissory commendation, of the washing of feet or exercise of humiliation; and the preceptor of the Lord's prayer, whose very formula, at least from the use of the Church, is employed as specially efficacious, just as a peculiar promise of reward is annexed to works of mercy, which is not common to all good works.

3. But while the Lord himself definitely established that there are and will be in the Church seven fountains of graces which are the sacraments, he provided for the constitution of sacramentals by a promise generally made or by a power conferred, so that there would be as many and such as the Church would make them. By canon 1145, however, the constitution, change, abrogation, and authentic interpretation of sacramentals is reserved to the Apostolic See.

Thence sacramentals can vary in number and be determined otherwise in their constitution, according to the will of the Apostolic See. Thus recently new blessings and forms of exorcism have been introduced, for example the exorcism of Leo XIII.

— Minister of sacramentals. 1. The legitimate minister is a cleric who has the power and is not prohibited from exercising it by competent authority.

2. No one validly consecrates unless he either has the episcopal character or it is permitted by law or apostolic indult (c. 1147, §1). Thus cardinal-priests, from c. 239, §1, 20°, can consecrate churches, altars, chalices.

3. A priest always validly effects blessings, unless the Apostolic See has expressed otherwise in the reservation; but he is prohibited from giving those reserved to the Supreme Pontiff or to bishops or to others. You should observe that indulgences can be attached to pious things only by those to whom the faculty has been given.

Clauses are to be diligently distinguished. The clause "with the consent of the local Ordinary" is not for validity, and the consent can even be presumed. Within domestic walls, for religious the consent of their Superior suffices (cf. S. C. Indulg., June 14, 1901; Beringer-Steinen, Die Ablasse, I, n. 835).

4. "Deacons and lectors can give validly and licitly only those blessings which are expressly permitted to them by law" (c. 1147, §4).

— Rites are to be accurately observed. The use of the formula prescribed by the Church is essential for validity, whether the blessings and consecrations were constitutive or invocative.

You ask what color can or must be employed in the use of the stole. Resp. 1. The color is not rarely indicated in the Ritual itself: then it is clear that this one must be assumed.

Thus, for making blessed water, the Ritual prescribes the use of a violet stole; but if it is blessed before Mass, according to the Missal, the priest assumes not a surplice but an alb, with the stole which agrees with the office of the day.

2. If no color is indicated in the Ritual, then: a) it is always licit to choose the color which the nature of the thing requires, i.e., the saint or mystery in whose honor the blessing is employed. But if absolution or exorcism constitutes a large part of the formula, the violet color is to be assumed; b) it is also always licit to employ the color of the day, except for absolutions or exorcisms, which require the violet color. The Ritual itself insinuates this rule when it says: "In every blessing outside Mass, the priest should use at least a surplice and stole according to the reason of the time, unless otherwise noted in the Missal" (General Rules concerning Blessings, n. 2, Title VIII, ch. 1); c) it is also licit to employ the white color when the nature of the matter requires no other definite color, in doubt concerning the required color; or outside the house, especially for the red color, since it is difficult to carry with oneself stoles of every color.

— Use of the blessed thing. Reverence is prescribed toward things consecrated or blessed by a constitutive blessing; nor can they be employed for profane or non-proper use, even if they are in the ownership of private persons (c. 1150).

Contrary, therefore, to what used to be said, it is not licit to use a blessed candle as an ordinary light, nor to drink blessed water for extinguishing thirst. But these things are neither mortal sins nor to be accused of sacrilege; and from a just cause they are easily excused.

But he who knowingly substitutes false matter for sacramentals would be guilty of grave sacrilege.

— Subject. Although blessings have been instituted for Catholics and are especially to be imparted to them, nevertheless they can also be given to catechumens, and, unless the prohibition of the Church stands in the way, "even to non-Catholics for obtaining the light of faith or, together with that, health of body" (c. 1149).

Therefore blessed candles, ashes, and palms can be received, provided every superstition is removed.

Yet excommunicated or interdicted persons after declaratory or condemnatory sentence are prohibited from the use of sacramentals (cc. 2260, 2275 ff.).

Exorcisms can be made, as we think, over non-Catholics or excommunicated persons, even vitandi (c. 1152).

— Concerning exorcisms. Excepting exorcisms which occur in baptism and in consecrations or blessings, and whose legitimate ministers are those who legitimately baptize solemnly, consecrate, or bless: a peculiar and express license of the Ordinary is required so that someone may legitimately use his power of exorcizing toward the possessed. That license is to be given only to the most approved priests, after a prudent investigation of the case (c. 1151).

The Ordinary will be able to be the major Superior of an exempt clerical religion, if the possessed person belongs to his family by some title indicated in c. 514.

Only exorcisms which are pronounced over the possessed are subject to that prohibition. Hence exorcisms of places and fields can be pronounced more easily. And the so-called exorcism of Leo XIII, which is found in the Ritual, although it is a reserved blessing, can be recited by the faithful as a formula of pious prayer.

You should observe that it is not the infallible effect of exorcism itself to expel the demon; he is infallibly urged by a ministerial precept "either to depart or at least to desist from attacking, only as much as shall have pleased God" (Arendt, op. cit., p. 343). Therefore the greater sanctity of the minister, the invocation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the proximity of a miraculous image, is not useless; and it is understood that an extraordinary charism for expelling demons can even now fittingly be granted to certain persons.

The very invocation of the Most Holy Name of Jesus possesses a connatural efficacy for putting the devil to flight, to whom it represents his defeat.

— I. Notion. On account of their relation to the sacraments, ceremonies themselves, as such, can be called sacramentals and have been called such. But properly such are things and actions which, to connatural efficacy and efficacy from the work of the one operating, add some other efficacy, by which they imitate the sacraments in some manner. They have this efficacy proximately from the impetration of the Church, whether formal or virtual: when she sanctions certain uses of things, the Church virtually asks that the intended ends be obtained. Remotely, however, it is owed to Christ himself, who conferred upon the Church imperative power for blessing or consecrating persons or things, and for coercing the devil; and he is the first author of certain commendations, such as almsgiving and the Lord's prayer. Sacramentals more strictly are those which the Church herself employs through ministers; and thus they are understood in the Code. Sacramentals which have the notion of sign imitate the sacraments still more.

They differ from the sacraments both because they do not require institution by Christ, and because they never immediately confer grace. If you except constitutive blessings and consecrations, the other effects are not even strictly from the work worked. Nor are particular effects infallible.

They are things: blessed water, and in general those things which are endowed with a constitutive blessing; and actions: the sign of the cross, invocative blessings. An action can be mixed with a thing, as in the sprinkling of lustral water, in an anointing made by a minister.

II. Effects are: consecration or deputation of a person or thing to God and divine worship; a certain flight of the devil and liberation from his infestation; a certain excitation, through pious movements, of faith, hope, penitence, charity. Temporal benefits are to be referred to liberation from the devil, since all evils in the present order have a certain connection with sin.

III. The Holy See alone constitutes, changes, abrogates, and authentically interprets sacramentals.

IV. The legitimate minister is a cleric who has the power and is not prohibited. Every bishop validly consecrates; a priest only from concession of law or indult; a priest of himself validly blesses; a deacon and lector only insofar as this is committed to them.

Today solemn exorcism over the possessed can be committed by the Ordinary only to approved priests. Nor is expulsion of the devil infallible.

V. Rites must be accurately observed. The prescribed formula must be employed for validity.

The color of the stole is indicated either by the Ritual, or by the nature of the matter, or by the time or day itself. In doubt, or outside the house, white can be assumed.

VI. Subject. Blessings can be given even to non-Catholics, a special prohibition being excluded. Yet excommunicated persons after sentence are excluded from the use of sacramentals. Nevertheless they seem to be able to be liberated directly from the devil through exorcism.

89. 1. Definition. Sacramentals are taken either in a broader sense, and then they include certain pious exercises, such as the Lord's Prayer, almsgiving prescribed by the Church, and also the sacred ceremonies which are employed in the administration of the sacraments; or in a stricter sense, and then they are "things or actions which the Church is accustomed to employ, in some imitation of the sacraments, in order to obtain effects, especially spiritual ones, through her impetration."³³⁸ In this latter sense alone do we speak here of the sacramentals, which were called minor sacraments by the older theologians.³³⁹

It is said, first: things or actions, to signify the two classes of sacramentals which will be discussed below.

It is said, second: which the Church is accustomed to employ in some imitation of the sacraments, because all sacramentals were directly instituted by the Church and not by Christ Himself. They can nevertheless be called instituted by Christ insofar as He gave the Church the power of instituting them; indeed, sometimes insofar as Christ indicated them by His own example, for example, exorcism. The Apostolic See alone can establish new sacramentals, authentically interpret those received, or abolish or change any of them.³⁴⁰

Sacramentals have some similarity with the sacraments insofar as they are means of obtaining grace, but they also differ from the sacraments in many ways, namely: 1. by reason of origin: the sacraments are from Christ, but the sacramentals were immediately instituted by the Church; 2. by reason of effect: the sacraments directly cause sanctifying grace or its increase, but the sacramentals directly obtain only actual graces and other aids; 3. by reason of the mode of operating: the sacraments cause grace ex opere operato, but the sacramentals operate ex opere operantis of the Church and of man; 4. by reason of number: the sacraments are seven, and this number cannot be changed; the number of the sacramentals is indefinite and variable.

It is said, third: in order to obtain effects, especially spiritual ones, through her impetration. For the sacramentals, through the impetration of the Church, supernaturally produce certain effects, both corporal, such as health, and spiritual, such as the restraint of the devil. But all these aids are in some way ordered toward sanctifying grace. Hence St. Thomas³⁴¹ teaches: "Among those things which the Church visibly performs, some are sacraments, such as baptism; some are sacramentals, such as exorcism. Their difference is this: that action of the Church which attains the effect principally intended in the administration of the sacraments is called a sacrament; but that action which, although it does not attain that effect, is nevertheless ordered in some way toward that principal action, is called a sacramental."

The Church applies the sacramentals principally to Catholics, but according to modern discipline she permits them, and especially blessings, to be given to catechumens and non-Catholics in order to obtain the light of faith and at the same time health of body.³⁴² By canon law, however, the following are excluded from receiving sacramentals:

1. excommunicates after a declaratory or condemnatory sentence, c. 2260, § 1;

2. those personally interdicted, c. 2275, n. 2;

3. Catholics who have dared to enter a mixed matrimony without a dispensation of the Church, until they have obtained a dispensation from the Ordinary, c. 2375.

The first and second cases are most rare today, but the third is sufficiently frequent.

³³⁸ Code of Canon Law, c. 1144.

³³⁹ Hugh of St. Victor, treating these minor sacraments, says: "There are certain sacraments in the Church in which, although salvation does not principally consist, nevertheless salvation is increased by them insofar as devotion is exercised.... Therefore, of these sacraments some consist in things, such as water of aspersion, the reception of ashes, the blessing of branches and candles, and other such things. Others consist in deeds, such as the sign of the cross, the exsufflation of exorcism, the extension of hands, the bending of knees, and other things of this kind. Others consist in words, such as the invocation of the Trinity and whatever things are of this manner" (De sacr. II, P. 9 [Migne, Patr. lat. 176, 471]).

³⁴⁰ Code of Canon Law, c. 1145.

³⁴¹ Suppl., q. 20, a. 1.

³⁴² Code of Canon Law, c. 1149.

90. 2. Divisions. The sacramentals are very numerous, nor are the same ones always in force in the Church. They can nevertheless be reduced to two great categories, namely, to permanent sacramentals or things, and to transient sacramentals or actions. Permanent sacramentals or things are certain blessed or consecrated things by the use of which the faithful obtain supernatural aids, for example, holy water, scapulars, etc. Not every blessed thing, however, is a sacramental; otherwise even a blessed man, a blessed house, etc., would be sacramentals; but only those things which, by a blessing called constitutive,³⁴³ are employed exclusively for divine worship. Transient sacramentals or actions are certain actions to which special graces are annexed by the ordinance of the Church, for example, the recitation of the Confiteor, the imposition of ashes, exorcism, etc.

In present times a great part of the sacramentals consists in blessings, of which some are reserved to the Supreme Pontiff, for example, the blessing of the Agnus Dei, of the pallium, etc.; some pertain to bishops, for example, the blessing of bells, of chrism, etc.; some pertain to religious orders, for example, the blessing of rosaries, scapulars, etc.; some are reserved to the pastor, for example, the blessing of houses on Holy Saturday, but not on other days, the nuptial blessing, etc.; finally, very many blessings are given which can be performed by any priest, for example, the blessing of holy water, of a woman after childbirth, etc.

By delegation almost all blessings can be given by a simple priest. Indeed, even reserved blessings which are given by a simple priest without delegation are valid if a) the Holy See has not expressly determined the contrary; b) the formulas prescribed by the Church are employed (Code of Canon Law, c. 1147, § 3; 1148, § 2). It is self-evident that such blessings knowingly usurped in this manner are illicit. When a deacon, with the permission of the Ordinary or pastor, administers Viaticum, he can bless the sick person and those assisting with the Most Holy Sacrament; likewise, he can bless the grave.³⁴⁴ Laymen can perform no liturgical blessing and no sacramental.

The clause "with the consent of the local Ordinary," which is sometimes found in rescripts by which certain faculties are granted, for example, of blessing things with Apostolic indulgences, is to be understood in this manner:

a) for the valid exercise of this faculty, approval to hear confessions, at least those of men, is required;

b) for its licit exercise, tacit or even prudently presumed consent suffices;

c) religious can exercise it in their religious house with the permission of their religious superior.³⁴⁵

³⁴³ Besides the constitutive blessing (Weihesegen, consecratory blessing), there is an invocative blessing (Bittsegen, petitionary blessing), for example, the blessing which a priest gives in the Mass after Ite, missa est.

³⁴⁴ Sacred Congregation of Rites, August 14, 1858 (Decr. auth., n. 3074).

³⁴⁵ Sacred Congregation of Indulgences, June 4, 1888, and June 14, 1901.

91. 3. The efficacy of the sacramentals does not consist solely in the good works, prayers, or salutary excitations which are customarily joined with them, but in a special impetratory power granted to them by the Church. Assuredly, the sacramentals do not have efficacy as the sacraments do, namely, from a power granted to them directly by Christ, but because prayers by the Church herself supplicating for the obtaining of graces are annexed to them, as will be said more broadly below. Through the sacramentals the Church supplicates especially for four³⁴⁶ kinds of graces:

a) for actual graces rightly to discharge the duties both of the Christian life and of the state chosen. In this sense many sacramentals are efficacious, for example, the nuptial blessing, the anointing of a king, the first clerical tonsure, etc.

b) for the remission of venial sins. Such are, for example, holy water, ashes blessed at the beginning of Lent, and the Confiteor recited in the Mass or in the Divine Office. Nevertheless, this effect is not produced ex opere operato as in penance and the other sacraments, but ex opere operantis, insofar as actual grace is obtained for detesting all sins.

c) for averting the maleficence of the devil. The devil can harm a man in many ways, if God permits it, namely: 1. by inflicting physical evils, for example, exciting diseases, causing the ruin of fortune; 2. by instigating to sins through vehement temptations; 3. by besieging the body of a man. Demonic obsession cannot be denied, since manifest examples of it are found in the Gospel; nevertheless, in our times it is to be supposed most rarely. When it is lawful to employ an exorcism in this case, see above, II, n. 463, in the tract on adjuration.

d) for obtaining temporal goods. Many blessings tend toward this end, for example, blessings of fields, of bread, etc.

³⁴⁶ Certain authors enumerate still more graces produced by the sacramentals. Thus, for example, Francis Schmid, in a special work which he wrote concerning the sacramentals (Die Sakramentalien der kath. Kirche, Brixen 1896), enumerates seven effects of the sacramentals.

92. 4. Mode of operating. The sacramentals operate principally by the impetratory power of the Church, but secondarily from the quality of the minister and recipient. Although the goodness of the minister and recipient greatly increases the efficacy of the sacramentals - for a blessing given by a most holy priest and received by a most devout man has greater effects than if lesser qualities are present both in the minister and in the recipient - nevertheless, the principal efficacy proceeds from the impetratory power of the Church, which received from Christ the power of blessing diverse things and restraining the maleficence of the devil. For just as a prince often grants to the prayers of a whole community what he denies to an individual man requesting, so God grants graces on account of the Church petitioning by means of the sacramentals.

In this sense the sacramentals can be said to operate ex opere operato by the Church, but it is better, in order to avoid ambiguities, to say that the sacramentals operate ex opere operantis both of the Church and of the man receiving. The effect of the sacramentals, since it is produced principally from the prayers of the Church, which are always heard, is infallible, unless there is an obstacle or impediment on the part of man. For since all sacramentals must ultimately tend toward procuring or increasing sanctifying grace, if either the disposition of man or the temporal good, for example health, sought through the sacramentals impedes this end, then the effect is not produced.

93. Notes.

1. Sacramentals differ from indulgences. For indulgences, from the treasury of the merits of Christ from which the Church draws, remit the temporal punishments of sin; but the sacramentals, from the prayers of the Church, obtain diverse aids, especially supernatural ones, but not the remission of temporal punishments, at least directly. For if a sacramental is joined with a satisfactory work, for example, humiliation in the reception of ashes, then it also indirectly remits temporal punishments, namely, on account of that satisfactory work.

2. Sacramentals which are not assisted by the impetration of the Church are not of much avail. But the Church is not considered to assist those things and actions which are not performed according to her laws and prescriptions. Therefore, sacramentals in whose confection or use the prescriptions of the Church are not observed are invalid. Hence it follows that those things which the Church commands concerning the sacramentals are to be faithfully observed. This holds especially for ecclesiastical blessings and consecrations, which are invalid if they are notably changed.³⁴⁷

³⁴⁷ Code of Canon Law, c. 1148, § 2.

1440. DEFINITION. Sacramentals are ecclesiastical ceremonies, or external acts of religion accommodated to worshiping God.⁸

DIVISION. Sacramentals are reduced to four species, which are: 1. Rites and ceremonies which the Church uses in the administration of the Sacraments. 2. Blessings and exorcisms, outside the dispensation of the Sacraments. 3. Sacred things to which, either from divine institution, as to the Most Holy Name of Jesus and the sign of the cross, or from the blessing of the Church, as to lustral water, some salutary power is annexed. 4. Certain pious exercises, as prayer in a dedicated church, the Lord's Prayer, especially recited in the name of the Church, striking of the breast, the Confiteor, alms prescribed by the Church.⁹

The principal Sacramentals are customarily expressed by this verse:

Praying, sprinkled, eating, confessed, giving, blessing.

1441. I. "Sacramentals have some EFFECTS, yet not infallible, of which those using them piously and duly are made participants. The first is the excitation of pious movements through prevenient graces. The second is remission of venial sins, by means of movements of this kind, penance expressed or implicit. The third is remission of temporal punishment due to sins. The fourth is the putting to flight or repression of the devil. The fifth is bodily health, or a similar temporal benefit."¹⁰

What particular effect, in the temporal order, this or that Sacramental can especially produce is to be gathered from the institution of each, from the manner and prayers of the Church by which they are made; for individual Sacramentals have not been instituted for the same singular end, although all tend to divine worship and to our progress.¹¹

1442. II. "Sacramentals cause these effects, not from the work worked, but FROM THE WORK OF THE WORKER: namely by the prayer of the Church impetrating them; also by the prayer of the faithful piously using Sacramentals, for example the sign of the cross, blessed water."¹² "Hence, after the taking of blessed water, etc., it is advised to all the faithful to excite themselves to an act of sorrow or of love."¹³

The principal place among Sacramentals is held by Exorcisms and liturgical Blessings.

1443. I. EXORCISMS, from the common opinion of the doctors, have this special property, that they infallibly expel or at least repress demons quasi from the work worked, on account of the peculiar power, conceded by Christ the Lord to the Church, of commanding demons. Recall what was said, n. 622.

1444. II. LITURGICAL BLESSINGS are rites which, in the name of the Church, are performed by sacred ministers, and thus they differ from blessings which are given in a private name by laymen, for example by parents to children. They are DIVIDED in various ways:¹⁴

1. By reason of effects, they are constitutive or invocative. 1. CONSTITUTIVE or consecratory blessings are those by which either persons or things are deputed to divine worship, or are permanently constituted in a sacred and religious being; they are called permanent Sacramentals, because they imitate the Sacraments which imprint a character. Of this kind are: 1. with respect to PERSONS, first tonsure, the consecration of an Abbot, Abbess, nun, etc.; 2. with respect to THINGS, the blessing of a church, oratory, cemetery, chalice, paten, chrism, sacred oils, salt for baptism, vestments for the Sacrifice, altar, wax lamb, etc. 2. INVOCATIVE blessings are those by which the kindness of God is invoked, that He may bestow something good on persons or things to be blessed; they are called passing Sacramentals, because the things so blessed do not change their state, or do not become strictly sacred, and therefore can be turned to profane uses, provided these are honorable.

Of this kind are the blessing of the Supreme Pontiff, of a Bishop, and of a presbyter in Mass, and much more the Blessing with the Most Holy Sacrament, the nuptial blessing, the blessing of a woman after childbirth, etc.; likewise the blessing of houses, fields, produce, foodstuffs, etc.

2. By reason of rite, some are REAL, in which an anointing is employed; others VERBAL, which are perfected by words alone. Likewise, some are solemn, others simple, according as they are done with greater pomp or without preparation.

3. By reason of minister, some are PAPAL, as the blessing of the Pallium, wax lamb, golden rose, and prince's sword; others EPISCOPAL or PRIESTLY, concerning which fuller things must be said.

A) To BISHOPS belong: 1. Real blessings, as of a chalice, altar, bell; likewise the blessing of chrism itself and of the sacred oils. These are found only in the Pontifical, and are so proper to Bishops that without a Pontifical Indult they cannot be delegated to presbyters. Whence things which have been blessed without an Indult of this kind ought before use to be blessed anew, if it can be done without scandal (S. R. C., decree of September 22, 1703, ad 3).¹⁵ 2. Blessings which are found in the Missal and Ritual under the title: Blessings to be done by Bishops, or by others having faculty, namely: the blessing of priestly garments, cloths and corporals, the tabernacle, that is, the pyx and lunette; likewise of a cross or images if it is done solemnly with concourse of the people; then: the blessing and reconciliation of a church not yet consecrated, of a public oratory, or cemetery, or of the primary stone. In these, from the Ritual itself, and in those, from the Holy See by indult, Bishops receive the faculty of delegating. Yet the blessing of a cross can be done by permission of the Bishop.¹⁶

B) To PRIESTS, without delegation, belong all blessings which are contained in the Missal and Ritual, from the blessing of water up to the blessings to be done by Bishops, or by others having faculty. Yet not a few of them are by right of the pastor, and are noted in the Ritual as to be done by the Pastor, or by another priest, understand, by permission of the pastor, according to the common interpretation. Of this kind are the blessing of nuptials, the blessing of the baptismal font, the blessing of houses on Holy Saturday, the common blessing over produce, and the blessing of fields, at least if it is done solemnly; likewise the blessing of women after childbirth, to which only women who have given birth in legitimate marriage have a right,¹⁷ where custom or synodal statutes so dispose.¹⁸

1445. It is asked: With what rite are blessings to be done?

Resp. "Blessings which by precept or publicly in churches or in public oratories before the people gathered for this are done, outside Mass are to be given with surplice and stole according to the nature of the time, standing and with head uncovered, with hands joined, with a minister carrying the vessel of blessed water and the sprinkler, and with the formula prescribed in the Missal or Roman Ritual, or approved by the Sacred Congregation of Rites. For blessing those things for which no special blessing is had, the blessing ad omnia can be used; or the sign of the cross is to be made over the thing to be blessed, with the formula: 'In the name of the Father, etc.' Then the thing itself is to be sprinkled with blessed water.

"If the cross has the image of the Crucified, the blessing for images is to be used. If the blessing is done at the altar, all things are recited on the Epistle side, and the priest uses a cope. The things to be blessed, if they are priestly vestments, can be placed upon the altar; otherwise, if they are candles and other things of this sort, they are to be placed upon a table before the altar, or on the Epistle side."¹⁹

1446. I. In blessings, in ceremonies, and in our actions we often use the SIGN OF THE CROSS, and most fittingly; for this sign has power: 1. by way of invocation, namely of Christ crucified and His merits; 2. as a work of faith and a profession of the Christian religion; 3. on account of the honor which we give to the cross.¹

II. The use of LUSTRAL OR BLESSED WATER is commended by antiquity; for learned men teach that it flowed from Apostolic tradition and always flourished in the Church. The sprinkling of lustral water is a symbol of interior washing; and, sanctified through the prayers of the Church, it has, from the merits of the same Church, much efficacy for producing salutary effects, and especially for warding off demons. Hence, "the sick are sprinkled with blessed water according to the prescription of the RITUAL, that they may be stronger for repelling the temptations of the demon. The corpses themselves of the dead are sprinkled with prayer, that for the souls of Purgatory the ardor may be mitigated and wholly extinguished."²

Note. 1. To blessed water, when a cause accedes, water not blessed can be added, provided the latter is always in a lesser quantity. 2. In time of Interdict the sprinkling of blessed water can be done, provided the people are sprinkled without any solemnity. For obtaining the effects of blessed water, moral contact suffices.³

"Besides the Sacraments properly so called, the Church also has other sacred things, which formerly, indeed in a broader and less proper sense, were also called Sacraments. But for many centuries it has come into usage that they be called Sacramentals."¹

1244. Various Species of Sacramentals. - Universally they are: 1. Rites and ceremonies which the Church uses in the administration of the Sacraments. 2. Blessings and Exorcisms outside the dispensation of the Sacraments. 3. Sacred things, to which, either from divine institution - as to the Most Holy Name of Jesus and to the Sign of the Cross - or from the blessing of the Church, as to lustral water, some salutary power is annexed. 4. Certain pious exercises, as the Lord's Prayer, striking of the breast, the Confiteor, almsgiving.

1245. The Power and Efficacy of Sacramentals. - "The origin of the name" of Sacramentals, says the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore,² "is from this, that although they are far inferior to the Sacraments in power and merits, nevertheless in effects they imitate them in a certain way."

It is said: 1° "they imitate them in EFFECTS." For a), like Sacraments of the living, they confer grace, namely actual grace and an increase of habitual grace; b), like Sacraments of the dead, they remit sins, especially light ones; c), like Sacraments imprinting character, so some Sacramentals constitute things strictly sacred.

It is said: 2° they imitate them in effects IN A CERTAIN WAY. For according to the more common sentence, and, according to St. Alphonsus,³ the truer one, they cause their effects, i.e. remission of sins and temporal benefits which we expect from them, not ex opere operato; and therefore not infallibly, but by way of impetration, i.e. on account of the prayers and blessings by which the Church obtains, for those using Sacramentals, pious motions of sorrow or charity, through which sins are remitted, and benefits, even temporal ones; but these only insofar as they are salutary for us.⁴

1246. Administration of Sacramentals. - 1. The obligation of ministering them, according to Suarez,¹ is present "on the supposition of the necessity of a man possessed by a demon, or another similar necessity, ... because" the Ministers of the Church "are held to assist the necessities of their faithful by suitable remedies, and those instituted by the Church." Possevin also suitably admonishes:² "In remedies for the good of the people, for example against hailstorms, locusts laying waste the crops, not only should" the priest "be readily available, but even of himself, without being asked, he should propose them. Let him do the same in the mortality of animals and in like things; not because he is held to these things from precept, but because by acting thus he will acquire the benevolence of the people and will increase its devotion, and will merit by an act of charity."

2. They are to be ministered with faith and confidence; with a clean heart and pure intention; worthily and devoutly; lest the mockeries of unbelievers either be feared, or be provoked by an unbecoming mode of administering.

3. "Let preachers and rulers of souls especially take care that they explain to the faithful, and more often inculcate, the nature, signification, and right use of these things. Let them persuade those who lean too much on their own wisdom and ability that these things, although they seem light and minute, are not to be contemned, since they profit not a little for living piously and obtaining salvation. But let them again and again warn the ruder common people, who are carried away by the contrary error, lest they attribute too much efficacy to the things themselves, and keep them with a certain blind and immoderate confidence, and pursue them with superstitious veneration, as if they could do very much of themselves, without a pious disposition of mind. But let them most sharply rebuke those who have sacred things of this kind, as will be the custom among the Heathen, almost in place of amulets, which would keep them, even when involved in the most foul mire of vices, immune from the anger of God and vengeance."³

1247. - Exorcisms hold the principal place among Sacramentals; these were treated at nn. 375-377; and Blessings. Of these, some are private, which are given also by lay persons, for example, by parents to children; others are liturgical, which are given by Ministers deputed for this. These are divided in various ways.

I. By Reason of Effects. Some blessings are invocative, namely of the benignity of God upon persons - for example, upon a woman after childbirth - or upon things - for example, upon foods - and are counted among transitory Sacramentals, because persons or things blessed in this way do not change their state, or from profane things do not become strictly sacred, and therefore can be applied to profane yet honorable uses, as before the blessing, as foods and drinks, a house, a ship, etc.; likewise, according to St. Alphonsus,¹ blessed water and blessed candles (I think, outside the day of Purification?) - others are constitutive or consecrative, which are numbered among permanent Sacramentals, because persons or things blessed in this way change their state and from profane things become strictly sacred, nor can they any longer be applied to profane uses, even honorable ones, as chalices, vestments, altar stones, Agnus Dei, etc.

Note. - Missals and Sacred Bibles, as also sacred images, ought not to be applied to a profane use; but one must say otherwise concerning other papers on which sacred names are incidentally and accessorily inscribed.²

II. By Reason of Rite. Some are verbal, in which anointing is not employed; others real, in which it is employed.

III. By Reason of Objects. Some are of persons, as of an Abbot; others of things, as of a Church.

IV. By Reason of the Minister.

A. Some are Papal, as the blessing of the Agnus Dei, of the Pallium, etc.

B. Others pertain to Bishops, and to them alone, and indeed in such a way that without Pontifical Indult they cannot be delegated to simple priests; but things which had been blessed with a faculty delegated without an indult of this kind ought to be blessed anew before use, if this can be done without scandal.³ They are real blessings, and are found only in the Pontifical. Of this sort are the consecration of a chalice, of an altar, of a bell. Which of these our Bishops can delegate, see p. LXXIII. n. 6. 12; and which things, when the See is vacant and in a case of necessity, are delegated to the administrator, p. LXXII. n. 28.

C. Others pertain to Bishops, but in such a way that they can be done also by others having the faculty. They are found in the Ritual and Missal under the title: "Blessings to be done by Bishops or by others having the faculty." They are the following:

1. Blessings of sacerdotal garments, of cloths and corporals, under which also are palls; of the tabernacle, i.e. the pyx and lunula (but by the rite of the Ritual, not of the Pontifical. S. R. C. 16 March 1876. Acta, t. 13. p. 33); of a solemn cross or images, which is done publicly, with a concourse of the people, with solemnity, chant, several ministers, etc.; but not the private blessing, which is done without the said apparatus by one priest with one minister.

2. The blessing and reconciliation of a church not yet consecrated, and of a public oratory and cemetery, and also the blessing of the first stone.

Note. - a) It is certain that a Bishop by his own right can delegate even a simple priest for the blessings enumerated under 2), because this faculty of delegating is specially expressed in the Ritual. But whether he can also delegate those which are listed under 1) is disputed;⁴ yet our Bishops have an Apostolic indult for this (see p. LXXI. n. 13).

b) By the Superiors of those religious Institutes which communicate in privileges with the Mendicants, the blessings concerning which under C. can be done, provided there is not question of churches, oratories, or cemeteries belonging to others, nor of garments, vestments, or vessels for the use of churches belonging to others, nor of crosses or images to be blessed solemnly in places not subject to them.

D. Others pertain to simple priests, which nevertheless again are of a twofold kind; for:

1° Every priest can give certain ones, namely those which in the Missal or Ritual are prescribed to be done by "a priest," with no addition. Yet a simple priest will not be able to impart these: 1) in another's church, or in chapels or oratories annexed to a church, against the will or contradiction of the pastor or rector; 2) publicly and solemnly in places of another's jurisdiction; 3) if in favor of the pastor there stand an immemorial custom, or a synodal law, or an agreement.

2° Certain ones only a pastor, or one delegated by him, can give, namely those which are marked in the Ritual as to be done by the Pastor, or by another priest; for then it is understood: by another priest with the permission of the Pastor.⁵ But by the right of the Pastor are: the blessing of houses on Holy Saturday; the common blessing over crops and fields, at least if it is done solemnly; likewise perhaps the blessing of houses to be done at another time outside Holy Saturday, because in the Ritual for this blessing mention is made of the Pastor; nevertheless Cavalieri denies this;⁶ finally the blessing of the baptismal font, of nuptials, and, except in the case of a legitimate contrary custom, of women after childbirth. - Moreover the distinction between parochial and non-parochial blessings can scarcely be of use here. Yet see n. 1138.

V. Finally, by Reason of Necessity, blessings are divided into prescribed and non-prescribed.

To the prescribed pertain:

a) Episcopal blessings of each kind (see under IV. B. C.), except the blessing of a cemetery - since the blessing of the place or sepulcher suffices - and the solemn blessing of crosses or images. - From sacerdotal garments and vestments:

1° The purificator, veil, and burse are not necessarily to be blessed.⁷ 2° Probably the cincture and pall are to be blessed.⁸ 3° But certainly the corporal, amice, alb, maniple, stole, chasuble, and cloths.⁹ 4° The pyx and lunula ought not to be consecrated, but nevertheless probably to be blessed. The monstrance is laudably blessed.¹⁰

b) Parochial blessings, except the blessings of a woman after childbirth, of fields, of fruits, and of houses.

c) Those which according to the Rubrics are prescribed on certain days of the year, for example on the day of Purification, or on Sundays before the principal Mass (concerning which see De Herdt¹¹ or our Ceremonial¹²).

1248. With What Rite Blessings Are to Be Done. - Blessings which either from precept, or publicly in churches or public oratories before the people gathered for this, are done outside Mass, are to be given with surplice and stole according to the reason of the season,¹ standing and with head uncovered, hands joined, with a minister carrying the vessel of blessed water and the sprinkler, and with the formula prescribed in the Missal or Roman Ritual or approved by the S. C. Rit. - For blessing those things for which a special blessing is not had, the Blessing for all things can be used (see Exc. ex R. R., Ed. 1872, p. 260; Ed. 1874, p. 252), or the Sign of the Cross is to be made over the thing to be blessed with the formula: In the name of the Father, etc.; then the thing itself is sprinkled with blessed water.²

If the cross has the image of the Crucified, the blessing for images is to be employed. Craisson, Elem. Jur. Can.³ If the blessing is done at the altar, all things are recited at the Epistle corner, and the priest uses a cope. The things to be blessed, if they are sacerdotal vestments, can be placed upon the altar; but otherwise, if they are candles and other things of this kind, which are to be placed upon a table before the altar, or at the Epistle corner.⁴ - The church is the more proper place of blessings, although not necessarily of all; for the blessings of certain things, as of water, sacerdotal vestments, and the like, can from a reasonable cause be done in a profane or honorable place.⁵

107. A sacramental etymologically is that which pertains to a sacrament; whence the ceremonies accompanying the essential rite of the sacraments are often called sacramentals by the ancient theologians. Yet in present-day use, under this name come ecclesiastical rites which have a peculiar likeness with the sacraments, and are, as it were, lesser sacraments.¹ They have both difference from and analogy with the sacraments: they are practical signs which in some measure depute to divine worship, and they have an effect, but one inferior to sacramental grace. For they are things or actions which the Church is accustomed to use, in a certain imitation of the sacraments, in order to obtain effects, especially spiritual ones, from her own impetration (can. 1144). They can be defined: sensible and sacred rites instituted by the Church for signifying and producing certain effects, both spiritual and temporal. They are called:

¹ The word sacramentalia is already used by Peter Lombard, in IV, d. 6, H.

1. sensible rites: for they are things, such as holy water, an Agnus Dei, the paschal candle, or actions such as blessings of persons or things, the sign of the cross, the prayer Confiteor;

2. instituted by the Church, which nevertheless received from Christ Himself the power of instituting them; whence if certain ones existed independently of the Church, nevertheless they have from the Church that they are sacramentals, namely, stably instituted;

Hence can. 1145: "Only the Apostolic See can constitute new sacramentals, or authentically interpret those received, abolish or change any of them";

3. for signifying and producing certain effects, both especially spiritual and temporal: namely, effects to be obtained from her own, i.e., the Church's, impetration.

Hence they are distinguished a) from mere ceremonies of the sacraments, such as the white garment in Baptism or sacred vestments, which are ordered solely to the adornment of worship, and to reconciling reverence to the sacraments and to signifying their efficacy; b) from the sacraments, both by reason of origin, and by reason of the effect, which is not justification itself and habitual grace or its increase, and by reason of the mode of operating, because they are not efficient causes ex opere operato, but as moral causes they have influence ex opere operantis Ecclesiae and by force of her impetration.

108. Benedictions for the most part constitute sacramentals, or are even sacramentals. - Benedictions are distinguished:

1. Constitutive, by which a thing or person becomes sacred, i.e., is deputed or consecrated to divine worship: thus the blessing of a church, oratory, bell, vessels, vestments; the consecration of a church, altar, chalice; the blessing of an abbot or virgin; the deputation of a cleric to divine ministry through tonsure. They are the efficient cause of a sacred thing, and per se they are not properly sacramentals; yet per accidens they can be such if by the blessing itself or by the use of the blessed thing they obtain for us goods that are to come to us as by a moral cause, as, for example, a blessed rosary or scapular.

2. Invocative, by which some particular benefit is obtained for a thing or person from the goodness of God. They are sacramentals, as moral causes obtaining an effect: thus the blessing of a woman, of an infant, of the sick, of nuptials, of a field, of a house, of a table, of foods, of animals.

3. Constitutive and at the same time invocative, by which things are blessed for this end, that from their application or use some good may permanently redound to man or some evil may be averted: thus blessed breads or ashes, blessed palms, medals, an Agnus Dei, lustral water, etc.

4. To these last are referred exorcisms for repelling the harmful action of the devil upon persons or things: in these, invocative formulas are mingled, and at the same time the devil is commanded and a necessity is established for him to desist from harmful action.

Hence sacramentals are reduced to three species: a) to the blessings of the Church, b) to the use of blessed things, and c) to exorcisms.

Formerly other divisions were customarily handed down, but they were neither scientific nor sufficiently founded.

109. The efficacy of sacramentals is sufficiently understood from what has thus far been set forth. Namely, they obtain four effects:

1. the conferral of actual grace for carrying out special offices, for salutary works, or for the fervor of charity;

2. the remission of venial sin, or also of temporal punishment, insofar as they excite a movement of contrition, or contain at least implicitly a retraction of sin, or satisfaction;

3. the restraint and repulsion of the devil;

4. the bestowal of a temporal good, for example, health, or prosperity of fields, insofar as it can be useful for salvation.

They are obtained ex opere operantis Ecclesiae, not from the dispositions of the one ministering or of the one receiving, although in a greater or lesser degree according to the dispositions of the one receiving, upon which they depend as upon a condition; but they do not depend upon the dispositions of the one ministering, for example, of a most holy man, although from these another effect ex opere operantis ministri can be added.

Nevertheless they are not obtained immediately, nor infallibly, because the conditions required so that prayer may be infallibly efficacious can be lacking, and an obstacle can be present on the part of the thing asked or on the part of man; but when the required conditions are given, the impetrations of the Church are infallibly heard.

110. Dispositions of canon law. - A. Concerning the minister it is established:

can. 1146: "The legitimate minister of sacramentals is a cleric to whom power for this has been conferred and who has not been prohibited by competent ecclesiastical authority from exercising that power"; as it is prohibited to the excommunicated and personally interdicted, even if they are required after sentence, except in danger of death (can. 2261 and 2275).

can. 1147: "§ 1. No one who lacks the episcopal character can validly perform consecrations, unless one to whom this is permitted either by law or by apostolic indult."

§ 2. "But any presbyter can impart blessings, except those which are reserved to the Roman Pontiff or to the Bishop or to others." Reserved to the Pontiff are the pallium or Agnus Dei; to the pastor, the nuptial blessing and the blessing of homes on Holy Saturday; to the bishop, the solemn blessing of a church or bell.

§ 3. "A reserved blessing which is given by a presbyter without necessary license is illicit, but valid, unless in the reservation the Apostolic See has expressed otherwise."

§ 4. "Deacons and lectors can give validly and licitly only those blessings which are expressly permitted to them by law."

B. Concerning the rite to be observed:

can. 1148: "§ 1. In confecting or administering sacramentals, the rites approved by the Church are to be observed accurately.

§ 2. Consecrations and blessings, whether constitutive or invocative, are invalid if the formula prescribed by the Church has not been used."

C. Concerning the subject:

can. 1149: "Blessings, to be imparted first of all to Catholics, can also be given to catechumens; indeed, unless a prohibition of the Church stands in the way, even to non-Catholics, for obtaining the light of faith or, together with it, health of body." Nevertheless, the excommunicated and personally interdicted after sentence are prohibited from receiving them (can. 2260 and 2275), as are those who have dared to enter a mixed marriage without the dispensation of the Church (can. 2375).

can. 1152: "Exorcisms can be performed by legitimate ministers not only upon the faithful and catechumens, but also upon non-Catholics or the excommunicated."

"Besides the sacraments properly so called," say the Fathers of Baltimore in the Second Plenary Council, "the Church has other sacred things also, which formerly, indeed, in a broader and less proper sense were also called sacraments, but for many centuries it has come into custom that they be called sacramentals. The origin of the name is from this, that although they are far inferior to the sacraments in power and merits, nevertheless they imitate them in some way by their effects." Now concerning these sacramentals we shall here briefly say three things, namely what they are, how many and which they are, and what effects they produce. - Cf. Konings, nn. 1244 and seq.

I. Sacramentals are things or actions which the Church, in some imitation of the Sacraments, is accustomed to use for obtaining, by her impetration, effects especially spiritual (Can. 1144).

II. Only the Apostolic See can constitute new Sacramentals, or authentically interpret those received, or abolish or change any of them (Can. 1145).

Concerning the number of sacramentals theologians do not agree; for some assign more, others fewer. Yet more commonly they are reduced to six heads, according to the little verse:

Praying, wetted, eating, confessed, giving, blessing.

1st. Praying signifies the daily prayers of the faithful, but especially the Lord's Prayer and the public prayers of the Church, as are those which are made on the days of Rogations.

2nd. Wetted denotes the use of lustral water, which must be traced back to the first centuries of the Church. It also denotes all other anointings which do not constitute some sacrament properly so called.

3rd. Eating expresses the devout eating of blessed bread, which in the ancient Church, when the former fervor of charity was gradually failing, was given to the baptized, and sometimes to catechumens, in place of the Eucharist. This custom is still preserved today in some Churches, where fragments of blessed bread are offered to the faithful within the solemnities of Masses before or after the time of Communion. The aforesaid word also expresses the eating of blessed fruits, especially if they are new, for which a special blessing exists.

4th. Confessed designates the public confession of faults to be made in a general manner by the prescription of the Church, whether in Mass or in reciting the Canonical Hours. It also designates the suppliant and humble striking of the breast, and also the sprinkling of ashes upon the heads of the faithful customarily done on the first day of Lent.

5th. Giving comprehends first of all almsgiving, and secondarily any other work of mercy, whether spiritual or corporal, specially designated by the Church as to be furnished by the faithful in some public calamity or in the Lenten season.

6th. Blessing comprehends first of all all blessings which are ordinarily given either in writing or by voice by the Pope, Bishops, and priests; then those solemn blessings described in the Roman Ritual as to be given to virgins, kings, queens, etc.; and finally blessings of things and animals. Now of these blessings some are papal, or reserved to the Pope, for example, the blessing of Pallia or of the Golden Rose; others are episcopal, which by right pertain to Bishops alone, such as consecrations of churches, altars, chalices, bells, priestly vestments, altar-cloths, corporals, the first stone of a church or cemetery, the tabernacle, a new cross and images, if however the blessing of the cross and images is done publicly with solemnity; finally others are priestly, namely those which regard priests, with this distinction, however, that every priest can give some, while some can be given only by a Parish Priest or another delegated by him. - I said that some blessings are episcopal by right, but it must be observed that Bishops cannot delegate a simple priest to impart all of them without a pontifical indult.

III. The effects of sacramentals are numbered differently by different persons, but the principal ones are the following two:

1st. The remission of venial sins, not indeed immediately and by force of the sacred rite itself, which pertains only to the sacraments properly so called, but by means of the pious movements of contrition which certainly are customarily excited more easily and more frequently through the use of sacramentals. To this point belong those words of St. Augustine: "This prayer (the Our Father) wholly destroys minimal and daily sins." And elsewhere the same holy Doctor bears witness: "sins without which one does not live here are cleansed by works of mercy and pious prayers."

2nd. The repression and flight of the demon; and this not only by way of impetration but also by way of command. Hence St. Alphonsus admonishes the priest that, when agony is pressing, he should more often sprinkle the sick person with holy water and fortify him with the sign of the cross.

Question 1. Who is the legitimate minister of Sacramentals?

Resp. The legitimate minister of Sacramentals is a cleric to whom power for this has been conferred and who has not been prohibited by competent ecclesiastical authority from exercising the same (Can. 1146).

§ 1. No one who lacks the episcopal character can validly perform consecrations, unless either by law or by apostolic indult this is permitted to him.

§ 2. But any presbyter can impart blessings, excepting those which are reserved to the Roman Pontiff or to Bishops or to others.

§ 3. A reserved blessing which is given by a presbyter without necessary permission is illicit, but valid, unless the Apostolic See has expressed otherwise in the reservation.

§ 4. Deacons and lectors can validly and licitly give only those blessings which are expressly permitted to them by law (Can. 1147).

Question 2. What rites are to be employed in confecting and administering Sacramentals?

Resp. § 1. In confecting or administering Sacramentals, the rites approved by the Church are to be accurately observed.

§ 2. Consecrations and blessings, whether constitutive or invocative, are invalid if the formula prescribed by the Church has not been employed (Can. 1148).

Question 3. To whom can Sacramentals be conferred?

Resp. Blessings, to be imparted first of all to Catholics, can also be given to catechumens, indeed, unless a prohibition of the Church stands in the way, even to non-Catholics for obtaining the light of faith or, together with it, health of body (Can. 1149).¹

It is not necessary to add more concerning sacramentals, but it is altogether useful to place before the eyes this most wise admonition of the Fathers of Baltimore:

"Let preachers and rectors of souls take care first of all to explain to the faithful the nature, signification, and right use of these things, and to inculcate them more often. Let them persuade those who rely too much on their own wisdom and talent that these things, although they may seem light and small, are not to be contemned, since they profit not a little for living piously and attaining salvation. But let them again and again admonish the more untaught common people, who are swept away by the contrary error, lest they attribute too much efficacy to the things themselves, nor preserve them with a certain blind and immoderate confidence and pursue them with superstitious veneration, as though they themselves, by themselves, without a pious disposition of mind, could do very much. But let them most sharply rebuke those who have sacred things of this kind, as was the custom among the Heathen, as though in place of amulets, which would keep them immune from the wrath of God and vengeance even when they are involved in the most foul filth of vices." - Cf. Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, n. 350.

¹ Cf. Addenda, p. 1088, n. 9.

Father Paul, a young priest, is assigned to a parish where it is the practise for the sisters to wash the altar linens. Among these linens are the purificators and corporals. In the seminary it was taught that certain of the altar linens ought to be washed only by a man in sacred orders, and Father Paul remembers having taken his turn at this work after he had received subdeacon’s orders. He desires to know whether it is only a pious practise for a man in sacred orders to wash the purificators and corporals, or whether there is any strict obligation for a priest or major-order man to wash them, or may they be turned over to the sisters together with the rest of the church linens to be washed and repaired by them.

Answer. I. The purificators, corporals and palls, when soiled, must be washed by a priest or deacon, or at least by a subdeacon. It is not lawful to give them to any one else, even to religious women, until they have been first washed, at least once, by a man in sacred orders. This is of strict obligation, and by no means a mere pious or becoming practise.

1. The third part of the decree of Gratian, in the Corpus Juris Canonici, treats “de consecratione.” Distinctio I, canon 40, prescribes how the altar linens shall be washed. “But the palls and veils of the sanctuary, if they have been soiled in the ministry, are to be washed by the deacons with the lower ministers within the sanctuary, not taking them outside the sanctuary; and they are to wash the coverings of the Lord’s table, lest perchance dust of the Lord’s body fall away improperly. But they are not to wash the linen cloth outside; and doing this will be a sin. Therefore we command the ministers to guard these holy things diligently within the sacristy. Indeed, a new basin is to be obtained, and nothing else besides this is to touch it.

Nor is that basin itself to be used for washing any cloths except those which pertain to the service of the Lord’s altar. Only the altar palls are to be washed in it, and in another basin the door curtains.” In this canon, therefore, it is commanded, and not merely recommended, that the altar linens, when soiled, be washed by a deacon, assisted by clerics of lesser degree, a Diacono cum humilibus ministris; which does not mean that the clerics of lesser degree than the deacon may themselves wash the altar linens, but that they are to assist the deacon in the performance of this ministry. This canon of the decree of Gratian contains some prescriptions that have since been abrogated by the general practise obtaining in the Church. Thus, for example, the canon ordains that the linens shall be washed within the sanctuary, and that they shall not be removed from the sanctuary. Also that the altar cloths are to be washed in the same way as the other linens. But the general practise of the Church, abrogating certain of the provisions of this fortieth canon of Gratian’s decree, does not extend to the washing of the purificators, corporals or palls, which must still be washed by a man in sacred orders. This appears from repeated answers of the Congregation of Rites. Again, in the rite of ordination of a subdeacon, as contained in the Roman Pontifical, the bishop admonishes the cleric, whom he is about to raise to the office of subdeacon: A subdeacon ought to wash the altar palls and corporals. According to a decision of the Congregation of Rites, September 12, 1857, this washing of the purificators, corporals and palls, since it is enjoined by the Roman Pontifical on the subdeacon, as one of the duties of his office, may not be committed to any persons not in sacred orders except by the Roman Pontiff himself.

2. The purificators, corporals and palls must be washed by hand, and not with instruments or by machinery. It is not required that they should be altogether clean, when they leave the hands of the subdeacon, or that they should not be washed again, but nevertheless, the cleansing that they receive at the hands of the subdeacon should be a real washing, vera ablutio. According to the rubrics found at the beginning of the Missal, de defectibus (tit. x, n. 12), the corporals, purificators and palls should be washed three times, and each time, according to the common opinion of the rubricists, in fresh water. But these two extra washings are not considered preceptive, but only commendable, while the first washing is of strict obligation. This is evident, the rubricists say, from the canon of the decree of Gratian, as well as from the Roman Pontifical, both of which prescribe only one washing.

3. According to the decree of Gratian these linens are to be washed intra sanctuarium. The general practise of the Church, as well as the interpretations of the rubricists, take these words as meaning that these linens are not to be washed in the houses of the laity.

4. The linens are to be washed in a bowl or basin reserved for this sole purpose, and are never to be washed with any household linens. The words of the canon are explicit: Indeed, a new basin is to be obtained, and nothing else besides this is to touch it. Nor is that basin itself to be used for washing any cloths except those which pertain to the service of the Lord’s altar. Only the altar palls are to be washed in it, and in another basin the door curtains.

5. The water used at least for the first washing must be poured into the sacrarium, according to the canon.

II. It is never lawful for sisters or other religious women to give the linens the first washing. In the office of St. Soter, as found in the Breviary for April 22, it is stated that the saint ordered that women of religious orders should not touch the altar linens. “Soter decreed that sacred virgins should not touch the sacred vessels and palls.”

The decree of Gratian, distinctio XXIII, canon 25, says: It has been reported to the Apostolic See that women consecrated to God, or nuns, among you touch sacred vessels or consecrated palls and carry incense about the altars; no one of sound judgment doubts that all these things are full of blame and reproach. Therefore, by the authority of this Holy See, we judge that you must cut off all these things utterly as quickly as you can. And lest this plague be spread more widely, we command that it be eradicated throughout all the provinces with the greatest speed.

The same is gathered from the response of the Congregation of Rites, September 12, 1857. The Congregation was asked: “Whether nuns or pious women leading a common life under a rule can, with the permission of the Ordinary, wash corporals, palls, and purificators?” The Sacred Congregation answered: Negative.

This prohibition, however, affects only the first washing.

It is becoming that the second and third washing also should be done by a man in sacred orders, but it is not obligatory. Therefore, after the purificators, palls and corporals have been washed once by a person in sacred orders, there is no prohibition against handing them over to the sisters or other religious women, who will wash them again and iron and repair them.

In a certain parish there died recently, of a contagious disease, two boys belonging to a prominent family, one in his fifth, the other in his ninth year. One funeral was held for both, sub uno according to the ordo sepeliendi parvulos, in white. Later a debate arose over this, as it was maintained that the younger of the boys should have been interred according to the ordo sepeliendi parvulos, but the other according to the ordo sep. adultos. On the other hand, the pastor’s action was defended on the following special reasons:

1. The older boy, though he attended school, had not yet received the Sacraments of Penance and Holy Eucharist. In that parish it was the universal custom to bury such children according to the ordo sep. parvulos.

2. If the pastor had caused the bodies to be buried separately, and to be taken separately to the cemetery, he would have unnecessarily increased the parents’ grief.

To elucidate this case we will put the following questions:

1. When is, according to ecclesiastical precept, the ordo sep. parvulos to be applied, and when the ordo sep. adultos?

2. Is the fact that the Sacraments of Penance and the Eucharist have not been received, a reason for deviating from this precept?

3. What should the pastor have properly done in this case?

Ad. 1. The ordo sep. parvulos is only applicable to baptized children who die before attaining the use of reason; in the case of all others the ordo sep. adultos is to be followed. This is evident from the Rit. Rom. and also from the wording of these two funeral rites.

The Rit. Rom. explains in the Rubrics on the ordo sep. parvulos how the word parvuli is to be understood. Therefore, when a baptized infant or child has died before the use of reason, etc. Parvuli,. therefore, are children who have not attained the use of reason, and adulti those who have attained the use of reason, whether they are grown up or not. In this sense these terms also occur in other ecclesiastical regulations, as, for instance, in the ordo baptismi par-vulorum-adultorum. The ordo sep. parvulos refers to all those dying before the years of discretion, the ordo sep. adultos to all those dying after attaining them.

This is undoubtedly evident also from the character of the funeral rites. The ordo sep. parvulos is of a joyful character, as is manifest in the selection of the psalms (Laudate pueri; Domini est terra; Laudate Dominum de coelis); the wording of the orations, which pray, not for the child, but for the survivors, that the latter may one day participate in the same happiness; the white color: the color of rejoicing. This rite is evidently befitting only for those that have preserved the grace of Baptism pure and undefiled; those that were incapable of the least actual sin, and who, therefore, were immediately admitted to the vision of God. And that is positively the case only of those children who die before attaining the use of reason.

The ordo sep. adultos, on the contrary, expresses sorrow at human sinfulness, fear of divine justice, and turns to God for mercy and grace to the departed. Hence the black garb, the Psalms Miserere, and De Profundis, and the corresponding sense of the orations. This funeral rite is, therefore, to be used not only for adults, but also for children who have reached the years of discretion, who, therefore, are capable of actual sin, and of whom one can not be quite certain that at their death they have nothing to atone for.

Ex communiter contingentibus it is accepted that man at the completion of his seventh year attains the use of reason. Hence it must be the general rule that all who have passed their seventh year must be buried according to the ordo sep. adultos. The custom of burying according to the ordo sep. parvulos children even after reaching the years of discretion, is in direct opposition to the ecclesiastical precepts, and to the purport of the prayers, and it does a great injustice to the children concerned, as it deprives them of the intercession which perhaps they greatly need. This custom therefore is an improper custom, and is to be abolished.

There must be no departure from this rule even if a child who has passed this age seems to have preserved his innocence; outward appearances are often deceiving, and the same argument might be urged for some grown persons (S.C. R., August 31, 1872). On the other hand there are younger children in whom wickedness exceeds their years. Such cases, in regard to the rite to be followed, are only to be considered if notorious. Perpetuo amentes over seven years of age are interred like children under seven years of age (DE HERDT, S. Lit. Praxis, I, III, n. 268).

Ad. 2. The choice of the burial rite depends, therefore, in first place and chiefly, upon the attainment or non-attainment of the use of reason. As in our case the older boy had reached the years of discretion, he should by all means have been buried according to the Ordo sep. adultos. The circumstance that outside of Baptism he had not received any Sacraments, is no excuse for the pastor’s procedure, but might imply an accusation against him, if, namely, his negligence was the cause of the boy dying without receiving the Sacraments. Every person able to distinguish between right and wrong, and therefore capable of committing sin, can and should, in danger of death, receive the last Sacraments, even if otherwise First Confession and Holy Communion are sometimes postponed until the ninth or tenth year. This is evident from divine and ecclesiastical precepts concerning the reception of the Sacraments; it would be superfluous to quote here authorities in this matter.^* They all agree that a priest commits grievous sin if he does not administer the last Sacraments, in danger of death, to children, who have attained the use of reason, on the excuse that they had never previously received the Sacraments of Penance or of the Eucharist, or because they have not been fully instructed.

^* Note, see p. 173.

Hence to say: He who has not received the Sacraments of Penance and of the Eucharist is to be buried according to the ordo sep. parvulos is not correct, but, He who is not capable of receiving the Sacraments. He who is capable of receiving the Sacraments must be interred according to the ordo sep. adultos. As this capability is contingent upon the use of reason we may amplify the rule given above and say: All those who have attained the use of reason, and have, or might have, received the last Sacraments, are to be buried according to the ordo sep. adultos.

Ad. 3. (a) The pastor after proper preparation should have given the last Sacraments and general absolution to the older boy. A complete instruction for Confession and Communion is not necessary under the circumstances, only the knowledge of the truths which necessitate medii must be believed explicitly. Hereupon he should have helped the boy to examine his conscience, as far as possible, and should have been especially solicitous for a good disposition by exciting acts of contrition, faith, hope and charity. This suffices for a valid and worthy reception of sacramental absolution and therefore for the reception of Extreme Unction. Whenever these two Sacraments are administered, general absolution should also be given. Furthermore if the child can distinguish the Holy Eucharist from ordinary material food, and there is no irreverence to be feared, he may also receive the Holy Viaticum, (b) The older boy should have been buried according to the ordo sep. adultos, the younger one according to the ordo sep. parvulos. Therefore the blessings at the house, in the church and at the cemetery should have taken place successively. No one could expect, however, that each body should be taken separately from the house to the church and thence to the cemetery, for that would have increased needlessly the parents’ grief. A separate rite was therefore not possible in this particular part of the burial rite, it had to be performed according to one ritual and that should have been the ordo sep. adultos. This is the more important and necessary one, and it would have been more in accord with the sentiments of the parents and all those present.

Lambert Studeny, D.D.