External Effects of Charity

External Effects of Charity.—Three external effects of charity will now be considered-beneficence, almsgiving and fraternal correction. These are not distinct virtues, but only separate acts pertaining to the virtue of charity and proceeding—like love, joy and peace—from the same motive of love of God. (a) Thus, beneficence naturally results from charity, since one of the acts of friendship is to do good to one’s friend; (b) almsgiving is one of the special ways in which beneficence is exercised; (c) fraternal correction is a species of spiritual almsgiving.

817. Necessity of these works. Besides almsgiving, concerning which there has been treatment above, there are many other works of charity, which are usually comprehended in this verse:

¹ C. S. Loch, Charity Organization, London, 1890; A. G. Warner, American Charities, New York, 1895; Lefebure, L'organisation de la charite privee en France, Paris, 1900; id., Paris charitable et prevoyant, Paris, Plon, 1900; M. du Camp, La Charite privee a Paris, Hachette, 1886; id., Paris bienfaisant, ibid., 1888; E. Rostand, L'Action sociale par l'initiative privee, Paris, 3 vols., 1892, 1897, 1902; V. Brants, Les grandes lignes de l'Economie polit., 4th ed. 1904, Louvain and Paris, t. II, p. 266-317; Millot, Que faut-il faire pour le peuple? Paris, Lecoffre, 1901.

I visit, I give drink, I feed, I redeem, I clothe, I gather, I bury.

Seven are counted: to visit the sick, to give drink to the thirsty and food to the hungry, to redeem captives, to clothe the naked, to receive strangers in hospitality, to bury the dead. And these indeed are laudable. But today, on account of the social dissensions which exist between masters and workers, and on account of the miserable condition of many workers, certain social works of charity are opportune, indeed necessary, by which dissensions between the rich and proletarians may more easily be composed, and the condition of workers made better.

Leo XIII wrote excellently concerning this matter; after describing the duties of justice which oblige masters and workers alike,² he also sets forth the duties of charity which masters ought to exercise toward workers, and the rich toward the poor. (a) He proposes these things after the manner of a general principle: "Whoever has received a greater abundance of goods by the gift of God, whether they are of the body and external, or of the soul, has received them for this cause, that he may employ them for the perfection of himself and likewise, as a minister of divine providence, for the advantages of others." (b) Afterward he treats especially of the miserable condition of workers, which we are bound to render better: "Concerning proletarians in particular she wills and contends that they emerge from a most miserable state and obtain a better fortune." This indeed the Church furnishes first by restraining "the twin plagues of life, which too often make man miserable in the very abundance of wealth, excessive appetite for things and thirst for pleasures." The Pontiff continues: "But besides, that proletarians may fare well, she rightly provides by instituting and fostering those things which she understands to be conducive to relieving their want." - What institutions today are more conducive to this relief of proletarians we shall explain in the following things.

² Encyclical Rerum Novarum, May 16, 1891; cf. Graves de Communi, Jan. 18, 1901; Letter Notre charge apostolique (Pius X, Aug. 25, 1910).

818. General principles concerning these works. But first it is helpful to set forth certain general principles concerning these works: (a) It is much more expedient to prevent want than to cure it. Wherefore well-ordered charity ought to tend to this, that it render the poor capable of sustaining themselves and their own, namely by a manly, Christian, and professional education, by providing means and opportunities of labor rather than alms; for thus not only is want more efficaciously prevented, but also love of labor and consciousness of personal dignity are promoted. Likewise one must beware lest, while help is given to orphans, workers are harmed by accepting the lowest wage for labor.³

³ To the point Count d'Haussonville, Salaires et miseres de femmes, Paris, 1900, p. 42-43: "If the ten or twelve congregations which hold, in Paris, all the orphanages, workrooms, patronages, agreed among themselves... and if, instead of disputing among themselves, as they too often do, for orders by means of discounts, they settled by common agreement, for all articles, prices below which they would not work, as, on the other hand, they work under conditions of regularity, care, and cleanliness which are very much appreciated, the large stores would end by passing through where they wished, provided however that their demands were reasonable. A union of congregations could therefore render great services by raising the prices of female labor."

(b) It must be altogether cared for that the truly needy be helped, yet without a reward being given to the lazy and vagabonds,⁴ who do not wish to work. Wherefore, before alms are bestowed, inquiry must be made concerning the true state of beggars, and, since it is very difficult for any private person to inquire seriously concerning individuals, societies are to be promoted everywhere whose special office is to investigate these things especially; but those societies ought to be joined together by a certain federation, so that beggars who falsely call themselves needy may more easily be detected and denounced.⁵

⁴ Concerning beggars and vagabonds, and the means instituted in various regions for correcting or punishing them, L. Riviere wrote wisely, Mendiants et Vagabonds, Paris, Lecoffre, 1902.

⁵ In many regions societies of this kind have already been instituted; for Great Britain, see C. S. Loch, Charity Organization, London, 1890; for America, A. G. Warner, American Charities, New York, 1895; for France, Lefebure, L'organisation de la charite privee en France, Paris, 1900.

819. (c) True charity provides not only for the temporal necessities of the poor, but also induces them to the practice of virtues. Therefore generally private beneficence profits more than public, because, while the latter thinks in an official manner only of bodily relief, the former, by fraternal visitation and care of the poor, promotes their moral and religious education.

To the point Leo XIII (loc. cit.): "Today indeed many, as once the heathen did in the same way, pass over to accusing the Church even of this so excellent charity: in place of which it has seemed good to substitute beneficence constituted by public laws. But no human arts will be found which can supply for Christian charity, extending itself wholly to the advantages of others. To the Church alone belongs that virtue, because unless it is drawn from the most sacred Heart of Jesus Christ, it is nowhere; but whoever departs from the Church wanders far from Christ."

Now among social works, these especially are to be commended: 1. those which promote good education; 2. associations among the workers themselves, for protecting their rights; 3. associations of the rich, for helping workers or the poor, whether corporally or spiritually.

820. It must always be kept before the mind that the best education is that which is provided at home by the parents themselves, when they are honorable and Christian. But it not rarely happens that there are many young persons of both sexes who in fact are not rightly instructed by their parents; for often husband and wife must labor outside the home, in order to sustain themselves and their own, and they cannot care for the education of the children; sometimes resources are lacking for feeding them; sometimes also the parents, addicted to vices, abandon their offspring or educate them depravedly.⁶ - Everyone knows that many orphanages were instituted in ancient and more recent times in order to help these little ones.⁷

⁶ G. Bonjean, Enfants revoltes et parents coupables, Paris, Colin, 1895; H. Joly, L'Enfance coupable, Paris, Lecoffre, 1904.

⁷ Concerning various institutions of this kind, in diverse nations and centuries, L. Lallemand wrote learnedly, Histoire des enfants abandonnes et delaisses, Paris, Picard, 1885.

But these by no means suffice: it is necessary that a Christian education be furnished to those who are kept at home or frequent neutral schools: this happens in pious works which are called patronages.⁸ But when young persons are growing older and soon are to be numbered among workers, it is necessary that they receive a special education, by which they may be able to protect themselves against the errors of socialists, agnostics, or materialists: this can be handed down in those associations which are called study circles (cercles d'etudes, debating clubs) or popular institutes.⁹ There also they are gradually prepared for forming professional unions.

⁸ Max Turmann, Au sortir de l'ecole, les Patronages, 3rd ed., Paris, Lecoffre, 1901; Gatouillat, Patronages de jeunes gens, Troyes, 1899; Schaffer, Comment diriger nos patronages de jeunes filles, Paris, Lecoffre, 1905.

⁹ Max Turmann, L'Education populaire, 2nd ed., Paris, 1904, p. 57-80, 335, etc. - Max Turmann, op. cit., p. 297.

To these institutions, which directly regard moral education, others can be joined which indirectly promote the same, by directly procuring physical education. Thus, since in great cities, during summer time, not a few youths are prone to contract diseases from the unhealthiness of the air, societies have been formed (Oeuvres des saines vacances) by whose aid not a few of them can breathe purer air in the country, and at the same time receive moral and religious education. May all these works, with devoted pupils of seminaries and priests, and also pious laymen favoring and promoting them, be multiplied everywhere!

But, in order that the intended end may be obtained, and a new generation of workers be established, who by only legitimate means may wisely and strenuously vindicate their own rights, the education handed down in these various institutions ought to be Christian, manly, professional.¹⁰

¹⁰ That education of this kind is handed down in certain orphanages G. Bonjean explains, La Protection de l'Enfance abandonnee ou coupable, apud La Nouvelle Revue, Feb. 1, 1896; cf. P. Delay, Les Oeuvres de preservation et de rehabilitation, apud Correspondant, Nov. 25, 1903, p. 723, Dec. 10, 1903, p. 936.

821. (A) Christian, that is, tending to this, that in young persons it opportunely cultivate religious and moral sense, true and solid piety, and also the natural and supernatural virtues which are necessary for living as Christians and attaining the supernatural end. Therefore let no one be forced, but by examples and persuasion let each be sweetly induced to embrace and cultivate religion. Because today errors are spread everywhere, let the principal dogmas of our faith be not only rightly set forth, but also strengthened by solid arguments, such as the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, the divine mission of Christ, the authority of the Church, etc. Let adolescents be taught how, according to their capacity, they may answer the common difficulties of unbelievers, and, in more arduous ones, have recourse to the learned. Among them let certain ones be chosen, endowed with sharper intellect and nobler disposition, who may form a special society imbued with apostolic spirit, and may allure other young people by words and examples to piety and to the practice of virtues: these will be, as it were, so many apostles, who will very greatly help priests in propagating the faith.

822. (B) Manly, that is, tending to this, that it furnish fortitude of soul and unconquered strength of will; and therefore little by little transform boys into men, who are able to suffice for themselves. For workers are exposed to various enticements, whether internally from passions, or externally from vain fear of men and diverse occasions by which they are allured to evil; therefore it is of the greatest importance that they firmly believe, and manifest their faith externally by works, without boasting and without shame; likewise that, strengthened in virtue, they contemn the enticements of pleasures and strenuously resist depraved companions. Wherefore let them gradually be taught how, with the grace of God helping, they can act manfully, by fleeing useless occasions of sin, but by fighting bravely in necessary ones.¹¹ Let it be explained to the same how great is the efficacy of association for overcoming difficulties and multiplying the strength of each individual; and how necessary it is that the upright be united together, that they may crush the boldness of the evil: for thus, amid very grave temptations, they will remain stable in faith and virtue.

¹¹ "Obliged doubtless to preserve the child from certain dangers superior to his age or to his powers, education nevertheless does not have preservation for its end: this would be the substitution of the master's effort for the child's effort. On the contrary it aims to form energies which can suffice for themselves and guard themselves: the weak must be helped, but one must arrive at rendering them robust enough to do without helps... One word sums up all: our moral education wishes to make men." (Ackermann, apud Congres internat. du Patronage de la Jeunesse ouvriere, 1900, Paris, 1901.) Cf. Guibert, Le Caractere, Paris, 1905.

823. (C) Professional, insofar as it forms workers skilled in their own art;¹ for the more skilled and at the same time the more honorable they are, the more they will be esteemed both by companions and by masters; wherefore in opportune time they will obtain a greater wage and nobler offices. But in our days it is altogether expedient that the principal principles of social science be handed down to them, so that they may more easily be able to refute the sophisms of socialists and have very much authority in assemblies of workers; for thus moderately and wisely, by opportune and just means, they will be able to protect their own rights and those of their companions; thus also the way will be prepared for concord between masters and workers.

¹ "Yes, it is necessary to develop professional formation and to prepare the young man for social cooperation. Industrial evolution obliges to the one, social evolution imposes the other: these are two new elements which it is urgent to introduce into the education of the child of the people. Therefore his instruction will be completed, therefore his intelligence and his technical skill will be developed. Then he will be accustomed to foresight, to economy, to the sentiment of solidarity by initiating him into all sorts of institutions of foresight and mutual help."

But to girls let there be given an education not only speculative in letters and arts, but practical, so that they may learn how they can attend to domestic affairs and fulfill the duties proper to themselves.

824. Today, by force of the ineluctable competition which flourishes everywhere, workers who are not united in various associations cannot vindicate their rights, but are soon handed over, alone and defenseless, to the unbridled cupidity of competitors, as Leo XIII says, loc. cit. Therefore it is necessary that, with forces associated, they protect their rights and gradually render their condition better by legitimate means. To this various associations will greatly serve:

1. Workers' associations, or unions (syndicats professionnels, labor-unions), concerning which there has been treatment in the Treatise on Justice, n. 833-843. But in order that these associations may be truly useful, it is necessary that, the prejudices and passions of political parties having been set aside, they intend only, and pursue by just means, the physical, intellectual, and moral good of workers. Therefore upright and Catholic men should not be kept away from these under the vain pretext that by these associations dissensions between masters and workers are fostered. For if only non-Catholics enter these societies, the errors of socialists will easily be spread in them, and thence many dissensions and contests will arise. Therefore let associations or unions of good workers be promoted; let the best Catholics join themselves to these, strengthened in faith, endowed with sincere piety, and skilled in their art, so that by words and examples they may be able to instruct their companions and lead them to the practice of virtues: for just as a little leaven raises the whole mass, so a little flock of Catholics will little by little convert the whole multitude of workers to better things. For if they join perfect honesty and kindness to sincere piety, and at the same time show themselves industrious and modest, they will reconcile to themselves the confidence and benevolence of many, and reverence and honor to the Catholic religion.²

² To the social and Christian instruction of young workers the societies called Le Sillon, or l'Association de la Jeunesse francaise, contribute much; and it is much to be desired indeed that these and other associations of this kind, although distinct and autonomous among themselves, be joined by a friendly league and agree concerning common action. Cf. M. Turmann, Education populaire, p. 216-256.

825. But in order to avoid or compose dissensions which not rarely arise between masters and workers, it is indeed very expedient to institute and promote councils of conciliation and arbitration. These consist of an equal number of masters and workers, who meet on fixed days in order to solve difficulties which often arise concerning matters pertaining to industry, for example, concerning the amount of wages, the duration of labor, the rules to be followed in the workshop: by a sincere exposition of facts and reasons, made on both sides, many prejudices are dismissed, and the way is prepared for concord and social peace.³

³ Concerning this more fully in the Treatise on Justice, n. 849-850, where many authors are cited.

826. 2. Mutual associations (mutuelles) are also very useful, by which workers can furnish help and aid to one another, and increase thrift.⁴ For since workers receive a modest wage, and are liable to many losses from unexpected events or illnesses, or from cessation from labor, they will indeed profit much if by living soberly, chastely, and frugally, at the time when things are succeeding rather prosperously, they set aside some money and deposit it with those societies called mutual, which have been instituted in various regions. Certain ones have been created in schools, so that already from childhood young persons may be able to pursue thrift, and, vain prodigality having been contemned, may become accustomed to providing something for future necessities;⁵ it is altogether expedient to institute these in Catholic schools.

⁴ F. Lepine, La Mutualite, ses principes, ses bases veritables, Paris, Colin, 1903; L. Mabilleau, La Prevoyance sociale en Italie; E. Dede, Les Societes de secours mutuels, Paris, Bonne Presse, 1904.

⁵ Lepine, op. cit., p. 53-67; M. Turmann, Educ. populaire, p. 50-56.

827. 3. To these can be joined cooperative societies, whether for buying merchandise at a lower price, and therefore for diminishing the expenses of members, or also for making certain things, and consequently for increasing the advantages of workers.⁶ The former are easily instituted and managed; but in small towns it is usually expedient to create societies which do not directly buy merchandise in order to sell it to cooperators at a lower price, but enter into an agreement with merchants so that these consent to cede some determined part of their profit to cooperators; otherwise, the hatred and envy of merchants is excited, who, from the founding of a cooperative society, not rarely lose the greatest part of their profit. - It is much more difficult successfully and prosperously to manage societies which are called productive; for to this two things are desired: not a small capital, not only for acquiring instruments, but also for paying the multiple expenses which must necessarily be incurred for several months before any profit is received; and a skilled administrator, who can manage the matter wisely and possesses sufficient authority for commanding the other workers; and these indeed can scarcely be found.⁷

⁶ Ch. Gide, La Cooperation, Paris, 1900; id., L'Economie Sociale a l'Exposition de 1900, Paris, 1902, p. 273-294; id., Les societes cooperatives de consommation, Paris, 1904; Clavel and Soria, Guide pour l'organisation et l'administration des societes cooperatives de consommation, 4th ed. Paris, 1901; Hubert-Valleroux, La Cooperation, Paris, 1904; Congres des Associat. ouvrieres de production, Paris, 1900; Comptes-rendus du Congres de l'Alliance cooperative internationale, Paris, 1902; Bertrand, Histoire de la Cooperation en Belgique, Brussels; Beatrice Potter, The Cooperative Movement in Great Britain, London, 1888.

⁷ Yet bakery societies, or those instituted for making bread, progress better, both because the baker's art is fairly easy, and because in well-organized bakeries (boulangeries) the price of bread is much diminished, as can be seen apud Gide, Coop. de consommation, p. 84. - Socialists successfully manage not a few productive societies; among these that one stands out which is called Vooruit, concerning which read Le Vooruit, la cooperation et l'organisation socialiste en Belgique, apud Musee social, Dec. 20, 1897; - concerning societies of the same kind in France, cf. Une Enquete sur les boulangeries cooperatives rurales, apud Musee social, Dec. 1899. - How necessary it is for Catholics to institute cooperative societies is clear from the fact that socialists use these to spread their errors; for M. Lauzel says, Manuel du Cooperateur socialiste, Paris, 1900, p. 17: "In the hands of socialists, cooperation is only a means of socialist action, a powerful lever, capable of moving the capitalist world upon its bases of individual property and social injustice. We do not wish to be cooperators for the satisfaction of diminishing a little the infinite misery of the proletariat: We wish to be cooperators in order to cooperate more efficaciously in the social revolution."

Whatever the case may be, if a priest has been the promoter of these societies, let him consent to lie hidden in obscurity, and let him commit the matter to be managed to upright and prudent laymen, who at the opportune time will render an account of the whole matter to the members.⁸ Likewise one must beware lest societies of this kind seem to bring any profit to the priests themselves; for if workers were to suspect this, they would soon be turned away from those societies.

⁸ "I call the attention of the pastor-founder very particularly to this important point. Do you wish to have men in your church? Do you wish to form a numerous, lasting, and honorable meeting? Let them administer themselves. Give them a home of their own: they must not be at your place, but at theirs... The changes which have occurred for a century in French society have only made more imperious this need of autonomy, of self-government, as the English say." (L. de la P., Les Associations d'hommes, Marseille, 1903, p. 759.)

828. 4. To these can be numbered those banks first invented by Raiffeisen (caisses Raiffeisen), and also called mutual credit societies (pret mutuel), because they hand over money as a loan with the least increase.⁹ They consist of farmers of the same parish, who possess certain immovable goods; these form a certain civil society, constituted according to the laws of each region; directors are elected, who fulfill their office gratuitously; only the treasurer (tresorier) receives some recompense, though a minimal one. Now poor farmers can borrow money from the society, with the directors approving, if they promise to repay the capital with a modest increase; each year accounts are rendered to the presidents of the society; and if any profit remains, it is not distributed to creditors, but either is guarded or is spent upon a work of public utility, for example, for acquiring those recently invented machines by which the work of sowing and harvesting is carried out much more promptly and easily. - To these societies can be attached insurances against fire, hail, pestilence of animals, etc.¹⁰

⁹ A. Kannengieser, Catholiques allemands, Paris, 1892, p. 138-148; Max Turmann, Associations agricoles, p. 322-374; G. Malherbe, Le Raiffeisenisme, Brussels, 1902; C. Ract, Les Caisses de Famille, Paris, 1896.

¹⁰ Max Turmann, op. cit., p. 375-498; de Rocquigny, Les petites Institutions mutuelles de prevoyance contre la mortalite des animaux, apud Musee social, June 1898.

829. 5. But, that a truly Catholic spirit may pervade these societies, it is necessary that Christian workers among themselves, with priests as leaders, form associations for fulfilling religious duties more perfectly and for living a more intense Christian life. It would profit little to render the temporal lot of workers better, unless at the same time their moral and religious condition becomes more perfect. In vain indeed will the wages paid to workers be doubled, in vain will the price of those things necessary for food or clothing be diminished, or the hours consumed in labor be shorter, unless at the same time proletarians are well-mannered, sober, chaste, honorable, and religious. For if they waste wages and time in feasts, drinking, games of chance, and other things of this kind, their condition will become more miserable than before.¹¹ Therefore it is necessary that societies be entered into for solidly instructing the ignorant, for strenuously strengthening the weak, and for confirming those unstable in faith; for converting those who have been alienated from true religion, and gradually alluring all who already believe to a more perfect practice of virtues and religion; and also for extirpating vices, especially drunkenness and alcoholism (n. 541-555).

¹¹ Leo XIII explains this splendidly in the Encyclical Graves de Communi: "Suppose indeed that wages are doubled for those hiring out their work; suppose also that the price of food is low: yet if the wage-earner hears those doctrines, as he is accustomed, and uses those examples, which allure to casting off reverence for the Divinity and to corrupting morals, his labors and his substance must also fall apart. By trial and use it is evident that many workers live narrowly and miserably who, although they have work for a shorter time and more abundant wages, nevertheless live with corrupted morals and no discipline of religion. Remove from souls the sentiments which Christian wisdom inserts and cultivates; remove providence, modesty, thrift, patience, and the other right habits of nature: you will pursue prosperity in vain, even if you strive much. This plainly is the cause why we have never exhorted Catholic men to enter associations for preparing better things for the people, and similarly to introduce other institutions, without likewise warning that these things should proceed under the auspice of religion, and with it as helper and companion."

In this matter it is necessary today that priests assume as cooperators certain upright and pious laymen who burn with zeal for souls. For everywhere socialists, positivists, and rationalists daily strive with all their powers to spread their errors among the common people; and unless Catholic priests and laymen unite counsels, powers, and efforts, and provoke themselves by fraternal emulation to furnishing better things, it will be impossible successfully to resist the associated powers of adversaries, and to lead those wandering from the way of truth back to the right path.

But what sodalities are to be instituted, by what method, and by what rules they are to be governed, depends on various circumstances: a prudent priest, using the method of observation, will diligently survey and inspect those which have already flourished for some time in the same region, so that, taught by the experience of others, he may avoid rocks and proceed more safely: for rules must be adapted to the mind and traditions of places and persons.

The fruits and effects of charity, or the forms in which this virtue manifests itself, are, broadly speaking, the twelve so-called gifts of the Holy Ghost,¹ more especially joy and peace,² a desire to be made conformable to the will of God, and zeal for His holy cause.

¹ See Vol. I of this Handbook, pp. 280 sqq. Also W. F. Stadelman, C. S. Sp., Glories of the Holy Ghost, Techny, Ill., 1919, pp. 47 sqq. and G. H. Joyce, S. J., The Catholic Doctrine of Grace, pp. 94 sqq.

² John XV, 9–11; Rom. XIV, 17; 1 Cor. XIII, 4–7; Gal. V, 22 sqq.—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 28–29.—P. Bürger, Unterweisungen über die christliche Vollkommenheit, pp. 635, 642 sqq.

1. Joy in God (amor laetitiae) may be defined as pleasure in His presence, delight in contemplating His revelations, and the consciousness of being always an object of His omniscience and benevolent care.³

³ Cfr. Phil. I, 18; 3 John 4.—P. W. von Keppler (tr. by J. McSorley), More Joy, St. Louis 1914.—Seneca, Ep., 23, 4: “Believe me, true joy is a serious thing.”

“The joy of salvation,” says Bishop Keppler, “the joy of the Saviour, whether bleeding in victorious battle against the legions of evil, or risen again amid Easter alleluias, or gloriously ascended to Heaven and reigning there; the joy of the Holy Ghost; the vision of perfect future joy, the reward of Heaven,⁴—all this remained as a precious legacy to the disciples, and has become the precious legacy of every one who is united to the Saviour in faith and love. The inner experience of the Apostle testifies that ‘the kingdom of God is not meat and drink, but justice and peace and joy in the Holy Ghost.’⁵ He names joy second among the fruits of the spirit.⁶ He proclaims as the Christian law of life: ‘Rejoice in the Lord always; again, I say, rejoice.’⁷ and, ‘Let the peace of Christ rejoice in your hearts.’⁸ When the first Christian communities were organized, ‘breaking bread from house to house, they took their meat with gladness and simplicity of heart.’⁹ All the trouble, danger, and affliction which came upon the Christians in times of persecution could not cause anything more than a quasi-sadness in the midst of real permanent joy, ‘as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing.’¹⁰ During centuries of the most frightful and bloody persecution, amid pain and torment, in flames and funeral pyres, in rackings and scourgings, in the darkest depths of dungeons, this indestructible joy has always kept up its exultant song.”¹¹

⁴ Matt. XXV, 21; 1 Pet. I, 6–8.

⁵ Rom. XIV, 17.

⁶ Gal. V, 22.

⁷ Phil. IV, 4.

⁸ Col. III, 15.

⁹ Acts II, 46.

¹⁰ 2 Cor. IV, 10.

¹¹ Keppler-McSorley, More Joy, pp. 116 sq.

“The characteristic of all those who have attained to a perfect love of God,” says the most renowned of contemporary Dominican theologians, Fr. Albert M. Weiss, “is an exceptional and imperturbable happiness, a cheerfulness so surprising, so permanent, so frank and childlike, that the prejudiced children of this world are tempted to get vexed at it. . . . Whoever encounters souls of this kind, perceives from their very appearance that their condition does not depend on the world around them, but originates in their own spiritual depths. Their minds are not easily upset by storms, for their lives are built upon God, who is inaccessible to the disturbing influence of the elements. They have nought to fear from God; they are at peace with themselves. Why then, should they not be happy?”¹²

¹² A. M. Weiss, O.P., Apologie, Vol. III, 2nd ed., p. 831; Keppler-McSorley, op. cit., p. 122.

This joy in God and in divine things inspires reverence for His majesty (amor reverentialis). Freely does the faithful Christian acknowledge the majesty and sublimity of God, and gladly does he bow before Him,—not like a slave who dreads the lash, but like a child that confidently trusts in his father’s kindness. “Perfect charity casteth out fear, because fear hath pain, and he that feareth is not perfected in charity.”¹³

¹³ 1 John IV, 18.—St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps., 118, 25, n. 7: “Perfected charity casts out this fear, by which punishment is feared; it makes men free, not through fear of punishment, but through delight in justice. For that fear by which justice is not loved but punishment is feared is servile, because it is carnal, and therefore does not crucify the flesh. For the will to sin is alive, and appears in deed when impunity is hoped for. But when punishment is believed to follow, it lives hiddenly, yet it lives. For it would rather that what the law forbids were permitted, and it grieves that it is not permitted, because it does not spiritually delight in the law’s good, but carnally fears the evil which it threatens. But with chaste fear charity itself, which casts out this fear, fears to sin even if impunity should follow, because it does not judge that impunity will follow when, through love of justice, it regards sin itself as punishment.” (Migne, P. L., XXXVII, 1576).—IDEM, Serm., 161 (al. 18, De Verbis Apost.), n. 9: “Servile fear is that by which you fear to burn with the devil; chaste fear is that by which you fear to displease God.” (P. L., XXXVIII, 883).

To this childlike reverence is added gratitude (amor gratitudinis), which consists in the joyful acknowledgement of innumerable favors received from God without any merit of our own,¹⁴ and is combined with fear of all that runs counter to His will and regret for one’s own weakness, imperfection, and sinfulness (amor dolorosus). If a man’s individual faults are the object of this sorrow, it is called contrition; in all other cases, Christian sadness.¹⁵

¹⁴ 2 Cor. II, 14; Eph. V, 20; Col. III, 15, 17; 1 Thess. V, 18.

¹⁵ Matt. V, 5; Rom. XII, 15; 1 Cor. XIII, 6.—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 28, art. 2.

2. The tendency to conform one’s will to that of God (amor oboedientiae sive conformitatis) takes the form either of obedience or resignation, according to the manner in which the divine will manifests itself, namely, as a law or as a decree. Both obedience and resignation to the will of God must be universal and willingly rendered. However, it is no sin, but sometimes may be a proof of childlike charity, to desire that this or that particular decree of Providence be changed. Christ prayed on Mount Olivet: “My Father, if it be possible, let this chalice pass from me; nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt,”¹⁶—and we are allowed to follow His example.

¹⁶ Matt. XXVI, 39 sqq.

3. Zeal for the cause of God is such a necessary requirement of true charity that the latter cannot exist without the former. This zelus amoris consists mainly in an earnest endeavor to prevent others from offending God, or to induce them to embrace the true faith, or to do penance for their sins, or to lead a more perfect life. To be genuine, this zeal for souls must be free from egotistic motives, aim only at God and His glory, and employ no means except those which are legitimate in themselves or at least do not hinder the attainment of the end in view. This is but another way of saying that our zeal must be tempered with prudence and should never outrun the bounds of modesty and benevolence. Where these conditions are lacking, even the most ardent zeal is apt to injure rather than to help the cause of God.¹⁷

¹⁷ Ps. LXVIII, 10; Matt. XXIII, 15; Luke IX, 51 sqq.; John II, 17; Rom. X, 2; XII, 9; 2 Cor. XI, 2; Gal. I, 14; VI, 17 sq.; 2 Tim. I, 3; Jas. I, 21.—P. Chaignon, S. J., Le Ciel Ouvert par le Zéle, Angers 1882 (German tr. by M. Hoffmann, Der Seeleneifer, Mayence 1902).

Legitimate means for propagating the kingdom of God are instruction, example, and intercessory prayer. To these may be added almsgiving for the purpose of rendering the poor more receptive for good advice and example. Violence and compulsion are contrary to the spirit of Christianity and therefore forbidden.¹⁸

¹⁸ Epist. ad Diognet., c. 7, n. 3–5 (Funk, Patr. Apost., Vol. I, 2nd ed., p. 402): “Was it, as one might reckon concerning men, in tyranny and fear and terror? Certainly not, but in gentleness and meekness: as a king sending a royal son, He sent him; as God He sent him; as a man to men He sent him; as saving He sent him, as persuading, not compelling—for violence has no place with God. He sent him as calling, not pursuing; He sent him as loving, not judging.”—Tertullian, Apol., c. 24: “See that this too does not contribute to the charge of irreligion: to take away freedom of religion and forbid the choice of divinity, so that it is not permitted to me to worship whom I wish, but I am forced to worship whom I do not wish. No one will wish himself to be worshipped by an unwilling person, not even a man.” (Ed. E. F. Leopold, p. 1, 96).—IDEM, Ad Scap., c. 2: “It is a right of man and a power of nature for each one to worship what he has thought fit, nor does the religion of one harm or benefit another. But it is not the part of religion to compel religion, which ought to be undertaken voluntarily, not by force, since even sacrifices are demanded from a willing spirit.” (Ed. Leopold, p. 248).—A. Seitz, Die Heilsnotwendigkeit der Kirche, pp. 192 sqq.

READINGS.—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 1a 2ae, qu. 28.—F. W. Faber, The Creator and the Creature, Book III.—St. Francis de Sales, Traité de l’Amour de Dieu.—Ad. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol. Mor., Vol. II, pp. 419 sq.—Msgr. Gay, La Vie et les Vertus Chrétiennes, Paris 1876, Tr. XII.

Apart from the special duties imposed by one's vocation (for instance, as pastor, teacher, parent, etc.), every man has certain general duties with regard to the salvation of his fellowmen. These are dictated partly by charity and partly by justice, and are commonly known as spiritual works of mercy.¹ They are briefly:

¹ Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 32, art. 2: "Seven spiritual alms are set down, namely: to teach the ignorant, to counsel the doubtful, to console the sorrowful, to correct the sinner, to forgive the offender, to bear those who are burdensome and troublesome, and to pray for all; these are also contained in this verse: Counsel, chastise, console, forgive, bear, pray." The memorial verse referred to has another form, namely: "Consule, carpe, doce, solare, remitte, fer, ora."

I. THE DUTY OF PRAYING FOR OTHErs, both the Living and the Dead.—Through the Communion of Saints the faithful on earth, especially those who are in the state of sanctifying grace, have a share in all the Masses, prayers, and good works offered to God by the Militant Church and in turn can and should on their part aid the living as well as the poor souls in Purgatory by prayers, indulgences, alms, etc.,² especially by having the holy Sacrifice of the Mass offered for their benefit.³

² 2 Tim. I, 16–18.—St. Augustine, Serm., CLIX (al. XVII De Verb. Apost.), c. I, n. 1: "Prayer is offered for the other departed; for it is an injury to pray for a martyr, to whose prayers we ourselves ought to be commended." (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 868).—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, Suppl., qu. 71, art. 1–6.—Pohle-Preuss, Mariology, Pp. 142 sqq.; Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. II, PP. 376 sqq.

³ Pohle-Preuss, Eschatology, Pp. 92 sqg.; Noldin, Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. II, p. 159. * Matth. V, 16.

Christ exhorts His hearers: "Let your light shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father who is in heaven." * St. Paul admonishes the Romans: "Let every one of you please his neighbor unto good, to edification." ⁵ And the Corinthians: "Giving no offence to any man, that our ministry be not blamed, but in all things let us exhibit ourselves as the ministers of God, in much patience, in tribulation, in necessities, in distresses, in stripes, in prisons, in seditions, in labors, in watchings, in fastings, in chastity, in knowledge, in long-suffering, in sweetness, in the Holy Ghost, in charity unfeigned, in the word of truth, in the power of God."⁶ To the Thessalonians he writes: "Comfort one another, and edify one another." And to Timothy: "Let no man despise thy youth: but be thou an example of the faithful in word, , in conversation, in charity, in faith, in chastity." ⁸ This duty must be performed the more faithfully because, as experience teaches, the power of example is very strong. "Verba movent, exempla trahunt, Words move, but examples draw," says an ancient proverb. Equally wellknown perhaps is Seneca's famous saw:

⁵ Rom. XV, 2.

⁶ 2 Cor. VI, 3 sqq.: "Giving no offence to anyone, that our ministry be not blamed; but in all things let us exhibit ourselves as the ministers of God, in much patience, in tribulations, in necessities, in distresses, in stripes, in prisons, in seditions, in labors, in watchings, in fastings, in chastity, in knowledge, in long-suffering, in sweetness, in the Holy Ghost, in charity unfeigned, in the word of truth, in the power of God...." Cfr. C. J. Callan, O.P., The Epistles of St. Paul, Vol. I, N. Y. 1922, Pp. 506 sqq. 7 1 Thess. V, 11: "Comfort one another and edify one another."

⁸ I Tim. IV, 12: "Let no one despise your youth; but be an example to the faithful in word, in conduct, in charity, in faith, and in chastity."

"Longum iter per praecepta, breve et efficax per exempla, Long is the way through precept, but short and sure through example." Nor does the force of a good example depend entirely upon the station, or the social position, or the learning of him who gives it. On the contrary, every man, no matter how humble or illiterate, can and should promote the salvation of his fellowmen and the glory of God by giving a good example. Virtue must be practiced soberly, yet joyously and without pharisaic ostentation.⁹

According to the Acts of the Apostles, Christ first "began to do" and then "to teach." ¹⁰ He told His disciples: "I have given you an example, that as I have done to you, so you do also."¹¹ "Christ suffered for us," says St. Peter, "leaving you an example that you should foilow his steps." ¹² St. Paul exhorts the Corinthians:

⁹ Seneca, Epist., VI, 5: "The living voice and companionship will benefit you more than a discourse. You ought to come into the presence of the thing itself. First, because men trust their eyes more than their ears; then, because the road through precepts is long, but through examples short and effective."—Cfr. Tit. II, 7;

¹ Pet. II, 9, 12, 15; Matth. 6, 16; Phil. IV, 4.—Seneca, De Ira, l. II, c. 6, n. 2: "To rejoice and be glad is proper and natural to virtue; to be angry is not consistent with its dignity, any more than to mourn."

¹⁰ Acts I, 1.

¹¹ John XIII, 15.

¹² 1 Pet. II, 21.

"Be ye followers of me, as I also am of Christ." ¹³ Aside from its inherent power, confirmed by innumerable miracles,¹⁴ Christianity owed its rapid spread mainly to the good example given by its followers, particularly to the heroism of the martyrs, who courageously laid down their lives for the faith.¹⁵ "A good example," says the famous Jesuit pulpiteer, Francis Hunolt,¹⁶ "is like a big clock in a church-tower, by which all other clocks and watches of the neighborhood are regulated." Schiller says: "Words will not avail much where deeds do not speak."

¹³ 1 Cor. XI, 1.

¹⁴ Mark XVI, 20.

¹⁵ Tertullian, Apol., c. 50: "We become more numerous whenever we are mown down by you; the blood of Christians is seed." (Ed. Leopold, P. I, p. 128).

¹⁶ On Hunolt, see the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, pp. 562 sqg.

Utility and Order of Speaking. - Under this title are explained the daily offices by which, in the evangelical law, brother is ordered and counseled to help brother in necessities both spiritual and bodily and temporal. There follow questions on exhortation and fraternal correction, on edification and scandal; finally on cooperation toward a good and evil action of neighbor. Both the multitude and the importance of matters of daily use ought to make the attention of the moral theologian solicitous. But it will be of the greatest profit to him to know well what necessities press neighbor today, how much the precept of alms is to be urged concerning things which, as to use, ought to remain common, and by what principles cases on cooperation are to be solved. We have at the same time indicated what order of speaking we shall follow.

S. Th. II-II, q. 31.

924. Beneficence is nothing other than to do good to someone. But this is an external act or effect of charity: for dilection includes benevolence, since he who loves a friend as himself wills good to him as to himself; but the will effects those things which it wills when it can; therefore beneficence follows from the act of dilection and benevolence as an effect.

To do good, which is an act of charity, is to do good considered under the common character of good, insofar as it is good. But if the good which someone does for another is considered under a special character of good, for example, insofar as it is due, or gratuitous, or relieving misery, thus beneficence pertains to a special virtue, for example, of justice, or of liberality, or of mercy.

Beneficence is not a special virtue, for it has the same object (and motive) as dilection and benevolence (good under the character of good), of which it is the external executive act. Namely, beneficence and benevolence do not differ except as an interior act and an exterior act, because beneficence is the execution of benevolence. An interior and exterior act do not require diverse virtues.

925. Good must be done to all. - Since the dilection of charity extends itself to all, good also must be done to all, without exception, yet according to place and time. For it is not possible to do good to all in particular; nevertheless man ought always, in preparation of soul, to be ready to do good to whomsoever if the time should be present. Yet among them order is to be preserved, so that good is to be done more to those who are more proximate to us or are placed in greater necessity.

When beneficence is concerned with the necessity or misery of another, it is called corporal or spiritual almsgiving. Hence:

After Charity shall have diminished within the concupiscence and cupidity, it pours itself forth outwardly by doing good; for since it seeks not its own, but by a noble exchange turns the miseries of others into its own happiness, it is wholly devoted to benefits, and is especially occupied with corporal relief through Almsgiving, or spiritual instruction through fraternal correction.

Beneficence is a certain execution of the internal and elicited act of Charity toward another.

That this is the proper act of Charity the Theologians teach.

It is proved by D. Thom. art. 1 and 4, and D. Bonavent. here; for the external act, by which the interior act of some virtue is made efficacious and brought to execution, pertains to the same virtue as the internal act, inasmuch as both acts regard the same reason of the object. It is confirmed by Valencia with D. Bonaventure from that passage of 1 John 3: let us not love in word, but in deed and in truth, where he sufficiently indicates that to do good itself is to love efficaciously, and consequently to be an act of Charity.

From this doctrine the Seraphic Doctor gathers that one must do good to all according to place and time, just as all are to be loved, as D. Thom. also teaches art. 2, and the Apostle in Galat. 6: Let us work good toward all, but especially toward the household of the faith.

Hence he also deduces that one must do good to individuals in the same order in which individuals are to be loved by the order of Charity; and consequently we must first do good to those more closely joined to us, as I said disp. 8, quaest. 40.

Valencia moreover warns disp. 3, quaest. 8, puncto unico that prudence must be exercised in this matter.