Inconstancy

IV. The daughters of lust are eight, four on the part of the intellect and four on the part of the will, namely:

1. Blindness of mind: when someone is so addicted to foulness that he does not think about heavenly things.

2. Precipitation: by which someone, from the same cause, i.e., from affection toward pleasures, acts without counsel.

3. Inconsideration: when he sins in the manner, inconsiderately doing things which are unbecoming to his state or person.

4. Inconstancy: when someone, from the same affection for pleasures, soon falls away from pious resolutions.

5. Self-love. For such a man, on account of pleasures, makes himself, not God, the end of his actions.

6. Hatred of God. For the lascivious man is accustomed to abhor divine things, indeed God Himself, as the avenger of sins.

7. Affection for the present age. For love of carnal pleasures so affects the soul that at times it would even be prepared to renounce eternal blessedness, if it were permitted always to enjoy present things.

8. Horror of the future age: "when, immersed in pleasures, one inordinately fears death, and not wishing to think about it, strives to prolong life by illicit means, etc." (St. Alphonsus, V, 71).

VI. Opposed Vices. Vices opposed to prudence are some by defect, others by excess.

1. Vices by defect are called by the common name of imprudence, and they are four: precipitation, inconsideration, inconstancy, and negligence.

a) Precipitation is directly opposed to eubulia, and by it man is borne to acting by an impulse of will or passion, sufficient counsel of reason being omitted (cf. St. Thomas, II-II, q. 53, a. 3).

b) Inconsideration is a vice by which man is inclined to contemning or neglecting those things from which right judgment proceeds; and therefore synesis and gnome are opposed to it (cf. St. Thomas, II-II, q. 53, a. 4).

c) Inconstancy is a vice inclining one to withdraw from a defined good proposal; by it reason fails in commanding those things which right counsel and right judgment dictate must be commanded. Hence it is directly opposed to prudence (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 53, a. 5).

d) Negligence is a vice by which man is inclined to neglecting right command, through a defect of solicitude and promptness of will; for this reason it too is directly opposed to prudence (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 54, a. 2, corpus and ad 3; ibid., a. 1).

From these points it is clear that imprudence has under itself as many species as there are potential parts of the virtue of prudence (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 53, a. 2). St. Thomas alleges lust as the origin of these vices (II-II, q. 53, a. 6). But imprudence considered in this way constitutes a special sin, because it is contrarily opposed to the virtue of prudence; and just as prudence is a special virtue, so also its contrary is a special sin. But if by the name of imprudence there is indicated not so much the contrary as the lack of prudence, imprudence does not constitute a special sin, but rather a general one, insofar, namely, as it participates in the nature of the sin which is committed against that virtue for whose exercise the act of prudence was being commanded. "For just as prudence is in some way participated in all virtues, insofar as it directs them, so also imprudence is in all vices and sins; for no sin can happen unless there is a defect in some act of reason directing, which pertains to imprudence" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 53, a. 2).

2. Vices by excess have some likeness with prudence itself, but they apply its offices to an undue object, namely to a dishonorable matter; hence they bear before themselves a false species of prudence. These vices are: prudence of the flesh or of the world, craftiness, guile, fraud, excessive solicitude for temporal things, and excessive solicitude for future things.

a) Prudence of the flesh or of the world is a vice "according as someone has the goods of the flesh as the ultimate end of his life" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 1); and it obtained this name because "prudence is concerned with those things which are toward the end of the whole of life" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 2).

b) Craftiness is a vice by which someone, "for attaining some end, whether good or evil, uses not true ways, but simulated and apparent ones" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 3).

c) Guile is the execution of those things which craftiness thinks out, whether it is done by words or by deeds; and therefore it pertains to craftiness (cf. St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, aa. 4 and 5).

d) Fraud differs from guile in this, "that guile pertains universally to the execution of craftiness, whether it is done by words or by deeds; but fraud more properly pertains to the execution of craftiness insofar as it is done by deeds" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 5).

e) Excessive solicitude for temporal things is had either by seeking temporal things as an end, the spiritual end being excluded; or when superfluous effort is applied to procuring them, "on account of which man is drawn back from spiritual things, which he ought principally to serve" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 6); or when "someone fears that, by doing what he ought, necessary things will fail him" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 6).

f) Excessive solicitude for future things is had when someone is solicitous about future things before the opportune time (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 7).

St. Thomas assigns avarice as the principal source of these vices (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55, a. 8).

The Sin of Inconstancy.—The sin of changeableness or inconstancy is committed when, owing to anger, jealousy or other inordinate passion, the reason repudiates things that had been rightly decided on and fails to act on judgments that had been rightly made (Is., xxxvii. 3). From inconstancy result incontinence (i.e., instability in the face of pleasure) and effeminacy (i.e., instability in the face of sadness).

What is prudence, what are its parts, and what vices are opposed to it? R. To the first. It is a certain special virtue of the practical intellect, by which in any business occurring we know what is honorable, what shameful. And thus prudence is the right reason of things to be done, or the virtue rightly ordering those things which are toward the end of the whole of life. But every virtue is in the mean; the mean is to do those things which virtue commands, when one ought, where one ought, as one ought; and accordingly the office of prudence is to find a mean of this sort, which is one thing as a mean of reason, another as a mean of the thing. - The acts of prudence are: 1. To take counsel, namely by inquiring what means and what circumstances are necessary, so that the work may be done honorably. 2. To judge concerning the things found, i.e., after diligent consideration, to conclude what is to be done, in what way, in what place and time, and with what other circumstances. 3. To command, namely by prescribing what and when it is to be done, by applying to operation those things which have been counseled and judged. 4. To operate solicitously the things commanded. For solicitude is that moderated speed by which, by the cleverness and vigilance of the soul, that which has been consulted and defined is quickly committed to execution.

Hence a precept of prudence is not given by reason of itself, but only by reason of another thing, namely of a virtue to be exercised and a sin to be avoided. Therefore as all precepts pertain to prudence, because it is directive of all virtuous acts, so universal Moral Theology pertains to prudence, and especially the treatise on Conscience; since the whole of Moral Theology and the aforesaid treatise in particular hand down rules so that we may act prudently and rightly. S. Th. 1. 2. q. 64; 2. 2. q. 47; q. 56.

R. To the second. The integral parts of prudence, which concur toward its perfect act, are: 1. Memory, which is knowledge of past things. For since experience is required for prudent persons, and experience is from many memories, the memory of many things is required for prudence. 2. Understanding or intelligence, not as it is a certain power, but as it is a certain right estimation of some ultimate principle. For every deduction of reason is from some principle, and prudence is the right reason of things to be done. 3. Docility, by which someone is prompt and easy in receiving instruction from others and acquiring knowledge from them. For prudence consists about particular things to be done, which someone cannot always know all by himself alone. 4. Shrewdness, which is an easy and prompt conjecturing, by which, when something occurs unexpectedly, someone quickly by himself finds what is fitting. 5. Reason. For it belongs to a prudent man to be good at taking counsel; but counsel is a certain inquiry proceeding from certain things to others, which is the work of reason. 6. Foresight, which imports a respect of something distant, or future, to which those things which occur in the present are to be ordered. Therefore foresight is the right ordering of suitable means to the end, and accordingly includes rectitude of counsel, judgment, and command. 7. Circumspection, by which that which is ordered to the end is compared with the things which surround it, and therefore is an accurate consideration of all circumstances. For something is good in itself and fitting to the end, which nevertheless, from certain concurrent things, is rendered either evil or not opportune to the end. 8. Caution, which is consideration of evils and extrinsic impediments, through which it happens that they are avoided, lest good be impeded by evil, lest evil be mixed with good. Of these eight parts, the first five pertain to prudence according as it is cognitive; but the three later according as it is preceptive, applying knowledge to work. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 49.

The subjective parts of prudence are: 1. Prudence simply so called, which is ordered to one's own good. 2. Royal prudence, which is the prudence of the king himself, which rules a city or kingdom. For it belongs to prudence to rule and fittingly to command. And therefore to the king, to whom it pertains to rule a city or kingdom, a more special prudence belongs. For a rule is so much the more perfect, the more universal it is, extending itself to more things and reaching a further end beyond itself. 3. Political prudence, and this is that by which men rule themselves in obeying Princes in order to the common good of the city or kingdom. 4. Economic prudence, by which men direct themselves toward living well according to domestic intercourse, for the common good of the house or family. 5. Military prudence, by which harms from enemies are repelled. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 47, aa. 10, 11, 12; q. 48, 50.

The potential parts of prudence are: 1. Eubulia, or the virtue of taking counsel well, whose office is to suggest good counsel. 2. Synesis, which is the virtue of judging well concerning particular things to be done, according to common rules. 3. Gnome, which is the virtue of judging about things to be done beyond common principles; and consequently it imports a certain perspicacity of judgment. These parts are potential parts of prudence, because the principal act of prudence is to command execution, to which taking counsel well and judging well are directed. S. Th. 1. 2. q. 57, aa. 4-6; 2. 2. q. 48; q. 51.

R. To the third. Imprudence is opposed to prudence. It is either such privatively, or contrarily. "But negatively it is not properly so called, namely so that it properly imports only the lack of prudence, which can be without sin. Privatively, indeed, imprudence is so called insofar as someone lacks prudence which he is naturally apt and ought to have; and according to this, imprudence is a sin by reason of negligence, by which someone does not apply effort to having prudence. But contrarily imprudence is taken according as reason is moved or acts in a contrary mode to prudence; for instance, if the right reason of prudence acts by taking counsel, the imprudent person spurns counsel; and so concerning the other things which must be considered in the act of prudence. And in this way imprudence is sin according to the proper account of prudence. For this cannot happen, that man acts against prudence, except by turning aside from the rules by which the reason of prudence is rectified. Hence, if this happens by aversion from divine rules, it is a mortal sin; for instance when someone, as if contemning and repudiating divine documents, acts precipitately. But if he acts beside them without contempt and without detriment of those things which are of the necessity of salvation, it is a venial sin." S. Th. 2. 2. q. 53, a. 1.

Generally speaking, every sin is against prudence, as follows from the very nature of prudence and imprudence. But specifically one sins against prudence by excess and by defect. By defect: by precipitation, inconsideration, inconstancy, negligence. By excess, or rather by a certain species of prudence: by prudence of the flesh, cunning, deceit, fraud, solicitude about temporal things, solicitude about future things.

Precipitation is that which, some end having been proposed, immediately undertakes the work, or at least judges concerning the means and mode of executing it, deliberation being omitted, against the office of prudence to take counsel. It is not grave except by reason of the danger of grave sin. - Inconsideration is that which judges while diligent inspection of things from which right judgment proceeds has been omitted, against the office of prudence to judge well. Likewise it is not grave except by reason of the danger of grave sin. - Inconstancy is that by which, without just cause, one's opinion is changed, and one contemns commanding those things which according to right reason had previously been judged and proposed, against firmness of judgment. It is not grave unless from some extrinsic circumstance, e.g., of scandal, precept, vow, someone is bound to persist in the opinion. - Negligence is that which imports defect of due solicitude, and omits to commit to execution at the opportune time a thing deliberated and judged, against the vigilance of reason in executing. It is not grave except in a grave matter.

Prudence of the flesh is that which thinks out suitable means for accomplishing the works of the flesh, so that one may follow the instinct and motions of corrupted flesh. The sin is grave or light by reason of the depraved affection, grave or light, which underlies it. Under prudence of the flesh is comprehended the prudence of the age and of the world, because we also desire the exterior things of the world on account of the flesh. - Cunning generally is the manner of doing something in a hidden mode. But here it is taken specifically for knowledge of depraved means suitable for deceiving, joined with an affection of executing them. It has place in those things which regard the neighbor. For no one hides something from himself. Therefore cunning is a sin by which someone uses not true ways, but false and simulated ways, for obtaining some end, whether good or evil. It is a grave or light sin according to the account of the affection which underlies it, and the harm which follows for the neighbor. - Deceit is the execution of cunning, whether by words or deeds; for it is a general name. Therefore deceit is the assumption of ways that are not true, but simulated and apparent ways, according to the execution of the work. It differs from cunning because cunning is the assumption of ways of this sort, not in execution, but only in the thinking out of them. Fraud is the execution of cunning through deeds, as when someone spends adulterated coin, and is something more restricted than deceit. Deceit and fraud are used especially in contracts, and they are a grave or light sin according to grave or light harm of neighbor. Concerning fraud and deceit the Rules of Law are: "Fraud and deceit ought to patronize no one," C. Ex tenore 16, de Rescr.; "Fraud is not done to him who knows and consents," L. Nemo de Reg. Iur.

Solicitude about temporal things is excessive occupation of mind, proceeding from inordinate love of having, or fear of losing. For solicitude imports a certain effort applied to obtaining something. - Solicitude about future things is excessive occupation of soul concerning future things, especially so that the necessities of life may be had, joined with anxiety and little confidence in Providence. Each solicitude is a grave or light sin, according as by it someone is prepared to violate a precept in a grave or light matter. S. Th. 2. 2. qq. 53-55; Theol. Wirceb., de Virt. Card. de Prud.

St. Thomas, II-II, q. 53 and 54.

36. Imprudence is taken 1. negatively, for the mere absence of prudence, and thus it can be without sin, as is clear in children; 2. privatively, for the lack of prudence which someone can and ought to have, and thus it is an indirectly voluntary sin, by reason of negligence or omission, because someone does not sufficiently strive to have prudence; nevertheless it is not a special sin but a general one, that is, any sin whatever or the condition of every sin: for it is included in every sin, since none occurs without defect in the act of directing reason; 3. contrarily, for imprudence directly and in itself intended, by which, namely, reason is directly moved and acts against prudence, by despising and repudiating counsel (judgment, command) of reason or divine rules; which rarely occurs. This is a special sin of commission according to the proper notion of prudence, mortal from its genus, and therefore to be declared in confession if there is grave contempt of divine rules; otherwise it is venial.

1. Cf. q. 53, a. 2, and q. 51, a. 1, ad 3. Hence it seems to be a sin of omission, although some, such as Cajetan, say that it is reduced to commission; but this is a question of name. It is a sin against the affirmative precept of prudence; this is not a special precept but a general one; whence that is a general sin, not by essence insofar as it is predicated of every sin, but by participation insofar as it is included in every sin, just as in every sin there is that it is against charity of God and of oneself.

2. It is a sin of commission against the negative precept of not contemning divine counsels and rules; special, because directly and in itself voluntary, just as to will the rectitude of prudence is a special act of virtue. Several, such as Lessius and generally the Jesuits who copy him, say that imprudence is venial from its genus and only mortal per accidens; whence precipitation and inconsideration are only mortal by reason of the danger of mortal sin; inconstancy only if someone is bound by vow or precept to persist in a judgment, or from something extrinsic, for example because of scandal; negligence only if that is omitted which obliges under mortal sin or if there is danger of mortal sin. Their reason is that the defect of prudence alone, without defect of another virtue, is defect in the act of reason alone, which is not great: for the rectitude of reason is not sought for its own sake, but on account of the work to be directed; thus perversity is to be estimated from the work which follows.

But no defect of practical reason exists alone; therefore always and per se there is present the defect of another virtue, just as prudence alone is also never exercised, but always together with some other virtue, which consequently is the proper matter of prudence; and therefore the defect of prudence is not mortal per accidens, but per se and from its genus, because a great defect in another virtue is a defect in the proper matter of prudence. Otherwise prudence, which is called the virtue most necessary (I-II, q. 57, a. 5), would oblige only under slight sin!

They object a) the example of a lie, which of itself is venial. But this does not prove the point, because a lie can exist without injury to another virtue.

b) They also allege St. Thomas, who, q. 54, a. 3, says that negligence is mortal either by reason of necessity for salvation or by reason of the cause: both per accidens, because not only the sin of imprudence distinct in species is considered, but at the same time with the work which is omitted from negligence, and this is per accidens. But this is false: negligence is always considered with the omitted work, and thus it is considered according to itself, because the work to be placed is the proper matter of prudence. And even if it were true concerning negligence, it would not yet be true concerning imprudence: the former is by omission, the latter by commission.

37. Various species of imprudence. - Imprudence is divided into various species:

1. By opposition to the annexed virtues and the diverse acts of reason, there is distinguished

a) against counsel and eubulia: precipitation (overhaasting, voorbarig oordeel), by which, with the various modes of inquiry neglected and necessary things to be considered passed over, someone through impulse of will or passion immediately undertakes the work or judges concerning the means of executing it. Whence there is a defect in the inquiry of reason, insofar as reason does not descend in an ordered way to the execution of the work through means according to the required grades, which are five integral parts, namely memory of past things, understanding of present things, shrewdness in considering future events, docility by which someone acquiesces in the judgments of elders, and reasoning comparing one thing with another: for when all these, or several of them, are neglected, there is disorder of counsel. But if this happens from contempt of counsel, it is called temerity (vermetelheid);

b) against judgment and synesis and gnome: inconsideration (onbedachtzaamheid, onbezonnenheid), by which someone, with diligent inspection omitted, contemns or neglects to attend to those things from which right judgment proceeds; whence there is a defect in the judgment of the practical intellect;

c) against command and prudence properly so called: inconstancy (wankelmoedigheid, onbestendigheid, onstandvastigheid), which is a retreat from a good established proposal, whereby reason, because of slight motives, and without any cause or without a just cause, repudiates what it had before rightly dictated;

d) against solicitude (watchfulness in executing), required for prudence strictly so called and for command: negligence (nalatigheid).

2. By opposition to the integral parts required in prudence. But because all those are ordered to directing the aforesaid three acts of reason, concerning which under 1, thence the opposed imprudences are reduced to the sins enumerated above.

3. By opposition to the diverse species of prudence, it is divided into personal, regnative, political, economic, and military imprudence.

1. Cf. q. 53, a. 4, ad 2: "Consideration of those things which are attended to in counsel is ordered to judging rightly. And therefore consideration is perfected in practical judgment. Whence also inconsideration is most of all opposed to the rectitude of judgment."

38. The cause of imprudence. - Precipitation, inconsideration, and inconstancy arise especially from luxury, which most of all impedes the use of reason, because it absorbs the soul and draws it to sensible delight, while the perfection of intellectual virtue consists in abstraction from sensible things. And although envy, anger, avarice, ambition, etc., also draw reason away to something else, luxury extinguishes the very judgment of reason.

39. Negligence is taken in two ways: 1. generally, for the omission of any due act whatever, and thus it is not opposed to prudence but to the virtue in whose matter it is concerned, for example, negligence in counsel, in restitution, or in prayer is opposed to eubulia, justice, or religion; 2. for the defect of solicitude in commanding efficaciously, required, namely, in the act of reason for exciting and directing the will in the execution of the work; and thus it is opposed to prudence strictly so called: namely, it is an act of reason not commanding when it ought or in the way in which it ought. Therefore it differs from inconstancy: this latter is from weakness of reason which does not hold itself firmly in the good proposal conceived, and denotes lightness of soul in a judgment once prudently received. On the contrary, negligence is the omission of judgment and command: reason is deficient in commanding the things which were counseled and judged.

Negligence can be a mortal sin (Prov. XIX, 16): a) per se, on the part of that which is neglected, if it is something of the necessity of salvation; b) per accidens, on the part of the cause, if it comes from a mortally evil will, for example from perfect contempt. Otherwise it is venial, as if it is concerned with something small, and comes from defect of fervor.

40. Observation. - Billuart notes from St. Thomas: Negligence strictly is distinguished from omission, sloth, torpor, and inconstancy. Negligence consists in the defect of an interior act of reason not commanding what it ought or in the way in which it ought. Omission properly pertains to an exterior act; sloth and torpor to execution, yet in such a way that sloth imports slowness in executing, while torpor imports a certain remissness in execution. Finally the inconstant man is deficient in commanding as if impeded by something; the negligent man, through defect of prompt will (q. 54, a. 2, ad 1, 2, 3). For "negligence comes from a certain remissness of the will, through which it happens that reason is not solicited to command those things which it ought, or in the way in which it ought" (a. 3).

INCONSTANCY is a cessation from that decree of Prudence which ought to have been continued; or the reprobation of it, as D. Thomas says. Therefore it is opposed to the essential act of Prudence, which is right practical judgment about persevering in the purpose.

HENCE Inconstancy is defined: A light passage from one purpose to another, as is drawn from D. Bonavent. 3. p. Centiloquii, cap. 43.; wherefore aptly by similitude of the Leopard's defects, the inconstant man, with D. Bernard in serm. Gilleberti, serm. 29.: Man is like the Leopard, unlike himself, a man various and inconstant, straightway changing his counsels. For by the variety of colors, As it were the Leopard wills; and wills not, as is said in the same place.

INCONSTANCY differs from Impseverance in this; that this is a discontinuation from the due end, proposing another to itself; that from the purpose undertaken, choosing another thing; but both are adverse to prudence, dictating that one must persevere in the good and remain in the purpose, according to more and less.

THIS, by opposition to Constancy, has three degrees, as is gathered from the Seraphic Doctor de Gradibus virtutum, cap. 14. The first is, when someone is stricken from what he has begun by the praise, or indeed the blame of good men: The second, when someone is easily seduced by the praise or adulation of Players, or of evil men: The third is when someone is moved from a good purpose by mockery, or by any other light cause; These inconstancies are noticed especially in heretics, who, lacking the Anchor of Hope, and consequently the helm of infused prudence, are easily carried about by every wind; far from these went Job cap. 27., who, as much caressed by the adulation of prosperity as buffeted by the storms of adversity, prudently answered his friends: The justification which I began to hold, I will not abandon, as the Seraphic Doctor notes, ubi supra: Of Inconstancy D. Greg. speaks most excellently, cited by D. Bonau. in Pharetra lib. 3. cap. 5.: While the heart in adversities hopes for prosperity; in prosperities it fears adversity, hither and thither it is rolled by certain waves, and is turned about by the mutability of the various modes of alternating things.