The Old Law and the New

Besides the natural law, there are certain positive precepts which God has imposed on mankind. These are known to us from the manifestation of the divine will which we have in revelation, and especially in the Old and New Testament. Theologians divide the positive laws of the Old Testament into ceremonial, judicial, and moral precepts, The ceremonial precepts had reference to the system of religious worship established by God under the Old Law, the judicial regulated the civil polity of the chosen people of God, and when the old dispensation gave place to the new at the coming of our Lord both ceased to have binding force. Our Lord, however, by no means abolished the moral precepts contained in the Old Law; on the contrary, he promulgated them anew and perfected them.

In the New Law of Christ there are no new moral precepts except such as follow from the truths of faith which our Lord made known to us, and from the institution of the sacraments. We are under moral obligation to believe explicitly in the Blessed Trinity and in the Incarnation, as well as in other articles of the Christian faith. We are bound to receive the holy Eucharist and other sacraments instituted by Christ. But besides such as these, it is the common teaching of theologians that the Christian dispensation contains no new moral precepts. If our Lord called his precept of love new, he did not mean that the great commandment did not bind under the Old Law, but only that he urged it anew, gave us new motives to practise it, and especially his own divine example and wish. He also corrected some false interpretations of the moral law, which were current among the Jews of his time; he developed what was implicitly contained in the moral precepts of the Decalogue, and he added to the precepts counsels of great perfection, which he proposed as the ideal of the Christian life, but which he did not command all to follow under pain of sin. In moral theology we abstain as a rule from treating of what concerns perfection; it is our task to distinguish between what is sinful and what is not, for the use of the confessor in the sacred tribunal of Penance.

The law of Christ is meant not for a particular nation, but for all men. Christ commanded his followers to preach to the whole world, to teach all men to observe whatsoever he had commanded, and the new dispensation was not to be merely temporary, like the old, but it was to last to the end of time.¹

¹ Matt. xxviii 19.

The Law of the New Testament.—This is the special law given by God through Christ to the whole world, and which endures till the end of time. Its character will be understood most readily from a comparison of it with the Law of the Old Testament.

(a) In both Testaments grace and the Holy Spirit are given through faith in Christ (the internal law), and doctrines, commandments and ceremonies are prescribed (the external law). But, whereas the Old Testament is principally a law of works, the New Testament is principally a law of faith (Rom., iii, 27); the former is concerned mostly with the external conduct, the latter regulates, not only actions, but also the internal movements of the soul, of which faith is the first.

(b) In both Testaments men are justified and saved through faith and works (Heb, xi., 39; Rom., i. 16), and not through the external written law or the letter. But it is only through Christ, the author of the New Law, that men are enabled to perform what the law requires: “The law was given by Moses; grace and truth came by Jesus Christ” (John, i. 17).

Comparison of the Two Testaments from Other Viewpoints.—(a) The aim of both Laws is to secure obedience to God and holiness for man. But the New Testament, since given to those who were better prepared and more perfect, unveils more clearly the mysteries of faith, enjoins more perfect works, and supplements the Commandments with counsels of perfection (cfr. the Sermon on the Mount).

(b) Both Laws make use of threats, promises and persuasion in order to move men to obedience. But, as the Old Law was for those who were spiritually but children, it dwells especially on the punishments to be meted out to transgressors and the external rewards that will be given to the obedient (the law of fear); whereas the New Law, being for those who are spiritually mature, holds out as inducements chiefly the love of virtue and rewards that are internal and spiritual (the law of love).

(c) The author of both laws is God. But, while the Old Law was announced through God’s servants as the preparatory dispensation, the New Law was proclaimed by the Son of God Himself as the final economy of human salvation: “God, who at sundry times spoke in times past to the fathers by the prophets, last of all in these days hath spoken to us by His Son, whom He hath appointed heir of all things” (Heb, ii. 1).

Differences in the Precepts of the Two Laws.—(a) There is no opposition between the commandments of the two Laws; for the ceremonial and judicial precepts of the Old Law, which contained figure and prophecy, are fulfilled in the precepts of Christ, while the moral laws of the Old Testament are confirmed and perfected by the moral laws of Christ: “I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill” (Matt., v. 17).

(b) There is no substantial difference between the faith and works of the two Testaments. For, that which is now believed explicitly and clearly, was believed implicitly and in figure in the Old Testament, and the greater things that now are commanded were contained germinally in the precepts of the Old Law.

The Old and the New Law Compared as to Difficulty.—(a) If we consider the difficulty that arises from the fulfillment of external works, the Old Law was much more difficult. For while the Law of Moses imposed numerous and complicated ceremonies and observances, the Law of Christ commands but few and simple rites. Of the Old Law St. Peter says that it was a yoke, “which neither our fathers nor we have been able to bear” (Acts, xv. 10)—that is, it was extremely burdensome; but of His own Law Christ says: “My yoke is sweet, and My burden light” (Matt, xi. 30). Even the additions made by Christ to the Old Law (e.g., the prohibition against divorce) really facilitate that which the Old Law itself intended—viz., the perfection of man. Hence, the Old Law is the law of servitude; the New Law, the law of liberty.

(b) If we consider the difficulty that arises from internal works, or the dispositions and motives with which precepts are to be fulfilled, the New Law is more difficult; for it inculcates a loftier piety and gives more attention to the spirit with which God is to be worshipped. But, since love is the all-inclusive commandment of Christ, and since gladness and fervor are easy to the lover, the commandments of Christ “are not heavy” (I John, v. 3).

The External Works Commended by Christ.—(a) Since the New Law is the law of grace, it commands only those things by which we are brought to grace, or by means of which we make use of grace already received. We receive grace only through Christ, and hence there are commandments regarding the Sacraments; we make right use of grace by faith that worketh through charity, and hence there are the precepts of the Decalogue to be kept.

(b) Since the New Law is the law of liberty, it does not determine the details of the moral law, nor prescribe minutely how we must worship God and observe justice to others, as was done in the ceremonial and judicial laws of the Old Testament. Minor dispositions of this kind have no necessary relation to internal grace, being morally indifferent. Hence, Christ left many things free, to be determined later according to conditions, either by the individual (in personal matters) or by the spiritual or temporal authority (in matters of public concern). It is contrary to the spirit of the Gospel, however, that mankind should be oppressed with numerous and burdensome observances.

The Internal Works Commanded by Christ.—In the Sermon on the Mount were given the commandments of the New Law that summarize the entire duty of the Christian as to his internal acts: “Everyone that heareth these My words, and doeth them, shall be likened to a wise man that built his house upon a rock” (Matt., vii. 24). Thus, there are: (a) internal acts commanded as regards our own wills and purposes (we must avoid not only external, but also internal sins and the occasions of sin; we must not only do good, but we must have a good motive, not placing our end in human applause or riches); (b) internal acts commanded as regards our neighbor (we must not judge him rashly, unjustly, presumptuously; nor must we trust him imprudently); (c) interior dispositions with which we must perform our duties (we must avoid inordinate cares, imploring and expecting the divine assistance; but we must also avoid carelessness, having our minds set on the narrow way, and eschewing seductions).

The Teaching of Christ on the Three Classes of Precepts: Moral, Ceremonial and Judicial.—(a) As regards the moral precepts (i.e., the Decalogue or Natural Law), not one jot or tittle was to pass away. But so little was the soul of these precepts then recognized that Christ gave a new commandment of love, by which His followers were to be known; and He reduced the whole law to the two commandments of love of God and love of our neighbor.

(b) As regards the ceremonial precepts (i.e., the forms of Jewish worship), these were to be superseded. Christ declared the manner in which God was to be worshipped, namely, in spirit and in truth. He instituted the Sacrifice of the New Testament, appointed the ritual of the Sacraments (e.g., of Baptism and the Eucharist), and taught a form of prayer which was to be used by His disciples. Other things He left to be determined by the Church.

(c) As regards the judicial precepts (i.e., the civil laws of the theocratic nation), these ceased to be necessary with the coming of Christ, whose Kingdom is spiritual and with whom there is no distinction of Jew or Gentile, since His law is for all. In fact, with the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, foretold by Christ, both the Temple worship and the separate national life of Israel came to an end. In correcting the false interpretations which the Pharisees put upon various judicial precepts of their law (e.g., in showing them that the law of retaliation and the law that public enemies should be put to death did not authorize revenge and hatred), Christ indicated the spirit that should animate all civil laws, namely, love of justice. He left it to the wisdom of future lawgivers to apply the rule of justice to the relations between man and man, nation and nation, as circumstances would require.

The precepts by which Christ established the primacy of the Pope and the hierarchy may be called judicial. But the details of this constitution He left the Church to determine.

The Duration of the Law of Christ.—(a) The Beginning.—The New Law was given through the revelation made by Christ and the Holy Ghost to the Apostles; it was ratified at the Last Supper and in the death of Christ, when the New Testament was proclaimed and the Old Testament came to an end; it was promulgated, first at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, and later throughout the world by the preaching of the Apostles.

(b) The End.—The Law of Christ continues till the end of time; for this generation—that is, this last period of world history under the Christian dispensation—shall not end until Christ returns to judge mankind; “Behold, I am with you all days, even unto the consummation of the world” (Matt., xxviii. 20).

The Subjects of the Law of Christ.—(a) The Law of Christ is for all: “Going, therefore, teach ye all nations. teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you” (Matt., xxviii. 19).

(b) The Law of Christ does not oblige all in the same way. Those outside Christianity are obliged directly by the commands to believe and to be baptized. Christians are obliged directly by the laws of faith and works accepted in Baptism.

Ignorance of the Law of Christ.-(a) Outsiders may be in invincible ignorance of the Law of Christ. For many persons through no fault of their own, in times past or even today, have not heard the Gospel message: “How shall they believe Him of whom they have not heard?” (Rom, x. 14).

(b) Christians may be in invincible ignorance of the Law of Christ. For, just as want of a preacher causes a pagan to be invincibly ignorant of the necessity of Baptism, so a lack of instruction in Christian doctrine might leave a baptized person inculpably ignorant (e.g., of the duty of receiving the Eucharist).

Dispensation from the Law of Christ.—(a) Its Possibility.—It cannot be denied that Christ could have dispensed from the positive precepts of His law, either directly or through His Church; for those precepts depend on His will, and, like every other legislator, He can relax His law or delegate others to do so.

(b) Its Reality.—Some believe that Christ granted dispensations from His Law (e.g., that He freed the Blessed Virgin and the Apostles from the duty of receiving Baptism, that he authorized the Apostles to give Baptism without mentioning the Trinity), but these opinions seem unlikely and are not well supported. Some also believe that the power of loosing granted the Church (Matt., xvi. 19) includes the power of dispensing from the Law of Christ. The contrary, however, seems more probable. For the power of loosing is certainly limited to such matters as the good of the Church and of souls requires, and it is more advantageous for the Church and its members that the laws given by Christ Himself should be absolutely unchangeable, in order that the unity of the Church and its dependence on its Founder may be more manifest.

On the other hand, the alternate opinion has solid grounds and arguments, and merits due consideration. Some authors distinguish a twofold law of Christ; (a) absolute, that which obliges immediately and of itself independently of any action of man; e.g., the law concerning the necessity of Baptism or determining bread and wine as the matter of the Eucharist; (b) hypothetic, which presupposes some human action; e.g., the law of the indissolubility of matrimony which urges after man has freely willed to be bound by the laws of matrimony. Similarly, the binding force of vows presupposes the taking of the vow.

As to the absolute law, no human authority may dispense from it. As already indicated, the good of the Church, its unity and stability, seem to demand an unchangeable law. In regard to the hypothetical law, many of the more modern authors assert that the Holy Pontiff can at times dispense. The power of loosing implies a power of dispensing in the Church which has been used in particular cases; e.g., ratum et non consummatum matrimony. Moreover, the power to dispense seems extremely useful and almost necessary for the prudent and wise governing of the Church. For, with a change of circumstances an individual might be impeded from doing a greater good because of a preceding act of will; e.g., one might be impeded from embracing the religious life because of a prior vow to remain in the world to assist in Catholic Action (see Fanfani, O.P., Theol. Moral. Manuale, Vol. I, n. 134).

Interpretation of the Law of Christ.-(a) Private interpretation (epieikeia or equity) is used in extraordinary cases, not foreseen by the lawgiver, and it declares that a particular case does not fall under the Law. This kind of interpretation applies only to human laws, since God foresees things not only universally, but also in particular (cfr. on Natural Law, 315). (b) Public interpretation of the Law of Christ is made by the Church, in virtue of the commission: “Teach all things whatsoever I have commanded” (Matt, xxviii. 20).

Public Interpretation of the Law of Christ—(a) The Church is able to give a declarative interpretation of the Positive Divine Law—that is, to explain its meaning, to show what cases are comprehended in the law, what cases are not, when one is obliged, when one is excused, etc. Example: The Church interprets the doctrine of Christ on the indissolubility of marriage, explaining when the bond is absolutely indissoluble, the conditions under which it may sometimes be dissolved, etc.

(b) The Church is able to give determinative interpretation of the Positive Divine Law—that is, to settle in what manner a law must be fulfilled. Examples: Christ gave the command that the Eucharist should be received, but it was the Church that determined when and how often one must receive Communion to comply with the wishes of Christ. Christ instituted only generically the essential rite of some Sacraments, leaving it to the Church to determine the rite more specifically.

The Law of Christ and Impossibility.—(a) Impossibility does not excuse from a law, in which an act is necessary not because it is prescribed, but is prescribed because it is a necessary means without which, even if one be not guilty of negligence, salvation cannot be had (necessity of means). Example: Infants who die without Baptism are not held guilty of neglecting the Sacraments, but lack of it deprives them of the supernatural bliss promised by Christ. Only Baptism confers regeneration, and only the regenerated are capable of the vision of God.

(b) Impossibility can excuse from a law in which an act is necessary because it is prescribed, and which therefore makes one guilty of sin, if one willfully neglects it (necessity of precept). Example: An adult who dies without the Eucharist cannot be saved if he was guilty of grave negligence; but he can be saved, if it was not his own fault that he did not receive Holy Communion. The Eucharist increases supernatural life, but inculpable lack of it does not exclude from that life.

Impossibility—or what is called impossibility—does not always excuse even from those divine laws which have only the necessity of precept.

(a) Physical impossibility is the lack of power to perform an act; for example, it is physically impossible for a blind man to read. This kind of impossibility, of course, excuses from guilt and punishment. Example: Titus is dying and thinks of the command that he should receive Viaticum. But he is unable to receive Communion without vomiting. Hence, in his case the impossibility excuses from the divine command.

(b) Moral impossibility is the inability to perform an act without serious inconvenience; for example, it is morally impossible for one who has weak eyes to read small print. This kind of impossibility does not excuse, if a greater evil will result from the non-observance of the law than the evil of inconvenience that will result from its observance. Examples: Eleazer would not eat the meats forbidden by the law of Moses, preferring to die rather than give public scandal (II Mach., vii. 18). The command of Christ that pastors minister to their flocks obliges, even if it involves danger of death, when there is a great public necessity (as in time of pestilence) or an urgent private necessity (as when an infant is about to die without Baptism).

Moral impossibility excuses from divine laws that have only necessity of precept, if the inconvenience is serious, even when compared to the evil of violating the law; for God does not wish commands freely instituted by His will to oblige more rigorously than the commands of the Natural Law (see 289, 317). Examples: Christ excused David for eating the loaves of proposition (which was forbidden by the law of Moses) on account of urgent necessity. A most grave external inconvenience excuses from the law of integrity of confession (see Vol. II).

What is the nature of the Church’s action in dissolving the bond of marriages that are not ratified, or not consummated after ratification (see Vol. II), with reference to Christ’s law of indissolubility? (a) Some see in this an application of other divine laws that limit the law of indissolubility, and that were enunciated by Christ Himself in His teaching on the supremacy of faith over other bonds, the superiority of virginity to marriage, the power of the Church in loosing, etc. (b) Others see in this an interpretation, declarative or expansive, of the law of indissolubility. (c) Still others regard these dissolutions as a removal of the proper matter of the obligation contracted through the act of the human will (cfr. the Natural Law, 312). The power of loosing would apply here as in the case of vows. Some authors call this removal of matter “annulment of act,” “remission of debt,” “permission”; while others call it “dispensation” (see 314). Those who consider the dissolution of ratum non consummatum matrimony as “dispensation” list the law of indissolubility as hypothetical positive law (see 357).

Counsels.—In addition to its precepts (which are obligatory), the New Law contains counsels, which are optional, but which are expressly recommended.

A counsel is a moral direction by which one who is willing is advised to prefer a higher to a lower good, in order thereby to tend more efficaciously towards perfection and to merit a greater reward.

(a) A counsel is not something commanded. Example: Our Lord’s direction to the disciples on their first mission that they should not carry their sustenance with them was required as a duty that they might learn to trust in Providence. Hence, it was not a counsel.

(b) A counsel is not everything good that is not commanded. Example: Marriage is not commanded to all, but it is not a counsel, since the opposite good, viz., celibacy, is better (I Cor., vii. 38).

That which is only counselled as to its actual performance, is commanded as to its acceptance by the will for a case of necessity. Example: Our Lord’s direction that good be done to personal enemies does not command that one actually confer favors on them outside of the case of necessity (this is only counselled), but only that one be so charitably inclined that one is ready to help even a personal enemy who is in serious need.

The superiority of the counsels may be seen from the attitudes men take to the goods of this world.

(a) Some are taken up entirely with the things of earth, making temporal goods the end of life and the standard of action. These do not keep the Commandments and cannot be saved.

(b) Some use the goods of this world not as ends, but as subordinate to things that are higher. These keep the Commandments and will be saved; but their solicitude about temporal concerns lessens the attention they could give to things of the spirit.

(c) Some renounce entirely the goods of this life, in order to give themselves as completely as possible to the things of God. These observe the counsels, and can more readily attain to holiness and salvation; for, being freed from numerous cares about earthly things, they can devote themselves more easily and earnestly to things that are heavenly.

The Three Counsels.—There are many counsels given in the Gospels, but all can be reduced to three, according to the three chief earthly goods that may be surrendered, and the three kinds of temptation that come from those goods.

(a) The counsel of poverty requires that one give up entirely external goods or wealth, from which comes the concupiscence of the eyes: “If thou wilt be perfect, go sell what thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven” (Matt, Xix. 21).

(b) The counsel of chastity requires that one renounce entirely carnal goods of pleasure, from which arise the concupiscence of the flesh: “He that giveth his virgin in marriage, doth well; and he that giveth her not, doth better” (I Cor., vii. 38).

(c) The counsel of obedience requires that one deny oneself the good of the soul which is one’s own will, from which comes the pride of life: “Come follow Me” (Matt, xix. 21).

The counsels can be followed in two ways. (a) They are followed completely, when one accepts them as a rule for one’s whole life, as is done by those who embrace the state of perfection in the religious life, taking by vow the three evangelical counsels of poverty, chastity and obedience. (b) They are followed partially when one practises them in particular instances. Examples: A wealthy man who gives to the poor when there is no obligation to do so, practises the counsel of poverty in that case. A person who renounces his own legitimate wishes in some matter, practises the counsel of obedience in that case, as when he confers some favor on one who has offended him, or pardons a debt. Married persons who practise conjugal abstinence for the sake of religion, follow a counsel of chastity (I Cor., vii. 5).

246. (A) The Christian law is deservedly said to have been promulgated not through Angels, but through Christ Himself, written not on tablets of stone, but in the hearts of the faithful. For the Prophets had already announced this: "I will give my law in their inward parts, and I will write it in their heart."² And St. Paul sees the fulfillment of this prophecy in the new dispensation; for, addressing the faithful, he says:³ "You are the epistle of Christ, ministered by us, and written not with ink, but with the spirit of the living God, not in tables of stone, but in the fleshy tables of the heart."

² Jerem., XXXI, 33; this prophecy is declared to have been fulfilled through the new law, Hebr., VIII, 10, X, 16. - There note that the new law is not presented as something imposed from without, but as an internal rule, which the Christian, under the influence of grace, makes his own.

³ 2 Cor., III, 3.

This metaphor signifies that the new law has been put into the mind through the abundance of faith, which proposes to us the rules of acting more explicitly and clearly, - and has been inscribed upon the heart through the abundance of love, which sweetly inclines us to do those things which are commanded.⁴ Indeed, to the old law there had been joined a certain grace of illumination and love, but much less abundant: for since the price of redemption had not yet been paid, it was not fitting that such copious grace be granted to the Jews; but, once the price was paid by the death of Christ, much more copious grace was poured forth in our hearts through the Holy Spirit.

⁴ Thus it is distinguished from the natural law, which indeed is said to be engraved on the heart, but naturally, while the new law is said to be inscribed by the supernatural light of faith.

Paul indeed inculcates this many times, especially in the Epistle to the Romans and to the Galatians: for there he shows that justification is not from the Mosaic law and from the works of the law, but from faith which works through charity; for often the law of itself excites concupiscence and is the occasion of sin, not because it is evil, but because, on account of our infirmity, we act against its prescriptions: "For the law works wrath; for where there is no law, neither is there transgression.¹... What then shall we say? Is the law sin? God forbid. But I did not know sin except through the law."² Grace alone can help us to fulfill the law; this indeed was given to the Hebrews, but sparingly, while it is granted abundantly to Christians: "For the law [the new law] of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus has freed me from the law of sin and death."³

¹ Rom., IV, 15.

² Rom., VII, 7; cf. VII, 11-25.

³ Rom., VIII, 2.

247. (B) The new law is wholly spiritual; (a) for its sanction does not consist in temporal threats or promises, but in spiritual and eternal ones: "And fear not those who kill the body, and cannot kill the soul; but rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell."⁴ - Wherefore it calls blessed those who are poor in spirit, who mourn, who suffer persecution for justice, because their reward is great in heaven.⁵ On the other hand, it denounces riches and honors as impediments which retard us from the kingdom of heaven: "Woe to you that are rich, for you have your consolation. Woe to you that are filled, for you shall hunger⁶... For what does it profit a man if he gain the whole world, but suffer the loss of his own soul?"⁷

⁴ Matt., X, 28.

⁵ Matt., V, 3-12.

⁶ Luke, VI, 24-25.

⁷ Matt., XVI, 26.

(b) The kingdom which Christ preaches is not a temporal kingdom, such as had been conceived by many Jews, but a spiritual kingdom, for entering which there are required faith in the Gospel, love of God and neighbor, imitation of Christ, and denial of self, as will be more fully explained in the Treatise on the Virtues.

(c) The worship which He promotes, although it ought to be manifested externally, ought especially to be internal: "But the hour comes, and now is, when the true adorers shall adore the Father in spirit and in truth."¹ Hence the ancient sacrifices, which consisted chiefly in external immolation, have been abolished, and there succeeds to them the sacrifice of Christ Himself, who immolates not only His body, but His soul by most perfect obedience: "Therefore coming into the world he says: Sacrifice and oblation you did not will, but a body you have fitted to me; holocausts for sin did not please you. Then I said: Behold I come; in the head of the book it is written of me that I should do your will, O God."² Wherefore He wills His disciples to offer to God spiritual victims, namely good works done for the sake of God, and not from ostentation: "Take heed that you do not your justice before men, to be seen by them; otherwise you shall not have a reward with your Father who is in heaven."³

¹ John, IV, 23.

² Hebr., X, 5-7.

³ Matt., VI, 1.

248. (C) The end of the evangelical law is to promote the glory of God and of Christ, - and indeed in the most perfect mode, namely by attaining true and internal sanctification, by which we are made partakers of the divine nature, adopted sons of God, and His heirs, and co-heirs with Christ, - by which consequently we merit eternal beatitude, or the clear vision of God and perfect love. Christ proposed this end to Himself: "I have glorified you on the earth; I have finished the work which you gave me to do. And now glorify me, you, Father, with yourself, with the glory which I had with you before the world was."⁴ His disciples ought to set the same end before themselves: "That in all things God may be honored through Jesus Christ⁵... Do all things for the glory of God."⁶ To glorify God, they ought to imitate His holiness, insofar as it can be done:⁷ "Be you therefore perfect, as also your heavenly Father is perfect." When we have accomplished this according to our powers, we await glory as the crown of justice;⁸ but this is our glory, that we may see God face to face: then we shall be like Him, because we shall see Him as He is.⁹

⁴ John, XVII, 5.

⁵ 1 Peter, IV, 11.

⁶ 1 Cor., X, 31.

⁷ Matt., V, 48.

⁸ 2 Tim., IV, 7.

⁹ 1 John, III, 2.

249. The evangelical law embraces not only precepts, which it is necessary to observe in order that we may attain eternal life, but also counsels, by fulfilling which we attain greater perfection on earth and a more copious reward in heaven.

(A) The foundation of the whole of Christian ethics is situated in this, that God is manifested not only as Creator and Lord, but as Father, who, from His infinite goodness, adopted us as sons, - and redeemed us from the slavery of sin through His only-begotten Son, who washed us from our sins in His blood, - whose infinite merits are applied to each of us through the Holy Spirit, who has been given to us. "For you have not received the spirit of bondage again in fear, but you have received the spirit of adoption of sons, in which we cry: Abba [Father]¹... For God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son, that everyone who believes in him may not perish, but may have eternal life²... The charity of God has been poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Spirit, who has been given to us."³

¹ Rom., VIII, 15.

² John, III, 16.

³ Rom., V, 5.

Hence the whole law is summed up in two precepts: we ought to love God as Father, and men as brothers and co-heirs: "You shall love the Lord your God with your whole heart, and in your whole soul, and in your whole mind. This is the greatest and the first commandment. And the second is like to this: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend the whole law and the prophets."⁴ Each commandment was already contained in the old law; but in the new law it is declared much more perfectly; formerly God was held and feared especially as Lord, now He is loved as Father; formerly the Jews loved their friends and fellow-citizens, but cared little for strangers, and not rarely hated enemies; today there is no distinction of Jew and Greek, but all are to be held as brothers in Christ, and we are commanded to love enemies: "Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you."⁵ Wherefore Christ could deservedly say that the commandment of fraternal charity was new, not indeed in itself, but as to the perfect mode in which it must be understood and fulfilled: "A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, as I have loved you."¹

⁴ Matt., XXII, 37-40.

⁵ Matt., V, 44.

¹ John, XIII, 34.

From this twofold precept flow all duties toward God and toward neighbor.

250. (B) But because, in the state of fallen nature, we cannot love God and neighbor as we ought, Christ by words and by His own examples preached self-denial as a necessary means for attaining this end: "If anyone wills to come after me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me."² We deny ourselves through mortification of the senses, chastity, temperance, obedience, humility; we take up the cross through patience in adversities, and faithful fulfillment of the duties proper to our state, as will be explained more fully in the course of the work. - But that denial, which is the more arduous the more it must be renewed continually, becomes easier by the examples of Christ, who went before us bearing His cross, so that we also might be able to carry our cross, according to that saying:³ "Christ suffered for us, leaving you an example, that you may follow his footsteps." For thus patience is, as it were, deified, and greatly increases our merits: "If yet we suffer with him, that we may also be glorified with him."⁴ How much strength of soul and how much consolation this doctrine brings, the rationalists themselves are compelled to acknowledge.⁵

² Matt., XVI, 24.

³ 1 Peter, II, 21.

⁴ Rom., VIII, 17.

⁵ Thus, among others, P. Janet, Histoire de la Philosophie morale, Paris, 1860, t. I, p. 211: "The Passion, which is the supreme mystery in Christianity, sufficiently indicates that the life of man is nothing but a passion, that is, a sorrow. While all antiquity made the good consist in not suffering, and invited man, either by virtue or by pleasure, to flee sorrow, the Gospel presents sorrow as a good. Sorrow is in some way deified, since God Himself willed to suffer, to groan, to die." - Nor otherwise G. Seailles, Les affirmations de la Conscience moderne, Paris, Colin, 1903, p. 51: "Christianity deifies suffering: Jesus, Son of God and God Himself, descended upon the earth; He took with our body all our infirmities; from the point of view of this world, He was one conquered, He was despised, insulted, struck; He willed to suffer, to die; He carried His Cross, He attached Himself to that wood of sorrow, He groaned, He shed tears... The Christian, he who looks at things with the eyes of faith and not with the eyes of flesh, no longer knows one disinherited, one conquered by life. Suffering is a good; it has its price in itself. God gathers up the most unknown, the most obscure, the most humble miseries, to make of them beatitude and glory."

251. (C) The duties of domestic and social life flow both from the love of God and neighbor and from self-denial. Thus children ought to honor parents and obey them, because they hold the place of God.¹ Servants and domestics ought to show honor and obedience to masters, as to Christ;² but masters ought to hold their servants as brothers in Christ.³ - Subjects are bound to obey legitimate superiors, as God Himself: "For there is no power except from God... Therefore he who resists the power, resists the ordinance of God."⁴ Superiors, on the other hand, ought to exercise only a paternal rule, and to imitate God, whose power over men is joined with paternal goodness.

¹ Ephes., VI, 1; Coloss., III, 20.

² Ephes., VI, 5-6; 1 Peter, II, 18-19.

³ Ephes., VI, 9; Coloss., IV, 1; Ep. to Philemon.

⁴ Rom., XIII, 1-2.

252. (D) Those things which regard worship are concerned with the sacraments and the sacrifice of the Mass; but these derive their virtue and efficacy from the passion of Christ, and therefore tend to this, that they may more perfectly dispose us to receiving the supernatural life of grace, which itself is as it were a foretaste of eternal life. For this reason the ceremonial matters of the new law are fewer in number, easier in act, and far greater in usefulness than the rites of the ancient law, as befits the state of sons, which is proper to the Christian people.⁵

⁵ St. Augustine, Cont. Faustum, lib. XIX, c. 13, Migne, P. L., XLII, 355.

253. (E) To these precepts, however, evangelical counsels have been added, by which we are able to tend more securely to the perfection of the Christian life. Precepts are given concerning those things which are necessary for attaining the end,⁶ and therefore imply a true moral obligation; - but counsels are given concerning those things which lead us to the end more expeditiously and perfectly, and therefore do not oblige per se.

⁶ This is easily understood concerning precepts under grave obligation: for the violation of them turns us away from the ultimate end. As to precepts under light obligation, the violation of them retards us from the kingdom of heaven, as long as it is not fully remitted.

Christ indeed did not hand down this distinction explicitly, but implicitly, when He addressed the rich young man thus: "But if you wish to enter into life, keep the commandments... If you wish to be perfect, go, sell what you have, and give to the poor, and you shall have treasure in heaven, and come, follow me."¹ Paul confirms this concerning virginity, saying: "But concerning virgins I have no commandment of the Lord, but I give counsel... He who gives his virgin in marriage does well, and he who does not give her does better."² Yet we do not deny that it is often difficult to define from Scripture what ought to be referred to precepts and what to counsels; for the most part this can be determined only from the traditional sense of the Church.

¹ Matt., XIX, 17-21.

² 1 Cor., VII, 25-40.

254. Among the counsels, three are principal, which usually are specially called evangelical, namely poverty and virginity, concerning which there is question in the texts cited above, and also perfect obedience, which is nothing other than the abdication of one's own will, and is commended many times in Scripture. - St. Thomas declares why these three are of the greatest importance:³ The goods of this world consist in three things: in riches, which pertain to the concupiscence of the eyes; in delights of the flesh, which pertain to the concupiscence of the flesh; and in honors, which regard the pride of life. But these three things are totally abandoned through the aforesaid counsels: for riches are abdicated through poverty, delights of the flesh through perpetual chastity, pride of life through the service of obedience. - And thus he who strives to observe these and other counsels renounces the goods of the world more perfectly, and loves God more fully from the whole heart. Yet the practice of the counsels is not fitting for all, because perfection belongs to few.⁴

³ St. Thomas, Ia IIae, q. 108, a. 4.

⁴ On the counsels see J. Schwane, De operibus supererogatoriis et consiliis evangelicis in genere, Monasterii, 1868.

255. (A) From all these things it is manifest that the new law is much more perfect than the old:⁵ (a) by reason of the object, which embraces more moral precepts, and those more luminously explained and better reduced to unity, - but fewer ceremonial precepts, and those conducing more closely to true holiness; (b) by reason of the more abundant grace which accompanies it; (c) by reason of universality, since it was enacted not for one people, but for all, according to that saying:⁶ "Going therefore, teach all nations... teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you"; (d) by reason of perpetuity, since it will endure until the consummation of the age, according to that which remains to be explained.

⁵ Bourdaloue eloquently discusses the perfection of the Christian law, Sermon pour le 6e Dim. après l'Epiphanie, sur la sainteté et la force de la loi chrétienne.

⁶ Matt., XXVIII, 19.

256. (B) The Prophets had already announced that the ancient law, in its ceremonial part, was to be abrogated: "Behold the days shall come, says the Lord, and I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah, not according to the covenant which I made with their fathers."¹ Not so concerning the new law, which is called the new and eternal testament, to last until the consummation of the age.² In fact, after Christ's advent in the flesh, nothing else is to be expected except His same advent in the clouds of heaven to judge the living and the dead.³

¹ Jerem., XXXI, 31-32; cf. Malach., I, 10-11.

² Hebr., XIII, 20; cf. Canon of the Mass; Matt., XXVIII, 20.

³ Matt., XXV, 31-46; XXVI, 64.

Although the new law is perfect, and embraces all essentials, nothing prevents it from being accommodated to various places and times, under the authority of the Church, to whom Christ handed over the power of making laws which help the faithful to observe the divine precepts more safely.

160. Excellence of the New Law. The New Law very greatly excels the Old Law:

a) Because it is more spiritual.

In the Old Law the sanction, that is, the coercion, was rather temporal and material. For to those who observed the Law there were promised riches, long life, numerous offspring, etc.; but those who transgressed the Law were deterred by threats of death, poverty, disgrace, etc. In the New Law, however, spiritual and eternal rewards are promised, and imminent Gehenna is announced to transgressors. "Do not fear those who kill the body, but cannot kill the soul; but rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in Gehenna."⁴⁹ - Hence also those are proclaimed blessed who are poor in spirit, who mourn, who suffer persecution for justice.

b) Because it more greatly promotes internal worship.

"The hour is coming, and now is, when the true adorers will adore the Father in spirit and truth."⁵⁰ With external worship by no means neglected, the New Law exhorts all that they offer to God good works done for the sake of God and not for the sake of vain glory: "Take heed that you do not do your justice before men, that you may be seen by them; otherwise you shall not have a reward with your Father, who is in heaven."⁵¹

c) Because it is the law of charity, which is the bond of perfection.

The Old Law was, and was called, the Law of fear, restraining the hand more than the mind. God was called the God of hosts, almighty God, the Lord God, etc. But in the New Testament God is called by the sweet name of father: "For you have not received the spirit of servitude again in fear, but you have received the spirit of adoption of sons, in which we cry Abba, Father."⁵² Wherefore also the whole New Law is contracted into two precepts: Love God as father and your neighbor as yourself. "You shall love the Lord your God from your whole heart, and in your whole soul, and in your whole mind. This is the greatest and first commandment. And the second is like to this: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depends the whole law and the prophets."⁵³ Christ indeed called the commandment of fraternal charity new, saying: "A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another, as I have loved you."⁵⁴ But as to substance this commandment was already contained in the natural law; but in the New Law it is new as to its perfect mode, which often was lacking in the Old Law.

⁴⁹ Matt. 10:28.

⁵⁰ John 4:23.

⁵¹ Matt. 6:1.

⁵² Rom. 8:15.

⁵³ Matt. 22:37-40.

⁵⁴ John 13:34.

163. Subject of positive divine law. The ceremonial and judicial precepts of the Old Law did not oblige except the Jews and their proselytes of justice, or strangers.⁷² But the moral precepts, as also pertaining to the natural law, obliged and still oblige all. - When at the death of Christ the veil of the temple was rent, the Old Law ceased as to ceremonial and judicial precepts.⁷³ These precepts indeed after the death of Christ are called dead; yet these same precepts did not immediately then become death-bringing, or gravely illicit. Thus, for example, St. Peter still permitted the Jewish rites,⁷⁴ and St. Paul caused Timothy to be circumcised;⁷⁵ which certainly he would not have done if he had thought circumcision to be gravely illicit. Theologians do not agree when the ceremonial and judicial precepts of the Old Law became death-bringing or gravely illicit. It is probable that this occurred when the gospel of Christ had been sufficiently promulgated among the Jewish people, that is, after the destruction of the city of Jerusalem.⁷⁶

The divine law of the New Testament obliges, even to the end of the world,^76a all men, whether baptized or not baptized. For Christ says: "All power has been given to me in heaven and on earth; going therefore, teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you."⁷⁷ Therefore, just as Christ is the redeemer of all men, so also he is their universal legislator.⁷⁸ Wherefore the laws concerning the prohibition of polygamy, of the bill of divorce, etc., oblige all men, even pagans. - Yet pagans would sin not formally, but only materially, by transgressing the precepts of the evangelical Law before they have sufficient knowledge of them. - Just as theologians do not agree when the Old Law became dead and death-bringing, so neither do they agree when the New Law began strictly to oblige. Some think this obligation began at the death of Christ, or at least on the day of Pentecost; but others are of the opinion that it began to oblige after its sufficient promulgation among the peoples, namely, when the apostles, dispersed into every land, were about to preach the gospel, that is, around the year 40 after Christ. Nothing certain can be said about this matter.⁷⁹

⁷² Cf. Gen. 9:4. - Concerning the diverse obligations of proselytes, see Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon^2, s. v. "Proselyten."

⁷³ Thus teaches the common opinion with St. Thomas, S. theol. I-II, q. 103, a. 3 ad 2.

⁷⁴ Gal. 2:4.

⁷⁵ Acts 16:3.

⁷⁶ Cf. S. theol. I-II, q. 103, a. 4 ad 1.

^76a Ibid., q. 106, a. 4.

⁷⁷ Matt. 28:18-20.

⁷⁸ "If anyone says that nothing is commanded in the Gospel besides faith, that other things are indifferent, neither prohibited, but free ... let him be anathema" (Council of Trent, sess. 6, can. 19, on justification; Denz. n. 829).

⁷⁹ Suarez discusses this matter at length and breadth, De leg. l. 10, c. 4.

St. Thomas, I-II, q. 98.

302. The old law is good, both because it has God as author, and because Christ, teaching by words and deeds and observing it, said that it is good (Mt. V, 17), and because it is consonant with reason while it represses concupiscence (Exod. XX, 17) and prohibits sins (ibid.). Whence it is called by the Apostle in Rom. VII, 12: a holy law, a holy commandment (cf. Ps. XVIII, 8-11; Mt. V, 17; I Tim. I, 8). Yet it is not simply perfect, because of itself it was not sufficient for leading to the end which is eternal life, toward which it only aided fallen man, but did not heal him completely nor render him fit: for this happens through grace, which was not given by the old law (Gal. IV, 9; Heb. VII, 19; X, 1). But it was perfect according to the time for which it was given and according to the condition of those to whom it was given.

"But how far the Mosaic law excels foreign laws is clear to one who attends a little: a) for it clearly and explicitly inculcates monotheism, and strictly prohibits the worship of idols which flourished among other peoples: I am the Lord... (Exod. XX, 2-4). b) Moreover slavery, although tolerated, is much milder than among neighboring nations (Exod. XXI, 1-11). c) The sum of the law is love of God and neighbor: You shall love... (Deut. VI, 5; Lev. XIX, 18). d) It prohibits not only external sins, as most laws do, but also internal sins: You shall not covet (Exod. XX, 17; Deut. VI, 5; Lev. XVI, 18). e) Not only negative holiness is commanded, but also positive holiness, which consists in a certain imitation of divine holiness: Be holy because I am holy, the Lord your God (Lev. XIX, 2)."

1. Tanquerey, op. cit., n. 337.

303. The old law was given

1. by God the Father, because it disposed men to the future Christ, His Son, in two ways: both by giving testimony about Him (Luke XXIV, 44; John V, 46), and by withdrawing men from idolatry and placing them under the worship of the one God by whom the human race was to be saved (Gal. III, 23-24; Rom. X, 4);

2. by the ministry of angels, because it was imperfect, while the new and perfect law had to be given through Christ Himself (Gal. III, 19; Acts VII, 53);

3. to the Jewish people alone, whom God chose so that Christ might be born from it; whence it was fitting that it be eminent by a special sanctification (Deut. IV, 8; Ps. CXLVII, 8; Rom. III, 2). Hence although, as to the precepts of natural right which it contained and manifested, it obligated all, nevertheless as to its own precepts superadded to natural law, per se it obligated only the Jews, and per accidens gentiles who were enrolled into the Jewish people by circumcision (Exod. XII, 48).

304. Observations. - 1) Therefore the end of the old law is: a) immediate and proximate, to instruct the people in order to honesty, worship of God, and justice, and thus to procure temporal happiness; b) mediate and ultimate, supernatural beatitude (Luke X, 25); c) extrinsically joined to the aforesaid, Christ as to be honored and glorified (Rom. X, 4).

2. Concerning the time in which the old law was to be given, St. Thomas teaches, q. 98, a. 6: "The old law was most fittingly given in the time of Moses. The reason for this can be taken from two things, according as any law is imposed on two kinds of men: the hard and proud, who are restrained and tamed by law; and the good, who, instructed by law, are aided to fulfilling what they intend. 1) Therefore it was fitting that the old law be given at such a time for convicting the pride of men. For man was proud about two things, namely, about knowledge and about power. a) About knowledge indeed, as though natural reason could suffice him for salvation; and therefore, that his pride about this might be convicted, man was permitted to the rule of his own reason without the help of a written law; and by experience man could learn that he suffered a defect of reason, by the fact that men had fallen even into idolatry and most shameful vices around the times of Abraham. And therefore after these times it was necessary that a written law be given as a remedy of human ignorance, because through law is the knowledge of sin... b) But after man had been instructed by the law, his pride about his infirmity was convicted, while he could not fulfill what he knew. 2) But on the part of the good, the law was given as a help; and this indeed was especially necessary to the people when natural law was beginning to be obscured on account of the overflowing of sins."

St. Thomas, I-II, q. 99 and 100; q. 101 and 104; q. 103, a. 2; II-II, q. 122.

305. The old law, although by reason of the matter about which it is concerned it contains many precepts, nevertheless in itself is one, because all were ordered to one end (q. 99, a. 1).

For since, by distinction from human law, which principally orders men to one another, divine law principally orders men to God and secondarily to one another, hence it contains precepts of a threefold kind:

1. some are moral precepts concerning acts of virtues, by which men were made good and like to God: for the law intended friendship with the best God, which cannot exist without likeness to Him (a. 2);

2. others are ceremonial, by which they were ordered to the worship of God, which must be done not only by interior acts, but also by exterior works by which man professes servitude (a. 3);

3. others are judicial, by which men were ordered to one another, the mode of justice among them being preserved (a. 4).

Now A. to the aforesaid precepts all other things are reduced which pertain to the directive force of law: for either they are dictated by reason itself and are due according to the rule of reason, and then they pertain to morals, which are conclusions of the law of nature (even if they are commands and counsels); or they are due from positive law determining natural law, and are either ceremonial, which are determinations of natural precepts in divine things, or judicial, or determinations in human things (Deut. V, 1; VI, 1, 17). Hence it is called by the Apostle (Rom. VII, 12) a just, holy, good commandment (a. 5).

B. As to coercive force: the law induced to their observance by temporal promises and threats, because it was not directed to the perfect, who, having despised temporal things, cling to spiritual things, but to the imperfect, who desire temporal goods, although in order to God. For means must be proposed to men according to their condition (a. 5 and 6).

Namely, eternal goods did not immediately pertain to the covenant entered between God and the Jewish people, but only through the promise of the Redeemer and the future covenant. Whence the law which regards the people contained only temporal promises; eternal goods could be obtained by individuals through faith and hope in the Redeemer, from His merits and the power of His grace, or by force of the new law, for according to this they pertained to the new law (q. 106, a. 1, ad 3, and q. 107, a. 1, ad 2 and 3).

306. Specifically, A. all moral precepts can in some way be reduced to the ten precepts of the Decalogue proposed to the people.

It is proved: for in the law of nature a) some precepts are primary in knowledge, self-evident, known to all, which it was not necessary to promulgate again; but other, secondary precepts are conclusions deduced from the first, of which b) many are more remote, which were not to be placed in the Decalogue, because their reason is manifest only to the wise alone, to whom it pertains to teach the people, and because a multiplicity of precepts would place confusion, whence they were not to be proposed to the people; c) certain are proximate and immediate, which by slight consideration are at once evidently deduced from the first precepts and whose reason appears to all, and these were placed in the Decalogue, because in fewer cases or among some it happens that human judgment concerning them is perverted.

Now the primary and common precepts (for example, love of God and neighbor) are contained in the precepts of the Decalogue as principles in conclusions (ad 1); but the more remote, conversely, are contained in them as conclusions in their principles.

Therefore all precepts of the Decalogue are moral, except the third, which is partly moral, as to the fact that man deputes some time to divine worship, and partly ceremonial, as to the determination of a special time, namely, the Sabbath (ad 2).

B. Ceremonial precepts determined the peculiar mode by which God was to be worshiped; these had to be many and solemn, for promoting the worship of God and turning away from idolatry. They were of four kinds: a) either concerning worship itself, which specially consists in sacrifices, or b) concerning sacred instruments, or c) concerning those worshiping, who are consecrated by sacraments, and d) are distinguished from others by various observances. All these prefigured the future Christ (q. 101).

C. Likewise judicial (or political) precepts regarded human affairs according to the fourfold order which can be found in a people: a) some were of princes to subjects, b) others of subjects to one another, c) certain of the people to foreigners, d) certain toward domestics (wife, children, servants). These prefigured the Church (q. 104).

Ceremonial and judicial precepts were subject to various changes, for God did not cease to accommodate His laws to the conditions of the Jews, whence He sent prophets who authentically interpreted and completed the law.

307. Moral precepts concern all acts of virtues.

For by difference from human law, which orders the community of men to one another (which is done through exterior operations), and commands only acts of justice and acts of other virtues insofar as they assume the notion of justice, divine law commands concerning all those things by which men are ordered to communication with God. But man is joined to God by reason (and will). Whence divine law commands concerning all those things by which human reason (and will) is duly ordered, which happens by acts of all virtues; yet in such a way that certain things, without which the order of reason cannot be observed, fall under the obligation of precept, but certain things which pertain to the well-being of perfect virtue fall under admonition and counsel.

1. For intellectual virtues order well the acts of reason in themselves; moral virtues order well the acts of reason concerning interior passions and exterior operations.

Nevertheless all precepts of the Decalogue pertain to justice.

For the precepts of the Decalogue are principles of natural law to which reason adheres by slight consideration and which it at once recognizes as due. But the notion of debt appears most in justice, which is toward another (for in those things which concern oneself it seems at first sight that man is master of himself and that he can licitly do whatever he wishes). And therefore the precepts of the Decalogue pertain to justice: the first three concern acts of religion, which is the chief among the virtues annexed to justice; the fourth concerns acts of piety, which is second among these virtues; the other six concern acts of justice commonly and strictly so called, which is between equals.

1. This in a certain way is true, except for those things which cannot be taken away from oneself without injury to God or neighbor.

308. The precepts of the Decalogue are fittingly distinguished according to diverse objects and are enumerated in a fitting number (q. 100, a. 4 and 5). - It is proved:

Just as human laws order men to a certain human community, so divine law orders them to the community of men under God. But in order that someone be well ordered in society, two things are required: that he bear himself well both toward him who presides over the community and toward the other fellow citizens. Whence in divine law first are placed the precepts which order men to God, and then those which order them to other neighbors living together under God, whether by deed, or by mouth, or by heart.

A. But man owes three things to the prince of the community:

I. fidelity in deed, by which He alone is acknowledged, which is handed down in the first precept: You shall not have strange gods; by which we acknowledge the unity of God;

II. reverence especially in speech, by which nothing injurious is said against Him, which is handed down in the second precept: You shall not take the name of God in vain, that is, you shall not commit perjury; by which we revere the truth of God;

III. service even in heart, recompense for benefits received (first of all creation), which pertains to the third precept: Remember that you sanctify the Sabbath day; by which we worship the goodness of God.

B. But someone bears himself well toward neighbors:

a) either specially toward those to whom he is a debtor, if he renders to them what is due, which:

Positive divine law is twofold, namely old and new, and concerning each let it suffice to observe these few things.

I. The old law, or the law of the Old Testament, contained precepts of a threefold kind, namely: 1st, moral, which regarded moral rectitude and established that which had already been prescribed by natural law, as, for example, the precepts of the Decalogue; 2nd, ceremonial, which were referred to the worship of God and established ceremonies and sacrifices; 3rd, judicial, which pertained to political and economic administration, or to the right governance of the people.

The old law was abrogated by Christ, as being "set until the seed should come to whom He had promised," as the Apostle says, Galat. iii, 19. But the moral precepts which were contained in it have force by the force of natural and evangelical law.

II. The new or evangelical law, which is called the law of grace or of liberty, or the New Testament, contains documents of a threefold kind, namely: 1st, moral precepts, concerning virtues, especially theological virtues; 2nd, ceremonial precepts, concerning the sacraments and the sacrifice of the Mass; 3rd, mere counsels, but worthy of great reward.

The new law differs from the old law especially in the following: 1st, the old was shadow and figure; the new is light and truth. - 2nd, the old was a law of fear; but the new is a law of grace and love.

The old law is called imperfect, not indeed in itself, but relatively to a more perfect law. For it was perfect in itself, since it had God as author, and God through it attained the end which He had fixed for Himself.

The new law was made for all, and therefore obliges all, although those to whose notice it has not yet come are excused from observing it. For thus Christ says, Matth. xxviii, 19, 20: "Going therefore teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, etc., teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you."