Second Question: On the Power of the Old Law

St. Thomas, I-II, q. 99 and 100; q. 101 and 104; q. 103, a. 2; II-II, q. 122.

305. The old law, although by reason of the matter about which it is concerned it contains many precepts, nevertheless in itself is one, because all were ordered to one end (q. 99, a. 1).

For since, by distinction from human law, which principally orders men to one another, divine law principally orders men to God and secondarily to one another, hence it contains precepts of a threefold kind:

1. some are moral precepts concerning acts of virtues, by which men were made good and like to God: for the law intended friendship with the best God, which cannot exist without likeness to Him (a. 2);

2. others are ceremonial, by which they were ordered to the worship of God, which must be done not only by interior acts, but also by exterior works by which man professes servitude (a. 3);

3. others are judicial, by which men were ordered to one another, the mode of justice among them being preserved (a. 4).

Now A. to the aforesaid precepts all other things are reduced which pertain to the directive force of law: for either they are dictated by reason itself and are due according to the rule of reason, and then they pertain to morals, which are conclusions of the law of nature (even if they are commands and counsels); or they are due from positive law determining natural law, and are either ceremonial, which are determinations of natural precepts in divine things, or judicial, or determinations in human things (Deut. V, 1; VI, 1, 17). Hence it is called by the Apostle (Rom. VII, 12) a just, holy, good commandment (a. 5).

B. As to coercive force: the law induced to their observance by temporal promises and threats, because it was not directed to the perfect, who, having despised temporal things, cling to spiritual things, but to the imperfect, who desire temporal goods, although in order to God. For means must be proposed to men according to their condition (a. 5 and 6).

Namely, eternal goods did not immediately pertain to the covenant entered between God and the Jewish people, but only through the promise of the Redeemer and the future covenant. Whence the law which regards the people contained only temporal promises; eternal goods could be obtained by individuals through faith and hope in the Redeemer, from His merits and the power of His grace, or by force of the new law, for according to this they pertained to the new law (q. 106, a. 1, ad 3, and q. 107, a. 1, ad 2 and 3).

306. Specifically, A. all moral precepts can in some way be reduced to the ten precepts of the Decalogue proposed to the people.

It is proved: for in the law of nature a) some precepts are primary in knowledge, self-evident, known to all, which it was not necessary to promulgate again; but other, secondary precepts are conclusions deduced from the first, of which b) many are more remote, which were not to be placed in the Decalogue, because their reason is manifest only to the wise alone, to whom it pertains to teach the people, and because a multiplicity of precepts would place confusion, whence they were not to be proposed to the people; c) certain are proximate and immediate, which by slight consideration are at once evidently deduced from the first precepts and whose reason appears to all, and these were placed in the Decalogue, because in fewer cases or among some it happens that human judgment concerning them is perverted.

Now the primary and common precepts (for example, love of God and neighbor) are contained in the precepts of the Decalogue as principles in conclusions (ad 1); but the more remote, conversely, are contained in them as conclusions in their principles.

Therefore all precepts of the Decalogue are moral, except the third, which is partly moral, as to the fact that man deputes some time to divine worship, and partly ceremonial, as to the determination of a special time, namely, the Sabbath (ad 2).

B. Ceremonial precepts determined the peculiar mode by which God was to be worshiped; these had to be many and solemn, for promoting the worship of God and turning away from idolatry. They were of four kinds: a) either concerning worship itself, which specially consists in sacrifices, or b) concerning sacred instruments, or c) concerning those worshiping, who are consecrated by sacraments, and d) are distinguished from others by various observances. All these prefigured the future Christ (q. 101).

C. Likewise judicial (or political) precepts regarded human affairs according to the fourfold order which can be found in a people: a) some were of princes to subjects, b) others of subjects to one another, c) certain of the people to foreigners, d) certain toward domestics (wife, children, servants). These prefigured the Church (q. 104).

Ceremonial and judicial precepts were subject to various changes, for God did not cease to accommodate His laws to the conditions of the Jews, whence He sent prophets who authentically interpreted and completed the law.

307. Moral precepts concern all acts of virtues.

For by difference from human law, which orders the community of men to one another (which is done through exterior operations), and commands only acts of justice and acts of other virtues insofar as they assume the notion of justice, divine law commands concerning all those things by which men are ordered to communication with God. But man is joined to God by reason (and will). Whence divine law commands concerning all those things by which human reason (and will) is duly ordered, which happens by acts of all virtues; yet in such a way that certain things, without which the order of reason cannot be observed, fall under the obligation of precept, but certain things which pertain to the well-being of perfect virtue fall under admonition and counsel.

1. For intellectual virtues order well the acts of reason in themselves; moral virtues order well the acts of reason concerning interior passions and exterior operations.

Nevertheless all precepts of the Decalogue pertain to justice.

For the precepts of the Decalogue are principles of natural law to which reason adheres by slight consideration and which it at once recognizes as due. But the notion of debt appears most in justice, which is toward another (for in those things which concern oneself it seems at first sight that man is master of himself and that he can licitly do whatever he wishes). And therefore the precepts of the Decalogue pertain to justice: the first three concern acts of religion, which is the chief among the virtues annexed to justice; the fourth concerns acts of piety, which is second among these virtues; the other six concern acts of justice commonly and strictly so called, which is between equals.

1. This in a certain way is true, except for those things which cannot be taken away from oneself without injury to God or neighbor.

308. The precepts of the Decalogue are fittingly distinguished according to diverse objects and are enumerated in a fitting number (q. 100, a. 4 and 5). - It is proved:

Just as human laws order men to a certain human community, so divine law orders them to the community of men under God. But in order that someone be well ordered in society, two things are required: that he bear himself well both toward him who presides over the community and toward the other fellow citizens. Whence in divine law first are placed the precepts which order men to God, and then those which order them to other neighbors living together under God, whether by deed, or by mouth, or by heart.

A. But man owes three things to the prince of the community:

I. fidelity in deed, by which He alone is acknowledged, which is handed down in the first precept: You shall not have strange gods; by which we acknowledge the unity of God;

II. reverence especially in speech, by which nothing injurious is said against Him, which is handed down in the second precept: You shall not take the name of God in vain, that is, you shall not commit perjury; by which we revere the truth of God;

III. service even in heart, recompense for benefits received (first of all creation), which pertains to the third precept: Remember that you sanctify the Sabbath day; by which we worship the goodness of God.

B. But someone bears himself well toward neighbors:

a) either specially toward those to whom he is a debtor, if he renders to them what is due, which:

IV. must be done especially to parents, whence the fourth precept is placed: Honor father and mother;

b) or generally toward all, if he inflicts no harm, neither alpha) by deed, by committing injury, whether:

V. against one's own person as to individual life, which the fifth precept prohibits: You shall not kill;

VI. against a person joined to oneself as to the propagation of offspring, which the sixth precept prohibits: You shall not commit adultery;

VII. against external possessed goods, which are ordered to both, which the seventh precept prohibits: You shall not commit theft;

nor beta) is harm inflicted by speech:

VIII. as to reputation and honor, which the eighth precept prohibits: You shall not speak false testimony;

nor by heart, either:

IX. by concupiscence of the flesh, by desiring the wife of another, which the ninth precept prohibits: You shall not desire your neighbor's wife;

or X. by concupiscence of the eyes, by coveting his goods, which the tenth prohibits: You shall not covet your neighbor's house, etc.

1. A special precept concerning concupiscence of homicide and false testimony is not handed down as concerning delight in adultery and theft: delight of the flesh and the utility of riches are especially appetible and are loved as if naturally; homicide and falsity are not goods of themselves but rather bring horror than delight (a. 5, ad 5).

309. The precepts of the Decalogue are handed down in a fitting order (q. 100, a. 6 and 7). - It is proved:

The precepts of the Decalogue are given concerning those things which are immediately admitted readily by reason; but something is more easily admitted by reason in proportion as its contrary is graver or more repugnant to reason. Therefore the precepts had to be placed according to the order of gravity. Now disorder toward the end itself, God, is more repugnant to reason, and therefore the first precepts of the Decalogue order man to God; and indeed 1) infidelity toward a superior, which is prohibited by the first precept, is graver than 2) irreverence, which is prohibited by the second, and this is graver than 3) absence of due service, concerning which the third treats. In the precepts ordering toward neighbor, it is more repugnant to reason and a graver sin if man does not preserve the due order toward persons to whom he owes more; and therefore after the three precepts toward God is placed 4) the precept toward parents. Toward the remaining neighbors, it is graver to sin by deed than by mouth, and indeed 5) homicide, by which the life of an existing man is taken away, is graver than 6) adultery, by which the certainty of offspring to be born is impeded, and this is graver than 7) theft, which pertains to external goods; then 8) sins of the mouth, which are graver than sins of the heart, and among these 9) concupiscence of adultery is graver than 10) concupiscence of theft.

All these are negative precepts, except the third and fourth: for negative precepts extend to all persons and cases; not so affirmative precepts, because benefits and services are not to be furnished to all nor always, and therefore only two are placed, as to God and parents, on account of the greatest benefits which cannot be sufficiently recompensed (a. 7, ad 1).

310. All moral precepts are easily distinguished according to the precepts of the Decalogue.

It is proved:

A. Certain altogether universal and self-evident precepts are presupposed as principles to conclusions. Thus the precept of acknowledging the supernatural end and tending to it by faith, hope, and divine charity is presupposed to the first three; and the precept of loving one's neighbor as oneself to the rest. Similarly the precept of loving oneself and preserving life for oneself, which man naturally fulfills and which moreover is included in the love of God and neighbor: for in this man truly loves himself, that he orders himself to God, and he truly loves his neighbor if he orders him to the end as himself.

B. Other particular determinate precepts, whose reason is not manifest to all but to the wiser, are joined as conclusions, either mediately, as all things which necessarily lead to those things which the Decalogue itself commands or prohibits, or indirectly, because there exists a similar reason of commanding or prohibiting them. Hence:

to the first precept are reduced all things which are ordered to idolatry or have likeness with it: sorcery, divination, vain observance, those things which are against fidelity, such as tempting God, or against works of worship by which we show fidelity, such as sacrilege and simony;

to the second precept: blasphemy and false doctrine, all illicit or violated oaths and vows, every vain taking up of divine things;

to the third precept: all ceremonial things which regard sacrifices and sacraments;

to the fourth precept: all precepts concerning honoring superiors and elders, and concerning benefits to be shown to equals, inferiors, and the poor;

to the fifth precept: all violations against the body of one's neighbor, hatred and anger which lead to them, and scandal which violates the soul;

to the sixth and ninth precepts: fornication, vices against nature, and those things which begin lust or lead to all these;

to the seventh and tenth precepts: usury, fraud, robbery, and every injustice toward external goods, and all things which lead to these;

to the eighth precept: false judgment, lying, detraction, and every injury done by word against reputation and honor.

Precepts toward oneself did not have to be stated in the Decalogue (cf. n. 307), and moreover they are easily reduced to it. For:

1. the precept of loving and preserving oneself is known to all and is naturally observed, and therefore it was not to be promulgated; moreover it is included in the love of God and neighbor (the first and fifth precepts): for in this man truly loves himself, that he orders himself to God, and he truly loves his neighbor if he loves him and orders him to the end as himself (q. 100, a. 5, ad 1);

2. but other precepts are remote conclusions whose reason is not manifest to all, and therefore they were not to be proposed directly to the people but to the wise, who can teach the people. Yet they are easily reduced to the precepts concerning neighbor according to the diverse goods about which they are concerned: thus precepts concerning one's own health and concerning food and drink, which are ordered to it, are reduced to the fifth; those which concern goods of fortune to the seventh and tenth; those which concern honor, reputation, and glory to the eighth; the precept of fortitude according to various motives on account of which someone ought to despise death.

311. The old law does not justify (q. 100, a. 12) properly and perfectly, because it could not cause justice infused by God through moral or judicial precepts, which concern only human acts, which cannot cause grace; nor through ceremonial precepts, because the sacraments of the Old Law did not confer grace. Nevertheless it justified in a certain respect insofar as it prescribed acts of justice; also improperly insofar as it stirred up faith and hope and thus disposed to the grace of Christ justifying and signified it, and insofar as ceremonial precepts conferred "legal" justification and cleanness, by which men according to external justice, in the face of law and society, were held just before the law and fit for the worship of God.