The subject of Confirmation and its sponsor

ANYONE is capable of being confirmed who has not yet received this sacrament and who has been baptized. For the validity of the sacrament the use of reason is not necessary, but adults who have the use of reason must have at least an habitual intention of receiving the sacrament. No one may lawfully receive this sacrament who is not in the state of grace. Moreover, according to modern discipline, Confirmation is only given to those who have been well instructed in Christian doctrine and know well what is required of a good Catholic. Before Confirmation is administered, the opportunity should be taken to give special instructions in Catholic faith and practice to those who are about to receive the sacrament (Can. 1330).

The First Synod of Westminster prescribes that priests who have the cure of souls should do all in their power to have children confirmed, especially if they be of the humbler sort, so that they may be able to resist the temptations to which their faith will afterward be exposed. Canon 787 says that no one may neglect to receive Confirmation on occasion being offered, and that parish priests are to take care that the faithful receive it opportunely.

For Confirmation there should presents one or two to be confirmed. be one sponsor who He himself should be confirmed, should have the use of reason, and should have the intention of fulfilling his office. He should not be a heretic or schismatic, or criminal, nor the father, mother or spouse of the person to be confirmed. He should be lawfully designated, and should physically touch the person confirmed by personal contact or by proxy.

That he may be lawfully admitted he should not be the same who acted as sponsor in Baptism, and he should be of the same sex as the person confirmed (Can. 794-796).

Spiritual relationship arises between him and the person confirmed (Can. 797). But it is not a diriment impediment of marriage (Can. 1079).

“No one who has not been confirmed can be a sponsor in Confirmation, and if he should be, he does not contract spiritual relationship.” Sacred Congregation of the Council, 16 June 1654. Diocesan Synod of Alba, year 1866, part 2, article 3, no. 8.

“But because it can happen that in mission territories no one is present who was previously confirmed, it is permitted in this case that some persons be confirmed without a sponsor, who afterward can be sponsors for the others.” Instruction of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, 4 May 1774.

“Whether, in the administration of the Sacrament of Confirmation, a Bishop can, as his predecessor was accustomed to do in the Diocese of Policastro, sustain the roles of minister and sponsor at one and the same time, namely, sign the forehead of the one to be confirmed with sacred chrism with his right hand as minister, and hold the one to be confirmed with his left as sponsor?—Response. The Bishop the Bishop confirming shall in this case discharge the office of sponsor through a proxy.” Sacred Congregation of Rites, 14 June 1873, Policastro; C. no. 691.

Can the same person be the sponsor who lifts the infant from the sacred font and receives the same person in the Sacrament of Confirmation?—Response. Negative, unless necessity should nevertheless compel it. Chapter 100, distinction 4, On Consecration; A. S. S., vol. 16, p. 537 ff. The matter is slight, however, if someone acts otherwise. St. Alphonsus, book 6, no. 187.

“The practice is not to be approved whereby one man is appointed by the Bishop or Pastor for the males and one woman for the females, to discharge the office of godfather or godmother for all; but it is to be tolerated in a case of necessity to be judged by the Bishop, according to the form of the Roman Pontifical.” Sacred Congregation of the Council, 14 June and 12 July 1823; C. 696.

“1. Since in the rubrics concerning the Sacrament of Confirmation it is said: Adults or others who are older shall place their foot upon the right foot of their sponsor, it is asked whether it suffices if the sponsor places his right hand upon the right shoulder of the one to be confirmed? 2. Whether one to be confirmed, at the time of Confirmation, when the Bishop says: N., I sign you with the sign of the Cross, etc., can take care that another name of a Saint be imposed upon him in addition to his baptismal name?—To the first: It suffices. To the second: He can.” Sacred Congregation of Rites, 20 September 1749, Jaurinen.

Who is the subject of confirmation? - It is every and only baptized man not yet confirmed, although lacking the use of reason. For confirmation perfects the spiritual life which is received in baptism, and it was instituted for all, as baptism was. - Yet from the practice generally prevailing in the Church, children who have not yet attained the use of reason are not to be confirmed, unless the legitimate custom of places brings this about, as for example prevails among the Greeks and in Spain. Benedict XIV, Const. Eo quamvis § 6. - "It is certain among all that infants are licitly confirmed if just causes accede, namely danger of death, absence of the bishop, etc." L. 178.

"If the twelfth year does not seem to have to be awaited, certainly it is most fitting to defer this sacrament until the seventh." Roman Catechism 18. Nor must it be awaited that children be confirmed only after first Communion. Leo XIII, Brief, June 22, 1897. - "Even to those about to die this sacrament is to be given... Even confirmed children who die obtain greater glory, just as here also they obtain greater grace." St. Thomas 3 p., q. 72, a. 8 ad 4. - Speaking about the insane, Benedict XIV says that confirmation must altogether be ministered to them. L. 178. Even the perpetually insane are licitly confirmed. L. 180. - Roman Pontifical, de Confirm.; Benedict XIV, de Syn. l. 7, c. 10, n. 5, 8; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 72, a. 8; E. M.

What is the necessity and obligation of receiving confirmation, and of what kind is it? - "It is not necessary for salvation by necessity of means, nor of itself by necessity of precept. This is common with St. Thomas and others against Scotus and Sylvester. The reason is both because the Church does not urge its reception by any penalties, and because neither from Scripture, nor Tradition, nor the end or institution of the sacrament is such a precept gathered.

And the canons which are brought forward to the contrary are sufficiently explained of necessity for better being." Busembaum 181. - "The precept which is had in Trent sess. 23, c. 4 de R. does not bind all, since it is hypothetical; but only those to be ordained, or to be initiated with first tonsure. Henriquez, Valentia, Suarez, and Navarrus teach against Tanner that its omission is not mortal; and Navarrus adds that not even a bishop sins mortally by ordaining one not confirmed, or if he himself, not confirmed, ordains." Busembaum 183.

According to St. Liguori there is an obligation under grave obligation from divine precept, at least in the course of life and when a suitable occasion is given; and he proves this from the Declaration of Benedict XIV, Const. Etsi pastoralis, concerning the rites and dogmas of the Greeks, where he says, § 3, n. 4: "They are to be warned by the Ordinaries of places that they are held by the guilt of grave sin if, when they can approach confirmation, they refuse and neglect it." These words of Benedict XIV do not seem to conclude for all; because the Pontiff speaks only of those invalidly confirmed by Greek presbyters, who therefore refused to approach confirmation again because they held the first as valid. Whence there was here a particular reason of obliging them to receive the sacrament of confirmation, namely so that they would thus retract the error. And this is confirmed from Benedict XIV himself, de Syn. l. 7, c. 10, n. 9, which work was published after that Constitution, c. 9, n. 4. Wherefore the law is doubtful. Yet the opinion of St. Alphonsus is handed down in the Instruction issued by authority of S. C. de P. F., May 4, 1774, and inserted into the Roman Ritual. But the common opinion of St. Thomas is handed down, on the contrary, in the Instruction of the Holy Office, June 20, 1866, for the Apostolic Vicar to the Gallas. - St. Thomas 3 p., q. 72, a. 8; Suppl. q. 29, a. 3 ad 3; E. M.

What is to be done in doubt whether someone has been confirmed? - He can be confirmed again conditionally, cf. 345, 346. But he is not bound to this if he truly probably believes that he has already received the sacrament. - L. H. A. 48.

What dispositions are required in those to be confirmed? - 1. The baptismal character for the validity of the sacrament, and in an adult the intention of receiving the sacrament of confirmation for the strength of his soul. Cf. 381; Holy Office, Apr. 10, 1861; Collection of S. C. de P. F. n. 1213. 2. The state of grace, because confirmation is a sacrament of the living. Wherefore he who is conscious of mortal sin must have recourse to the sacrament of penance, unless he is perfectly contrite. The general custom is that no one be confirmed unless he presents a certificate signed with the autograph of the pastor. 3. That the one to be confirmed be imbued with the rudiments of Christian doctrine, especially those which are of necessity of means, and which regard the sacraments of penance and confirmation. - Roman Pontifical, de Confirm.; E. M.

Must the one to be confirmed be fasting? - Resp. In the negative, considering present-day custom. For the canonical laws which prescribed fasting for receiving confirmation have fallen into desuetude. For this reason also the use has prevailed of conferring that sacrament in the evening time. - Roman Pontifical, de Confirm.; L. 184; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 72, a. 6, 7.

What about the various prescriptions concerning the administration of confirmation? - The rite to be observed by a bishop is had in the Roman Pontifical; but the manner to be observed by a simple priest administering this sacrament is had in the Instruction of S. C. de P. F., May 4, 1774. - "Confirmation can be conferred on any day whatever," L. 184, "and at any time whatever," L. 174. "But probably it can be ministered without grave sin in some decent place, even outside the Church," L. 174, 184, even in churches of regulars. Benedict XIV, Const. Confirmandis § 6. "The bishop must be clothed with amice over the rochet, or with surplice if he is a Religious, and with stole, white cope, miter, and staff... They more truly say that to omit all the aforesaid instruments is mortal..., otherwise if only some one is omitted... It must be noted as regards the staff, that it suffices that the staff remain publicly exposed, or be held by a cleric... Likewise the Sacred Congregation declared that it suffices that the bishop confirm without miter, with only the stole used... It must be noted that the omission of the slap, scandal being excluded, is never mortal..., they deny that omission of the candle can ever be mortal." L. 134; Roman Pontifical.

Moreover, outside the case of necessity, under grave obligation a sponsor is required, and of the same sex, Roman Pontifical, de Confirm.; Instruction of S. C. de Pr. F., May 4, 1774; and only one, designated by the parents or by the bishop in their defect, who, as regards validity, must have been confirmed; besides, he must be different from the baptismal sponsor, at least outside necessity. The sponsor contracts spiritual kinship with the confirmed person and his parents, provided however that he touches him. He also contracts the obligation of instructing the confirmed person as regards those things which pertain to faith and morals, if the confirmed person has not been instructed and another is lacking. Trent sess. 24, c. 2 de R. M. - But a religious cannot be sponsor unless the one to be confirmed is likewise a religious. Cf. 441 ff. - As regards the manner of receiving in confirmation, it is prescribed in the Roman Pontifical that the one to be confirmed place his foot upon the right foot of the sponsor; but today received custom has that it suffices that the sponsor place the right hand upon the right shoulder of the one to be confirmed. S. R. C., Sept. 20, 1749, ad 6, n. 2404; L. 187.

The forehead of the confirmed person is to be bound with a linen band, marked with a cross, and thus to remain until the chrism dries or is wiped away. But today by desuetude this ceremony is no longer in use in our parts, since immediately after the anointing the forehead of the confirmed person is wiped. L. 188. - "The common blessing, which is given by the bishop to those confirmed at the end, is not necessary for the sacrament, but is a simple ceremony, as the doctors commonly say. Hence Tamburini probably says that the admonition which is made, that those confirmed not depart before the aforesaid blessing, does not seem to oblige." L. ib. - Roman Pontifical, de Confirm.; L. 185-188; H. A. 50-52; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 72, a. 10, 12; E. M.

The names of those confirmed and of the sponsors are to be recorded in the parish books.

6. Peter, a missionary, called to confirm a certain adolescent in some Christian community, seeing that there is no man there who may fulfill the office of sponsor, commands a virgin catechist to fulfill the office of sponsor-woman. - Does he act rightly?

R. In the administration of confirmation a sponsor is required, who ought to be one, confirmed, and of the same sex. But confirmation can licitly be conferred without a sponsor, if one is not available. Wherefore Peter would have done better if he had administered confirmation with no sponsor employed. Cf. St. Alph. l. 6. n. 185. 187., Enchir. Moral. 494., I. M. 494. But could Peter himself not have performed the office of sponsor? To S. C. de P. F., 21 Sept. 1843, the doubt was proposed: "Whether it is lawful for priests who administer the sacrament of confirmation to act at the same time as sponsors"; and it answered: "It is not to be tolerated."

— I. The ordinary minister of valid confirmation is every and only bishop; but the extraordinary minister, from a faculty made either by common law or by a peculiar indult of the Apostolic See, can be any priest, so that a priest can be said to be the remote minister of this sacrament. Cf. c. 782, §§1, 2.

With this faculty received, the presbyter indeed acquires no jurisdiction, but his power of order, which he has incomplete, is perfected. But that the Supreme Pontiff alone and no other bishop can give this necessary complement seems to be attributed to a reservation made by the Supreme Pontiff. Cf. Lehmkuhl, II, 133, 134.

All priests of the Greek rite obtain this faculty. In the Latin Church, by law itself the following are endowed with that faculty: Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church (c. 239, §1, n. 23), an abbot or prelate nullius, an Apostolic Vicar and Prefect; but these latter three cannot validly use it except within the limits of their territory and only while the function lasts (c. 782, §3).

Besides, "a presbyter of the Latin rite to whom, by force of an indult, this faculty belongs, validly confers confirmation only on the faithful of his own rite, unless in the indult something else has been expressly provided" (c. 782, §4).

Therefore a faculty given by the law itself is not circumscribed by this exception.

But priests of an oriental rite who at the same time baptize and confirm infants of their own rite are prohibited from conferring confirmation on infants of the Latin rite (c. 732, §5). The confirmation conferred nevertheless more probably is valid.

— In his own diocese, a bishop legitimately administers confirmation even to outsiders, unless express prohibition of their own Ordinary stands in the way; but in another diocese, he is permitted to minister confirmation to his own subjects privately and without staff and miter. That he minister it solemnly, he needs license of the local Ordinary at least reasonably presumed (c. 783).

Before the Code, they demanded, and indeed under grave guilt, the tacit consent of one's own Ordinary that outside subjects be legitimately confirmed. Yet they permitted that this consent be presumed, both as to those who ran in from another diocese, and as to one to be ordained who had received dimissorial letters for orders from his own bishop.

A Nuncio or Apostolic Delegate, if he is a bishop, by force of his faculty, n. 63, can confirm in the whole dominion subject to his jurisdiction and during a sea voyage, both in going to and returning from the place of his mission.

— A bishop must, by grave obligation, minister the sacrament of confirmation to his subjects duly and reasonably asking it, especially at the time of the visitation of the diocese (c. 785, §1).

The same is the office of a presbyter furnished with apostolic privilege, toward those in whose favor the faculty has been conceded (c. 785, §2).

Indeed the Ordinary who is prohibited from confirming by himself must provide, as much as can be done, that at least within any five-year period this sacrament be administered to his subjects (c. 785, §3).

Wherefore, after the Code, we judge that an Ordinary sins gravely who has neglected this administration beyond five years, although formerly they judged a delay grave after eight or ten years.

Concerning the negligence of a bishop, the Metropolitan must make the Roman Pontiff certain from cc. 785, §4 and 274, 4°.

— On the Subject. 1. All and only the baptized not yet confirmed are validly confirmed.

2. From among the baptized not yet confirmed, the following are licitly and fruitfully confirmed: a) adults who, constituted in the state of grace, are sufficiently instructed; b) the perpetually insane. Nor in those who have been masters of themselves is there need that they previously asked this sacrament, because in the profession of Christian life there is had a sufficient will of this sacrament. Therefore it is enough that the insane person be in the state of grace; and he is presumed to be in that state, unless the contrary is at least vehemently suggested; c) infants constituted in danger of death, or those for whom it seems expedient to the minister because of just and grave causes (c. 788). These causes can exist if a long absence of the bishop is foreseen, or if it is feared that the infant will die before another occasion of the sacrament.

With these causes excluded, administration of confirmation is conveniently deferred in the Latin Church to around the seventh year of age (c. 788), so that a sacrament less necessary may be received with greater reverence and in a more conscious manner.

But the dignity of this sacrament demands this: that those to be confirmed be thoroughly instructed concerning the special grace of this sacrament, that is, of fortitude, especially of intrepid confession of faith. This will be the occasion of inculcating in Christian adolescents that noble manliness which despises exterior human fears and, stronger, overcomes the interior attacks of temptations. And it is to be wished that so great a sacrament be held at a greater price.

— 1. The sacrament of confirmation has no necessity of means. Yet for a dying person who cannot confess or be anointed by extreme unction, the sacrament could become necessary.

2. The necessity of precept itself was commonly denied before the Code, both because the negligent are punished by no penalty, and because the obligation is gathered neither from Scripture or tradition, nor from the end or institution of the sacrament. Yet they admitted that an obligation of receiving it could arise per accidens for avoiding scandal, or, with persecution pressing, if someone fears that in torments he may fail in strength.

But now from c. 787, "it is lawful for no one, when occasion is offered, to neglect it"; so that this negligence, which betrays a certain sloth or lesser esteem, must be blamed at least venially. Besides, by the same canon, an obligation is imposed on pastors of taking care that the faithful approach it at an opportune time.

In the Greek Church, all infants are fortified by this sacrament. The same can be affirmed concerning the children of Catholics in the City also, since the custom is that some bishop be called to a dying infant to confirm him. But elsewhere, because of the rarity of bishops, very many infants die not confirmed.

If someone considers these things, does he not begin to grieve over this unequal condition of children, and to inquire into the manner by which morally an occasion may be given to all of obtaining in the soul that new character which by this sacrament is imprinted in the soul? Now much more easily today, by common law itself, the faculty of confirming is communicated to presbyters. Could not faculties be conceded, in places where bishops are few, to deans or archpriests for confirming children placed in danger of death? Those who are eminent in authority will judge concerning the opportuneness of the matter; yet it will be lawful for us to have it among our wishes.

3. Those to be ordained or to be initiated by first tonsure should indeed first be confirmed. Yet omission is not thought mortal (St. Alphonsus, VI, 786). Navarrus (Manuale, c. 22, n. 9) adds that not even a bishop sins mortally who ordains one not confirmed or himself not confirmed.

163. 2. A sponsor is required in confirmation under pain of grave sin, just as in baptism. Thus the common opinion.⁸⁹ A case of grave necessity is excepted, namely, when a legitimate sponsor cannot be had.⁹⁰ There is to be only one sponsor for each person to be confirmed, and therefore two are not permitted as in baptism. A sponsor is to present only one or two persons to be confirmed, unless otherwise seems good to the minister for a just cause.⁹¹

The conditions required on the part of the sponsor for validity are:

a) That the sponsor have the intention of performing the office of sponsor and consequently have attained the use of reason. This is evident.

b) That the sponsor be designated either by the person to be confirmed himself, or by his parents or guardians, or, if these are lacking, by the minister or pastor.

c) That the sponsor himself be confirmed. Thus it is established from the Code of Canon Law, c. 795, and from the Roman Pontifical, which states: "No one who has not been confirmed can be a sponsor in confirmation." Hence it would be a grave sin if an unconfirmed person wished to act as sponsor in confirmation.^91a

d) That in the very act of confirmation the sponsor physically touch the person to be confirmed, either personally or through a proxy. In ancient times the person to be confirmed placed his right foot upon the sponsor's right foot; now, however, custom has prevailed that the sponsor place his right hand upon the right shoulder of the person to be confirmed.

e) That the sponsor be a Catholic and neither enrolled in a heretical or schismatic sect nor marked by any of the penalties concerning which something was said above in n. 145, 2.

f) That the sponsor not be the father, mother, or spouse of the person to be confirmed.

The conditions required on the part of the sponsor for liceity are:⁹²

a) That the sponsor be someone other than the baptismal sponsor, unless a reasonable cause, in the judgment of the minister, counsels otherwise, or confirmation is legitimately conferred immediately after baptism.

b) That the sponsor be of the same sex as the person to be confirmed, unless otherwise seems good to the minister in particular cases for a reasonable cause.

c) That the same things prescribed for a baptismal sponsor above in n. 147 be observed; for example, that the sponsor have attained the fourteenth year of age and not be a religious or constituted in sacred orders.

⁸⁹ Cf. St. Alphonsus, loc. cit., n. 185, and Holy Office, September 5, 1877 (Collect. de Prop. Fide, n. 1480). Because of the authority of the Holy Office, the opposite opinion is not probable.

⁹⁰ Cf. Acta et Decreta Concilii plenarii Americae Latinae (1899), n. 517.

⁹¹ Code of Canon Law, c. 794.

^91a Cf. St. Alphonsus, loc. cit., n. 186.

⁹² Code of Canon Law, c. 796.

S. Th. III, q. 72, a. 6 and 8.

190. The capable subject of Confirmation is every and only a baptized man not yet confirmed (can. 786). Whence it is validly conferred upon children and the perpetually insane, who, although they have no spiritual enemies to attack, can receive spiritual strength and an increase of grace; but upon adults, provided they have at least a habitual and implicit intention of receiving the sacrament (nn. 92-93).

But that it may be received licitly and fruitfully, the one receiving it must be constituted in the state of grace, since it is a sacrament of the living, and, if he has the use of reason, sufficiently instructed (can. 786), namely both concerning those things necessary to know by necessity of means and of precept, and concerning those things which regard the sacrament to be received, as the Instruction of the S.C.P.F. of the year 1774 explains.

191. A special precept of receiving Confirmation is not given per se, because the sacrament is not necessary for salvation but for the perfection of salvation (a. 1, ad 3). Hence:

a) Those who do not receive it do not per se sin gravely.

b) But to neglect so great a means of salvation regularly, and with a sufficiently great inconvenience excluded, is not done from a reasonable motive, and therefore is accustomed to include light fault; whence can. 787: "Although this sacrament is not of the necessity of means for salvation, nevertheless it is lawful for no one, when occasion is offered, to neglect it...."

c) Per accidens grave sin can be present by reason of scandal, or contempt, or special necessity on account of a peculiar danger of losing the faith.

192. Confirmation is fitting for every age and of itself is to be given to all. - For, just as it is of the intention of nature that everyone who is born bodily arrive at perfect age, although this is sometimes impeded on account of the corruptibility of the body, which is forestalled by death, so also and much more is it of the intention of God that one who is born spiritually arrive at the perfect age of supernatural life. But the soul, to which both spiritual birth and the perfection of spiritual age pertain, is immortal, and can, just as in the time of old age it can obtain spiritual birth, so in the time of youth or childhood it can obtain perfect age, because bodily ages of this kind do not prejudice the soul. Therefore Confirmation can be conferred on every age and per se ought to be given to all (a. 8).

Hence "even in childhood man can obtain the perfection of spiritual age...; and from this it is that many in childhood, on account of the strength of the Holy Spirit received, fought strongly for Christ even unto blood" (ad 2). And this sacrament is also to be given to the dying, that they may appear perfect in the resurrection.... Whence "also children departing after having been confirmed both obtain greater glory, just as here also they obtain greater grace" (ad 4).

In the first centuries Confirmation was given immediately after Baptism. From the fifth century, on account of the multiplication of the faithful in the Latin Church, the conferral of Confirmation, as reserved to the bishop, began to be separated from the administration of Baptism; and so gradually the custom prevailed of delaying it until the years of discretion, except, however, in Spain, where the ancient custom, as among the Greeks, was preserved up to the present day.

Now the present custom of the Latin Church is more fitting, both on account of greater reverence for so great a sacrament and on account of hope of more abundant fruit in those receiving consciously. According to the present discipline consecrated by can. 788: 1. regularly Confirmation is to be delayed until the use of reason, and ordinarily is not to be administered before it; 2. nevertheless it can be conferred before this if the infant is constituted in danger of death, or if it seems to the minister expedient on account of just and grave causes; 3. yet it is not to be delayed longer, but is fittingly given at around the seventh year of age.

Question 4. Are sponsors required in Confirmation, as in Baptism?

Resp. From the most ancient custom of the Church, as in Baptism, so also in Confirmation, a sponsor is to be employed, if he can be had (Can. 793).

§ 1. Let the sponsor present only one to be confirmed or two, unless something else for a just cause seems good to the minister.

§ 2. Likewise let there be one sponsor for each of those to be confirmed (Can. 794).

Question 5. What conditions are required that someone be a sponsor?

Resp. In order that someone be a sponsor, it is necessary that:

1st. He himself also be confirmed, have attained the use of reason, and have the intention of carrying out that office;

2nd. He be enrolled in no heretical or schismatic sect, nor marked by any of the penalties of which in can. 765, n. 2, through a declaratory or condemnatory sentence;

3rd. He be not the father, mother, or spouse of the one to be confirmed;

4th. He be designated by the one to be confirmed or by his parents or tutors, or, if these are lacking or refuse, by the minister or by the parish priest;

5th. In the very act of confirmation, either through himself or through a procurator, he physically touch the one to be confirmed (Can. 795).

Question 7. Does a sponsor in Confirmation contract spiritual kinship?

Resp. Even from valid confirmation there arises between the confirmed person and the sponsor spiritual kinship, from which the sponsor is held by the obligation of having the confirmed person perpetually commended to himself and of taking care of his Christian education (Can. 797).

Cf. Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, n. 253. Nevertheless, no matrimonial impediment arises from this.