The Prudence of the Flesh

263. Its nature. 1. Prudence is defined as right reason of things to be done, or it is the moral virtue dictating in any business whatever what, with the circumstances considered, must be done, so that the action may be fitting to right reason.

a. Prudence is a virtue of the practical intellect, which proximately directs all virtues, both moral and theological.

b. Prudence orders man both to himself and to another, because it directs all acts whatever, both those which are referred to himself and those which are referred to another.

2. The material object of prudence is constituted by all human actions in particular, concerning which it dictates how they are to be exercised here and now, so that the honorable may be done and evil avoided. The formal object is natural honesty, which shines forth in this, that all deliberate actions be done according to right reason.

a. Because prudence pertains to all human actions (for it must impress upon all, as it were, the mean of virtue as a form), it is easily understood that there can be no virtue without prudence. For this reason prudence is rightly called the charioteer and moderator of all virtues. Thus mercy inclines a man to assist the poor, but prudence dictates how much, where, when, and how it must be given to the poor man, so that the act of mercy may be fitting to right reason in every respect.

b. Prudence itself supposes that the will is well disposed concerning the particular ends of the moral virtues, lest prudent judgment be corrupted by disordered affections: for he who wishes to judge rightly must be free from disordered affections, since each one customarily judges according as he is affected.

3. The functions or acts of prudence are numbered as three: consultation, judgment, and command. For first it must inquire into the means which are necessary for the end, i.e. so that the work may be done honestly; then it judges what and how something must be done here and now, so that the work may be done according to virtue; and finally it commands that this or that action is to be done here and now.

264. On the opposed vices. 1. The vices opposed to prudence by defect are:

a. Precipitation, by which a work is undertaken immediately without prior deliberation.

b. Inconsideration, by which an attentive inspection of the matter about which judgment must be made and of its circumstances is omitted.

c. Inconstancy, by which the opinion reached is changed without any cause, or certainly without a just cause.

d. Negligence, by which a matter deliberated and determined is not committed to execution at the opportune time.

2. The vices opposed to prudence by excess are rather vices which have a certain false appearance and likeness of prudence:

a. Prudence of the flesh, which devises means for fulfilling the motions of corrupt nature.

b. Astuteness, which devises simulated and hidden ways for deceiving one's neighbor in order to attain some end, whether good or bad; if it is committed by words, it is called deceit, if by deeds, it is called fraud.

c. Solicitude for temporal things, which is an excessive occupation of the mind in acquiring and preserving temporal goods.

d. Solicitude for future things, which is an excessive occupation concerning those things which are in future time, especially those necessary for life.

265. On the parts of prudence. 1. The integral parts of prudence are numbered as eight:

a. memory of past things, b. understanding of present things, c. docility, which acquiesces in the opinions of elders, d. shrewdness in considering future events, e. reason comparing one thing with another and promptly gathering what follows from it, f. foresight considering the end, g. circumspection attending to the circumstances of the work, h. caution in avoiding impediments.

2. The subjective parts of prudence are two: a. monastic or private prudence, by which someone rules himself, b. ruling prudence, by which someone rules others or a multitude.

This is distinguished into economic prudence, by which the family is ruled, children are well educated, goods are preserved and increased, etc.; into political prudence, by which a society of men living under the same laws is ruled and its common good is sought; into military prudence, by which soldiers are directed to attack enemies or to repel them.

3. The potential parts of the virtue of prudence are numbered as three:

a. Eubulia is the habit of finding good counsel in ambiguous and perplexed matters.

b. Synesis is the habit of bearing right judgment concerning particular operations according to common laws.

c. Gnome is the habit of judging rightly in particulars in which, on account of particular adjuncts, an exception from the common law must be made. Gnome therefore directs epikeia.

The prudence whose end is bad is the sin of those Who counsel, judge, and direct well as to the means for securing temporal goods which they have made the supreme purpose of their lives. This sin is given the one general name, “prudence of the flesh,” from Rom., viii. 6, where the aspirations of the flesh are contrasted with the aspirations of the spirit. But it is also sometimes distinguished according to the different kinds of created things in which false prudence puts its desire, or according to the different kinds of allurements to such created goods.

(a) Thus, those who aim chiefly at internal goods (i.e., bodily pleasures, health, etc.) are said to have the prudence of the flesh, while those who long mostly after externals (such as fine clothes, jewelry, estates, etc.) are said to have the prudence of this world: “The children of this world are more prudent in their generation than the children of light” (Luke, xvi. 8).

(b) We may also divide prudence about a wrong end into earthly, animal and devilish, according to the threefold source of temptation, as was explained above in 1623.

Sinfulness of the Prudence of the Flesh.—(a) If prudence of the fiesh be understood in its stricter meaning as designating the condition of those who make the things of this world the be-all and the end-all of existence, it is a mortal sin; for it is impossible that one should have two last ends or serve two masters whose interests are opposite: “The wisdom of the flesh is an enemy to God, for it is not subject to the law of God, neither can it be” (Rom., viii. 7).

(b) If prudence of the flesh be taken in a less strict sense as signifying the behavior of those who make God the supreme end of their lives, but who in some affair plan shrewdly for a particular end that does not entirely square with right reason, it is then a venial sin. An example is a host who is very practical in buying supplies and making all the arrangements for a banquet at which the guests will conduct themselves with too much hilarity.

(c) If prudence of the flesh be used in a wide or improper sense as signifying the care of the body and other temporal things for the sake of a good end, it is not sinful, but virtuous. Thus, a person who is careful about his diet in order that he may conserve his health and be enabled to work more efficiently and fruitfully, is virtuously prudent. The use of the term “prudence of the flesh,” for these last two cases is inaccurate and misleading.

635. b) By excess three vices especially are opposed to prudence:⁴⁴

1. Prudence of the flesh, which devises suitable means for living according to the flesh or according to corrupt human nature, or even which has the goods of the flesh as the ultimate end of life. Concerning this prudence of the flesh St. Paul says: "For the prudence of the flesh is death; but the prudence of the spirit is life and peace. Since the wisdom of the flesh is an enemy of God; for it is not subject to the law of God, nor can it be. But those who are in the flesh cannot please God."⁴⁵

2. Craftiness,⁴⁶ deceit, and fraud.⁴⁷ Craftiness properly so called is not necessarily concerned with an evil end in itself; nevertheless it sins because it devises depraved means for obtaining the intended end (whether good or evil); it is opposed to Christian simplicity and is often nothing else than a practical and pernicious lie. The crafty man is accustomed to be feared as well as despised. The words of Psalm 3 can be applied to him: "Their throat is an open sepulchre; with their tongues they acted deceitfully; the poison of asps is under their lips." Deceit and fraud are the execution of craftiness; deceit universally, whether by deeds or by words, but fraud is done principally by deeds.

3. Excessive solicitude concerning temporal and future things. Solicitude imports a certain zeal for obtaining or preserving something; but it can be illicit in a threefold way concerning temporal and future things: a) if temporal things are sought as an end, by preferring them to spiritual things; b) if excessive zeal is employed for acquiring or preserving them; c) if there is present excessive fear and anxiety lest, by doing what must be done, necessary things fail us. Therefore not all solicitude for temporal things is illicit, but only immoderate solicitude.⁴⁸

The Angelic Doctor shrewdly notes,⁴⁹ just as vices against prudence by defect commonly arise from lust, so vices against prudence by excess often take their origin from avarice.

⁴⁴ The Angelic Doctor (S. theol. 2, 2, q. 53, prolog.) teaches that these vices have a certain false likeness with prudence and that they happen through abuse of those things which are required for prudence.

⁴⁵ Rom. 8, 6-8.

⁴⁶ Cunning.

⁴⁷ Deception; cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 55, a. 3, 4, 5.

⁴⁸ Cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 55, a. 6.

⁴⁹ Ib. a. 8.

St. Thomas, II-II, q. 55.

41. False prudence is a sin opposed to prudence by excess. There are various species of it: for there can be 1. abuse of prudence itself a) concerning a false end, through prudence of the flesh, b) concerning false means, through cunning, or the devising and knowledge of false means, c) concerning the execution of false means, through deceit in words and fraud in deeds; 2. abuse of solicitude, through excessive solicitude.

42. Prudence of the flesh is concerned with the end (voorzichtigheid des vleesches of der wereld, wereldswijsheid, Lk. XVI, 8) and is the excess or abuse of prudence itself strictly so called; it devises and dictates suitable means to an evil end, namely for accomplishing the works of the flesh or fulfilling the instinct of corrupt nature (Rom. VIII, 5-7; Gal. V, 16). Whence it is skill in finding and employing ways for doing evil. Since it is found in every sin, just as true prudence is found in every virtue, hence it is not a sin distinct from the evil work itself, unless it is directly and in itself voluntary, precisely insofar as it is opposed to prudence.

It is a mortal sin if someone sets up an evil end for himself as the ultimate end or the end of the whole life: for by that very fact he is turned away from the true ultimate end, God; as if it proceeds from a mortally evil affection, or someone on that account is prepared to sin mortally, for example if he preferred a temporal good to the eternal good of the soul. But if someone proposes a particular evil end for himself without being turned away from the ultimate end, it is a venial sin, for example if he were to employ effort for pleasure alone.

1. Hence false prudence does not necessarily judge erroneously by speculative error, because the means can be truly suitable to the end, and it does not necessarily judge that they are absolutely good, but that they are suitable for us to the end proposed. But it is practically false, because it is the cause of evil election: for it is not conformed to right appetite, but conformed to dishonorable affection.

2. The works of the flesh in the present place are understood not in the strict theological sense, but in the more general sense of the Apostle concerning all works of corrupt nature; these are of three kinds according to the threefold perverse concupiscence. Whence prudence of the flesh can be distinguished as threefold: earthly, animal or strictly carnal, and diabolical, according as it tends to temporal goods, to pleasure, or to pride (hebzuchtige, vleeschelijke of dierlijke, eerzuchtige v.).

43. There are various species concerning the means:

a) cunning (listigheid, arglistigheid, sluwheid, doorslepenheid), which is excess or abuse in counsel (and judgment); this devises for an end, whether good or evil, means not true but false, simulated, or apparent. Namely, it is skill in devising ways not true but simulated, for attaining an end, whether good or evil. It is sin because even to a good end one must not arrive by false ways but by true ones; mortal if it proceeds from a mortally evil affection, or inflicts grave harm (II Cor. IV, 2);

b) deceit, and c) fraud (bedriegerij, bedrog in woord en daad), which are nothing but the external act and execution of cunning: deceit principally through false words, which hold the principal place among signs; fraud through false deeds.

44. Excessive or immoderate solicitude (overdreven bezorgdheid) can be: either of temporal things, namely an excessive occupation of the mind in acquiring or conserving temporal things; or of future things, namely an excessive occupation of the mind concerning future things, especially things necessary for life, with anxiety and little confidence in divine providence. In three ways it can be illicit: a) if we seek temporal things as the ultimate end, by preferring them to spiritual things, which is mortal; b) if superfluous effort is employed for acquiring or conserving temporal things, so that we are withdrawn from due spiritual things: this is mortal if it withdraws from spiritual things prescribed under grave obligation; otherwise it is venial; c) if there is only superfluous fear, namely lest, by doing what must be done, necessary things fail us: this is venial, unless per accidens it were the effect or cause of mortal sin.

1. For a work of virtue, among other circumstances, due time also is required, and this also has place in interior solicitude. Thus if in the time of summer someone were already solicitous about the grape harvest, he would be superfluously solicitous (St. Thomas, q. 55, a. 7).

45. The cause of false prudence. - The species of false prudence arise especially from avarice, which is most of all opposed to the virtue of justice, in which the use of right reason chiefly shines forth. Thus, for example, excessive solicitude arises from the inordinate love of having or fear of losing.

NOW we must treat of the vices opposed to Prudence by excess, which bear a false likeness of Prudence.

PRUDENCE OF THE FLESH is the scheming of reason, clever, and adapted to attaining some perverse end, conformed to the depraved carnal appetite; and it is a mortal sin, if it sets itself up as the ultimate end.

Of this the Apostle speaks, Rom. 8. The prudence of the flesh is an enemy to God: for it is not subject to the law of God. See St. Thomas quaest. 55. art. 1. Valencia quaest. 5. punct. 2. Tanner num. 55. with St. Bonaventure cited at the beginning.

This sin, however, is not distinct from that which is committed by a perverse work, unless this prudence is directly willed, as I said in quaestione 4.