The confessor as spiritual father

The confessor should remember how our Lord used to act toward sinners during his mortal life; with what charity, forbearance, and patience he dealt with them, and he should strive to imitate his divine model. Like him he should be interested in the souls of men, not in their social position, age, or sex. Whoever they may be, he should receive all sympathetically and kindly. This does not mean that he should treat all precisely in the same way. Just because of his interest in his penitents and of his sympathy for them, he will treat them as their various needs demand; not expecting the same degree of virtue in all, nor attempting to raise all to the same height of sanctity. He should try to discover what God designs for each soul and be content to second the inspirations of the Holy Spirit.

In dealing with pious penitents, especially of the other sex, he should be brief and austere, otherwise he will lose much time with little or no fruit, and expose himself to no little danger. With these penitents, especially, he should treat of nothing in the confessional except whet concerns their consciences, and that in a fatherly way, but briefly. Even if he recognizes his penitents, it will be better as a rule not to show that he knows them for what they are outside the confessional. He will thus be able to deal with them for the good of their souls with more freedom and detachment.

I. For the confessor to absolve validly, it suffices that he has apprehended the act of the penitent under the aspect of sin, even if he forms no judgment either about the gravity or about the species of the sin (St. Alphonsus, VI, 627).

II. For the confessor to absolve in such a way that there does not remain for the penitent the burden of afterwards confessing the sin again, it suffices that the penitent has declared the sin, as it was committed, to an attentive confessor, even if the confessor errs both as regards gravity and as regards species (St. Alphonsus, VI, 478).

III. For the confessor to absolve licitly, he generally ought to have judged whether the sins accused were grave or light, and of what species they were (St. Alphonsus, VI, 627). To explain these things more, observe that it suffices that the confessor: 1. habitually know the gravity and species of the more obvious sins;¹ 2. equipped with that knowledge, hear the sins, even if he does not form an entirely explicit judgment about gravity and species; 3. have judged about the sins in the way set forth at the moment when the penitent declares them, and pronounce sentence from the judgment previously had, even if, while he grants absolution, he does not remember the sins declared.

Corollary I. While the confessor imposes satisfaction, he ought to retain or reassume sufficient knowledge, which is easily present, for imposing a fitting satisfaction.

Corollary II. If absolution is deferred, for example for one or two weeks, it is required that in the following confession the confessor have retained, or now reassume, at least confused knowledge of the state of the penitent (n. 334).

¹ "Let him hear the rest and absolve" (St. Alphonsus, VI, 627).

I. For the confessor to absolve licitly, of itself at least broad moral certitude about the due disposition of the penitent is required, but that also suffices. It is said:

1. Of itself, because sometimes absolution can be granted conditionally even if the confessor lacks broad moral certitude (n. 404).

2. Broad moral certitude, that is, one which excludes strict doubt or imports the state of one opining.

3. That also suffices, for the matter concerns an internal thing, especially the sorrow of the penitent, about which greater certitude is had with difficulty, so that, if greater were required, "the administration of the sacrament would become subject to excessive scruples and difficulties" (St. Alphonsus, VI, 57). Hence apply these words of St. Thomas: "Certitude is not to be sought in the same way in all things, but in each matter according to its proper mode" (II-II, q. 47, a. 9, ad 2).

Having noted these things, the necessity of broad moral certitude is proved by these arguments:

First, the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide¹ has these words: "Confessors should deny absolution to those who provide either no signs or only signs of feigned penance; but they should defer absolution for those whose penance is uncertain and suspect."

Next, after the first proposition condemned by Innocent XI,² almost all, both older and more recent authors, admit and defend the doctrine stated, as Aertnys,³ Berardi,⁴ and especially Ter Haar⁵ prove by the testimonies they cite.

Finally, the reverence due to the sacrament forbids its being ministered with so great a danger of nullity as the defect of broad moral certitude imports. In the case the sacrament will indeed probably be valid and probably will grant pardon to the sinner; but it cannot be admitted that for that reason alone the reverence due of itself to the sacrament may be neglected, or that the sacrament may thus be subordinated to the good of the subject, especially because a sinner who is doubtfully disposed wholly lacks an unimpeded right to absolution, since he ought to take care that he is certainly or at least sufficiently certainly disposed (St. Alphonsus, VI, 461; Homo Apostolicus, tract 16, n. 117).

Objection 1. The Roman Catechism teaches: "For if the priest, after hearing the confession, has judged that diligence was not wholly lacking to the penitent in enumerating sins, nor sorrow in detesting them, he can be absolved."⁶ Therefore he to whom contrition seems not wholly lacking can be absolved; this is far different from saying that only one about whose contrition the confessor is morally certain can be absolved.

Response. The only sense corresponding to the words, or the natural sense, is this: the penitent can be absolved if the confessor has judged that some true sorrow is not lacking. But one who truly doubts whether sorrow is present does not judge that it is present (vol. I, n. 215). Therefore the Roman Catechism favors rather than opposes the opinion defended by us.

Objection 2. It suffices that the confessor administer the sacrament prudently and without rashness. But this has place when he imparts absolution to those who are probably contrite.

Response. I concede the major; I deny the minor. For he administers the sacrament imprudently and rashly when he exposes it to grave danger of nullity. But ministration made to those who are only probably attrite exposes the sacrament to grave danger of nullity.

Objection 3. In those who most need the sacrament of Penance, broad moral certitude about due disposition is scarcely had, so that, if the stricter opinion is admitted, absolution would of itself almost always have to be deferred for them.

Response. I deny the assertion, and that it must be denied will be clearer from what is to be said under II.

¹ August 1827.

² The said proposition is this: it is not illicit in conferring sacraments to follow a probable opinion about the validity of the sacrament, leaving aside the safer one, unless law or agreement or danger of incurring grave harm forbids it (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1151).

³ In Nouvelle Revue Theologique, 1900, pp. 283-536.

⁴ De Recidivis, n. 19 sq.

⁵ Cited work, n. 408 sq.

⁶ De Poenitentia, n. 60.

II. The very confession or assertion of the penitent provides sufficient certitude about due disposition, unless from some other source a positive prejudice against due disposition arises (St. Alphonsus, VI, 459). When such a prejudice has arisen, some other special sign of disposition should be added to the confession or assertion, by which the prejudice is removed or sufficiently weakened. It is said:

1. The confession itself provides sufficient certitude about due disposition. For no one is presumed evil or a hypocrite.

2. Unless from another source a prejudice against due disposition arises, for example from the fact that the penitent is a habituated relapser; likewise from the fact that the penitent, who several times promised that he would avoid an interrupted voluntary occasion, nevertheless has not ceased to approach it and to sin in it, even if he is not a habituated relapser. Each of these things will be developed more later.

III. Once a prejudice has arisen, another sign of disposition should be added by which the prejudice is removed or sufficiently weakened. Signs of this kind¹ are, for example: 1. confession following from an extraordinary motive, as from a sudden death or from a sermon; indeed a confession which is instituted neither from the precept of the Church, nor from the authority of others, nor from custom alone, can suffice, for example a confession instituted immediately or soon after a fall; 2. unusual good works, for example prayers, fasting, almsgiving, pilgrimage, performed before confession; 3. manifestation of a sin previously hidden; 4. sorrow expressed by sighs and tears, although these must not always be trusted; 5. words which signify a firmer purpose, although even these cannot always be trusted; 6. spontaneous request for means of amending oneself, and so forth (St. Alphonsus, VI, 460, 505).

¹ They are called extraordinary signs by many; but one must not insist on the character of the extraordinary.

IV. When a prejudice against the penitent's disposition has arisen, the confessor should try to dispose him and to elicit a sign by which the prejudice is removed. He is bound to these things under grave obligation, both because then the precept of fraternal correction is especially urgent, and because another practice is very harmful. "For if absolution is immediately denied or deferred for penitents of this kind, they will easily fall into despair or religious indifference."¹ Hence the Roman Ritual rightly says: "After hearing the confession ... he will apply opportune corrections and admonitions, as he judges there to be need, with fatherly charity, and he will try to lead the penitent to sorrow and contrition by efficacious words."²

Benedict XIV in the Constitution Apostolica³ has these words: "They should not cease to exhort especially those who are accustomed to approach the sacrament of Penance either rarely or not without many crimes; they should open to them the most wretched life which they have led under the yoke of sin; they should explain the baseness of their crimes, so that, namely, they may grieve from the heart and seriously propose that they will withdraw from sins in the future. For it is settled that solid and grave exhortations of confessors, given in the forum of Penance, are far more efficacious than the sacred sermons of preachers, so that the penitent may turn his soul away from vices.... Nor should confessors reply that this cannot be done if a more frequent number of penitents suggests brevity; for that golden saying of St. Francis Xavier, in Fursellini's Life of him (book 6, chapter 17), has already solved the difficulty, conceived in these words: As for those confessing, he judged that care should be bestowed not hurriedly but diligently, admonishing that they should prefer to hear few confessions rightly made rather than many rashly hurried" (n. 22). Leo XII inculcates the same in the Constitution Charitate Christi.⁴

¹ Ter Haar, cited work, n. 351.

² Title III, chapter 1, n. 18.

³ June 26, 1749.

⁴ December 25, 1825.

After hearing confession, the confessor "will lead the penitent to amending and better ordering his life, and will hand down remedies for sins."¹ Hence he should inquire into the causes of sins, especially whether there was some occasion, and assign remedies. The general means are: 1. flight from occasions; 2. prayer, especially devotion toward the Blessed Virgin Mary; 3. frequency of the sacraments; 4. spiritual exercises instituted in some house of exercises. As regards particular means, compare what is to be said about the ministration of the sacrament to some persons specifically.

¹ Roman Ritual, title III, chapter 1, n. 18.

599. • The Confessor is a spiritual father who gives spiritual life to the penitent, or restores and fosters it; for in the tribunal of Penance he acts in the place of the best of all parents, namely, Christ Himself, and therefore is called by penitents by the sweetest name of Father. But that which stands out above all in the name of a true father is distinguished and inexhaustible charity. For what love is stronger than the love of a father? What is truer, purer, more chaste, more constant, fuller of solicitude, and more alien to personal advantage, indeed more ready and prompt for every kind of privation and inconvenience? Such, therefore, must be the charity of the Confessor, so that, clothed with the bowels of the mercy of Christ Jesus, Who came not to call the just but sinners, he may know how to deal attentively, patiently, and meekly with sinners (Leo XII, in the Bull for the Great Jubilee of the year 1825). Thus a good father will sustain all things for his spiritual children: For charity is patient.... bears all things.... endures all things. 2 Cor. 15:4.

The Confessor must be full of charity toward penitents at the beginning, during the course, and at the end of confession. Concerning these things it is profitable to hear St. Ligorius himself speaking in the Practice of the Confessor, at the end of the larger theological work, and also in Apostolic Homilies, treatise 21.

600. I. At the Beginning of Confession. - "First, the Confessor must employ charity in receiving everyone kindly, whether they are poor, uneducated, or sinners. Some take time only for hearing the confessions of long-standing devout persons or distinguished persons, because they do not have enough courage to repel these from themselves; yet if some wretched sinner approaches them, he is heard grudgingly and, loaded with reproaches, is driven away. Hence it happens that the wretched man, after exerting the greatest force upon himself to come to confess his sins, feeling himself received so harshly, conceives a hatred for the Sacrament of Penance; and, despairing of being able to find anyone who will aid him and absolve him from sins, he plunges headlong with loosened reins into the slippery course of a ruined life and falls into despair of salvation. Good Confessors act otherwise when sinners of this kind flock to them: they receive them kindly and, as a victor over captured prey, exult, considering that it has fallen to them to snatch a soul from the hands of the devil. They know that this Sacrament was properly instituted not for the just but for sinners; for venial faults do not need sacramental absolution in order to be remitted, since they can be effaced in many other ways. They also know that Christ declared in these words: For I came not to call the just, but sinners. Mark 2:17. Therefore, the Confessor, clothing himself with the bowels of mercy, the more he finds souls stained by the multitude and enormity of sins, the more he should embrace them with greater charity, in order to gain them for God, and furnish them his aid in these or similar words: 'Come, brother, be of good courage; do not fear; confess your sins without trepidation. Open everything confidently; be ashamed of nothing. It does not matter if you have not looked into every recess of your conscience; it is enough if you answer what is asked. Give thanks to God, Who has awaited you until now for penance. Now your life must be changed. Rejoice, because God certainly forgives you all sins, however enormous, if you have a good will; and for this reason He has awaited you, that He might spare you. Therefore say everything with a cheerful heart; conceal nothing under wrappings....'"

601. II. During the Course of Confession. - "He must show far greater charity while receiving the confession. Let him take care not to show himself impatient or affected by weariness; nor let him show that he is struck with amazement by the sins which are related, provided the penitent is not so hardened or insolent that he would disclose numerous and atrocious sins without any shame and without any displeasure or feeling of soul; for then he must strive according to his strength to make the penitent perceive how great their deformity and enormity are. Therefore, a sharper correction is then required, so that he may awaken from a lethal lethargy. It is indeed true that during the act of confession Confessors ought to abstain from making a correction, lest perhaps penitents, terrified, keep back sins; nevertheless, this is understood as a general rule. Moreover, it is often expedient not to proceed to further things, but immediately to correct the penitent, especially when he confesses a very enormous sin, or if he has been habituated in some vice, so that he may comprehend the gravity of the sin. Yet let him take care not to exasperate or terrify him. Therefore, after he has corrected him as much as necessary, let him immediately encourage him to confess the remaining sins, saying: 'Come, brother, do you wish to recover from this vice? Is it so? And because you are ready to do this, be of good courage. Therefore relate the remaining sins, withholding nothing. Thus say everything with a strong heart; confess everything sincerely, for God is ready to spare you....'" (no. 4.)

602. III. At the End of Confession. - "At the end of confession it is also necessary that the Confessor apply himself with more vehement ardor and zeal, so that he may cause the penitent to perceive the gravity and multitude of his sins and the wretched state of damnation in which he is found; but let him always do this with the greatest charity. Nevertheless, it is more fitting then to use graver words, so that he may thus be able better to return to good fruit of mind; yet he must bring it about that the penitent understands that what is said to him proceeds not from an angry disposition, but from singular love and compassion for his soul. This can be expressed in this manner: 'My son, do you perceive the evil which you have wrought? What evil has your God ever done to you, Whom you have so ruinously despised? If no one had ever been so hostile to you as Jesus Christ, could you have behaved worse toward Him? But, I ask you, consider who this Jesus is. He is the One Who, although He was God and needed nothing, became man for your sake and willed to die upon the cross in order to redeem you from hell. Ah, my son, if you had died meanwhile, if you had died this night, where would you have gone? Where would you now be? You would be in the eternal fire of hell. What will become of you if in the future you continue to live the life you have led until now? Will you be able to be saved thus? Awaken, and see that, unless you change your ways for the better, you are already damned. What good have you gathered for yourself from so many sins? Come, my son, withdraw from evil, cease to sin, and commit yourself entirely into the arms of God, which are extended to receive you: it is enough how much you have sinned against Him. I wish to help you with my whole heart and all my strength; come to me always as it pleases you, for you will find a father who will receive you kindly. Behold, now resolve firmly that you wish to become holy. It depends upon you. For God is always ready, and for this reason He has granted you this time, so that you may turn away from evil and do good. O how good it is to have God as a friend!....'" etc.

548. Since there are many penitents who, with God's help, avoid mortal sins and tend to spiritual perfection, confessors ought to devote themselves to the study of Ascetical and Mystical Theology, that they may wisely direct these in the way of God; otherwise, they will either have no care for pious persons, or will lead them into the way of error, illusion, and hallucination. Here we can note only a few things, referring the confessor for the rest to approved authors.²

² Cf. St. Thomas, in the second part of the Sum. theolog.; Alvarez de Paz, De Vita spirituali et ejus perfectione; Philip of the Most Holy Trinity, Summa Theologiae Mysticae; St. François de Sales, Introd. à la Vie Dévote and Traité de l'Amour de Dieu; Schram, Instit. Theologiae Mysticae; Scaramelli, Direttorio ascetico; Direttorio mistico; Msgr. Gay, De la Vie et des Vertus chrétiennes; Ribet, La Mystique divine; L'Ascétique chrétienne; Faber, All for Jesus; Growth in Holiness; Saudreau, Méthode pour diriger les âmes, Paris, Vic et Amat.

549. (A) Preliminary Remarks. (a) Let the confessor not try to lead all pious persons living in the world to the highest degree of perfection: for there are those who are truly devout and rightly perform ordinary good works, without nevertheless being called to a higher perfection.

(b) Not all the devout are to be directed in the same way, but attention must be given to their character and condition, and also to the inspirations which they receive from the Holy Spirit.

As to character, those endowed with a different temperament must be treated differently. The phlegmatic must be stirred up, lest they become asleep, tepid, and lax; the choleric and nervous must be moderated, lest they suddenly wish to attain a higher degree and afterward fall; the melancholic need consolation, lest they be oppressed by sadness and a broken spirit; the sanguine must be persuaded that they do all things deliberately and constantly, lest, moved by sudden ardor, they undertake something above their strength, and afterward, cast down, fall into desperation.¹

¹ These temperaments are treated in the Treatise on Human Acts, n. 120.

With regard to condition of life, married persons and celibates are not to be directed in the same way, nor those who are bound to labor assiduously and those who enjoy much leisure, etc. Nothing must ever be counseled which can obstruct fulfillment of the duties of one's state.

Since the Spirit of God is manifold in His gifts, and inspires various souls variously, let the confessor carefully inquire whether and how each devout person is drawn by grace to this or that virtue; likewise let him ask light from God: for he ought not to go before divine inspirations, but rather to follow them.

550. (B) Method to be Followed. (a) First of all, the devout are to be taught that perfection is not properly situated in spiritual exercises, or in the practice of mortification, or in this or that devotion, but in the love of God for Himself, and in the love of neighbor for God: "Of itself and essentially, the perfection of the Christian life consists in charity, principally indeed according to the love of God, but secondarily according to the love of neighbor." This love indeed is not to be placed in sensible affection, but in the prompt and generous will of doing and suffering all things for God, and therefore of willing all things which God wills, because He wills them, in the way He wills, and as long as He wills. From this it follows that perfection is to be sought not in a few heroic acts, but in individual and ordinary actions performed for God with a prompt and fervent mind.²

² St. Thomas, 2. 2., q. 184, a. 3.

But since, in the present state, we cannot love God and neighbor as we ought unless we deny ourselves, mortification of the external and internal senses, and also of the passions, is a necessary means for attaining perfection: "But those who are Christ's have crucified their flesh with its vices and concupiscences."³ - Moreover, since we have been redeemed and sanctified through Christ, we cannot attain Christian perfection except through Christ, and with Christ, and in Christ: hence, in the present order, no one can be perfect except by intimate union with Christ. Therefore the greatest devotion must be inculcated toward Christ the Redeemer, and the various mysteries of Him, especially the Passion; and toward Christ hidden in the Eucharist, whose hidden life pious persons should strive to contemplate and imitate by devout visits.

³ Galat., V, 24. - Recall to memory what was said concerning the four wounds of human nature in the Treatise on God the Creator, n. 198.

But since Christ came to us through Mary, we can approach Him more promptly and safely through Mary: to Jesus through Mary. Nor indeed must devotion toward the Saints be omitted, who, since they have imitated Christ, can by examples and intercession lead us to the Lord. Yet let the confessor take care that this devotion be regarded only as a means for promoting imitation and love of Christ.

551. (b) Let the confessor keep before his eyes that there are three degrees or states of perfection, according to the diverse degrees of charity, namely the state of beginners, of those progressing, and of the perfect; to which correspond the three spiritual ways: purgative, illuminative, and unitive.

Beginners are those who are not only retarded by concupiscences and passions, but also are in danger of sometimes falling into mortal sin. These are in the purgative way, because they purge themselves from sins by mortifying the passions and at the same time fostering charity. - Those progressing, their passions now calmed, more easily devote themselves to the operation of the virtues, especially the moral virtues, and to the increase of charity; hence they are in the illuminative way, because, since they are more immune from vices and concupiscences, they are more often illuminated by God. - But the perfect, their passions having been subdued, become accustomed to the exercise not only of moral virtues, but also theological virtues, and promptly and delightfully devote themselves to the love of God; hence they walk in the unitive way, because they are united to God more intimately and more frequently. - In practice, however, these degrees are not so clearly distinct; and there is no state or degree which does not in some way participate in another degree; therefore in any state one must unceasingly devote oneself to mortification, to the moral virtues, and to the theological virtues; but in the first degree one must insist more on mortification; in the second, on the moral virtues; and in the third, on the theological virtues.

552. (c) The general means by which the degrees of perfection are climbed step by step are spiritual exercises and frequent reception of the sacraments.

Among pious exercises, three are especially profitable, besides frequent assistance at Mass and visitation of the Most Holy Sacrament: meditation, frequent remembrance of the presence of God, and sincere examination of conscience. 1. According to St. Alphonsus,¹ the confessor ought before all else to dispose the devout to make mental prayer, because prayer and sin cannot dwell together; and moreover by meditation divine love is enkindled. Most persons, even the rude, can make some meditation if, after pious reading, they think seriously about the things which they have read and ask these three things of themselves: how can these things be brought into practice by me? - whether and how far I have done this before? - what can I do today concerning this matter? Then let them pray that they put into execution the things they have proposed to themselves.

¹ Praxis, n. 122; cf. n. 217 sq., where the practice of mental prayer is explained; St. François de Sales, Introd. à la Vie dévote, 2nd part, ch. 1-8; Faber, Growth in Holiness, ch. 15.

2. Let them frequently have the presence of God before their eyes, according to that saying:¹ "Walk before me, and be perfect"; and let them offer their acts to God not only in the morning, but several times in the day, and recite pious ejaculatory prayers; for thus they will not only flee sin, but also daily progress in the practice of virtues.

¹ Gen. XVII, 1.

3. In examining their conscience, let them recall not only in a general way their principal delicts, but let them seriously examine themselves concerning one vice or one virtue in species, so that they may see not only whether they have offended, but whether and how far they have progressed: for they will progress more promptly and safely if they apply all their strength to cultivating one virtue or extirpating one vice for some notable time.

As to frequency of Communion, read the rules which are handed down in Syn. Theol. Dogm., De Eucharist., n. 150-152, and the decree of Pius X.

553. (d) Particular means are diverse according to the diverse degrees which pious persons have attained, and their character, condition, and supernatural inclinations. For although the principal virtues ought to be cultivated by all, those especially are to be inculcated which are opposed to the predominant vice, or better correspond to the duties of one's state or to the motions of grace. Certain ones nevertheless seem more necessary: in the first degree, mortification of curiosity, vanity, and sensual love; in the second, the practice of prudence, justice, fortitude, humility, meekness, and sincerity; in the third, the spirit of faith, filial trust in God, and fervent love of God. Concerning these, see the Treatise on Virtues, in which all these things are described more fully.

554. (C) On the Temptations of the Devout. The devout are attacked by special temptations, for overcoming which more efficaciously they need the counsel of a prudent confessor.

(a) Beginners, after they have experienced tender devotion, are gradually deprived of spiritual delights, because God wishes to nourish them with more solid food: from this anxieties and dejection of soul are born. Therefore the confessor will teach them that true virtue and true progress consist in spiritual combat, not in delights; that the business of perfection is completed not in one day, but by a slow step, after the manner of plants which grow in a way scarcely sensible; that God looks upon the heart, and rewards efforts rather than apparent progress; that in the work of salvation invincible constancy profits more than efforts made with interruption², etc.

² "But he who shall persevere unto the end, he shall be saved" (Matt., X, 22).

(b) Those progressing, after some time wearied by spiritual combat, often look back¹, and wish to stop where they are; from this it happens that they gradually decline; namely, spiritual exercises are omitted or performed negligently; esteem of perfection decreases, and love of the world and of pleasures increases; hence venial sins are committed deliberately and frequently, and when grave temptation urges, they easily slip into mortal sin. - These should be taught that those who do not progress in the way of God, by that very fact go back; that tepidity is often more dangerous than mortal sin: "Would that you were cold or hot! But because you are tepid, ... I will begin to vomit you out of my mouth"²; that loss of time and grace are very grave evils and are punished by severe penalties: "For the earth often drinking in the rain coming upon it ... but bringing forth thorns and briars, is reprobate, and very near to a curse; whose end is to be burned"³; that those who are heaped with more abundant graces are bound to greater perfection, and therefore that those are not to be imitated who, helped by lesser graces, lead a common life quietly. Let them be induced, if it can be done, to make the sacred exercises in retreat; then let them resume the neglected exercises of devotion and perform them fervently, especially meditation and examination of conscience; and let them direct all their efforts, for a long time, to cultivating one virtue. By these and other similar means they will return to better things.⁴

¹ "No man putting his hand to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God" (Luc., IX, 62).

² Apoc. III, 15-16.

³ Hebr., VI, 7-8.

⁴ You will find means for avoiding or correcting tepidity in Pratique progressive de la Confession, and in the other works cited above.

(c) Even those more advanced, or the perfect, can fall into the snare of the devil; for sometimes they indulge pride, vain glory, and presumption; from this it happens that they rashly cast themselves into certain occasions of sinning, and are deceived by various illusions: anger is judged zeal, pertinacity is held for constancy, prodigality for liberality, self-love for divine love, sensual and impure love for charity. Hence they can also slip into grave sins. - The consideration of their own fragility, frequent remembrance of sins, and the intimate persuasion that no good is to be attributed to us⁵ will profit these persons. To avoid illusions, let them do nothing extraordinary without consulting the confessor; as to the practice of virtues, let them take his counsel. If they have fallen into mortal sin, let the confessor receive them kindly, without any sign of admiration or indignation; yet let them seize this occasion for humbling themselves under the powerful hand of God, acknowledging their unworthiness, impotence, and perfidy, so that thereafter they may serve God with greater humility and fervor, and compensate the injury by doubled homage.

⁵ "But what do you have that you have not received? And if you have received, why do you glory as if you had not received?" I Cor., IV, 7.

555. (D) On the Desolations of the Devout. Sometimes even the devout are afflicted with various desolations, temptations against faith, confidence, or chastity, by which they are affected with great sorrow and can become despondent.

(a) Let them keep before their mind that there is no safer and shorter way to perfection than patience in tribulations: the greater things we suffer for God, the more perfectly are we detached from creatures and the more intimately united to God; therefore in no desolation let them despond in soul, but let them hand themselves wholly over into the hands of divine mercy, saying with Christ¹: "My Father, if it is possible, let this chalice pass from me; nevertheless not as I will, but as Thou"; for the chalice accepted patiently passes more quickly.

¹ Matth., XXVI, 39.

(b) With the help of divine light, let inquiry be made from what cause this spiritual desolation arises. If from voluntary defect, let sorrow be sincerely had for the fault, pardon be humbly sought, and the former fervor be renewed. If from weariness of body or natural disposition, let strength be restored to the body by honest recreation and bodily exercise, and, if there is need, let a physician be approached who may prescribe proper remedies. If from God, who wishes to render the soul purer, let it be gladly accepted as a means of more intimate union with the Crucified: "With Christ I am fastened to the cross."²

² Galat., II, 19.

(c) In time of desolation let no exercise of devotion be omitted or performed negligently: for then exercises of this kind are more pleasing to God and more meritorious.

(d) Let the state of the soul be candidly opened to the confessor, who can suggest more useful counsels.

556. (F) On the Extraordinary Graces of the Devout. Sometimes also God illumines the devout by a special light or vision, or consoles them with extraordinary consolations. But since in this matter illusions and hallucinations easily occur, let the confessor examine all these things diligently, not indeed with an unbelieving mind, but with a sober one, so that he may discern whether they proceed from the Spirit of God, or from a fervid imagination or the devil.³

³ On discernment of spirits, cf. De Imitatione Christi, lib. III, c. 54; St. Ignatius, Exercitia Spirit., Rules for discerning the movements of the soul; Bona, De Discretione spirituum; Poulain, Des Grâces d'oraison.

(a) The good Spirit does not inspire things which are repugnant to revealed truth or to doctrine received in the Church; therefore novelties must carefully be rejected.

(b) The good Spirit moves to self-denial, obedience, humility, contempt of the world, flight from honors, etc.; things contrary to these virtues proceed from nature or from the evil spirit.

(c) The Spirit of God is discreet; hence generally He moves only to ordinary things and those accommodated to one's own strength; if sometimes He inspires extraordinary things, at the same time He infuses a sense of obedience and humility: therefore those are deceived who pant after extraordinary things, if they make much of themselves and despise others, if they glory in the grace of devotion, or if, when despised, they are cast down in soul.

(d) A divine motion is good from every part, in the beginning, in progress, and in the end; the illusion of the demon, although it may seem to begin rightly, shortly ends in something depraved, either by drawing back from a better good, or by insinuating something evil, or by disturbing the soul.

(e) Nevertheless, a temptation of the devil or a natural movement of the soul, for example, of pride, can afterward be joined to a divine motion. Therefore one must beware lest that which in the beginning was divine afterward become diabolical through some fault.

(f) Since obedience is the best trial of virtue, let the confessor sometimes command something contrary to the proper judgment of the penitent; if he obeys constantly and humbly, it is a good sign; but otherwise, if he is unwilling to obey.

See the rest in the cited authors.

1841. "It is a work very acceptable to God to adorn spouses for Him, that is, to cultivate spiritual souls, so that they may give and hand themselves over wholly to Him. One perfect soul is more acceptable in His eyes than a THOUSAND imperfect ones. Hence, when the confessor sees a penitent living immune from mortal faults, he must apply every care to introduce him into the way of perfection and divine love."²

Now, so that the confessor may truly consult the spiritual utility of these souls, behold what RULES OF GOVERNMENT St. Alphonsus prescribes to him:

1. Before all things, let him take care that he instill into them a great DESIRE of Christian perfection, and a most firm PURPOSE of attaining this perfection, "by representing to them the merit which God has that He be loved, and the gratitude which we owe to Jesus Christ, who loved us even unto dying for us; and also the danger in which all souls are placed who, called by God to a more perfect life, resist Him."³

2. Let him take care that they progress ORDERLY and GRADUALLY in perfection.⁴ - Hence they are to be taught: 1. To beware of the least deliberate defect, or one admitted with open eyes, yet in such a way that, after some light fault has been admitted, they do not fall in spirit, but rise from the fall by acts of humility, sorrow, and purpose, and this even if they were to fall a hundred times in a day. 2. To perform ordinary actions well, or prayers, the duties of their state, etc., and to have a right intention in all things. - 3. First to strive for patience, then only for joy in adversities. - 4. Let them learn to bear light things before they desire grave things. - Nor meanwhile should the confessor be unmindful of the saying of the Lord, saying: "The Spirit breathes where He wills"; nor should he forget that this usually happens: that even souls enriched with great gifts of God and abounding in the fruit of solid virtues are seen to be infected with various defects and imperfections, God so permitting.

3. Let him take care that he introduce them into the custom of MENTAL PRAYER. - Hence let him establish for them the time to be expended on this most holy exercise; let him himself assign to them the truths to be meditated; let him teach them the method of meditating fruitfully; and now and then, for example each month, let him ask an account of this method. - Moreover, let him watch with open eyes that they pass no day without some consideration of truths; that they frequently think of God always present to us; that they pour forth frequent and fervid ejaculatory prayers; and that, insofar as it can be done, on individual days they read something attentively and piously from a spiritual book prudently chosen (cf. n. 535).

4. Let him take care that he effectively teach them the exercise of Christian MORTIFICATION. "To assert absolutely," says St. Alphonsus,⁵ "that external mortifications profit nothing or little, is a very great error." Yet let the director take care that he not be excessive in conceding them, especially in the first fervor of devotion; nor generally should he concede them except when asked, and let him concede less than is requested. - But let him watch that they exercise themselves constantly rather in negative mortification: for example, that they abstain from curious looking, that they speak sparingly, that they be content even with unpleasant foods, that in wintertime they do not approach the fire, that they command their passions, etc.⁶ Moreover, the particular Examination will serve excellently as a singular aid to this exercise.

5. As regards the reception of the SACRAMENTS: 1. Let him advise general confession for those who are not scrupulous and who have not yet made it (cf. n. 1711). - 2. Let them confess once, or at most twice, in a week. But one who has fallen into a venial sin and lacks an opportune occasion of confessing should not on that account abstain from Communion, since venial sins are remitted also by other remedies. Indeed, some timorous persons will often more usefully dispose themselves for Communion by their own acts, as being those which then are wont to be more fervent, than by confession. - Concerning frequent Communion, recall what was said at nn. 1575-1582.

1842. IT IS ASKED. How ought the confessor conduct himself with penitents who bring only IMPERFECTIONS or VENIAL sins?⁷

Resp. 1. "If they confess imperfections which do not reach faults certainly venial, Bonacina says that they can be absolved under condition; but I judge that this is not to be admitted except very rarely, and when they themselves could not assign certain matter from past life, or not without great trouble. For the rest I say that if the penitent does not present certain matter, the confessor must not inquire into it in order to absolve him; and in the case in which he had inquired and had not found it, he is not bound to impart conditional absolution to him" (cf. n. 1658 and 1663, qu. 5, Reg. 24).

2. "If the penitent confesses certain venial sins, but usual or daily ones, for example concerning impatiences, intemperances, distractions in the Office, in prayer, and similar things, so that absolution can be given to him, it must be considered whether he has at any time imposed force upon himself, as much as he could, in order to overcome the passion; because then it can be judged that his faults proceeded rather from human frailty than from defect of sorrow or purpose. - Conversely, if he has relapsed frequently, and without resistance, into faults of this kind, then he must be dealt with as with a recidivist," according to what was said at n. 1829; and therefore it must be obtained either that he truly grieve over at least some one of those sins, or that he present for matter some graver sin of past life.⁸ - Recall what was said at n. 340 and following.⁹

1413. - The Confessor is a spiritual father, who gives spiritual life to the penitent, or restores and fosters it; for in the tribunal of Penance he acts in the place of the best of all parents, namely Christ Himself, and therefore by penitents he is called by the sweetest name of father. But that which especially stands out in the true name of father is remarkable and inexhaustible charity. For what affection is stronger than the affection of a father? What is truer, purer, more chaste, more constant, fuller of solicitude and more alien from one's own advantage, indeed readier and more prompt for every kind of privation and inconvenience? Therefore such must be the charity of the confessor, so that, clothed with the bowels of mercy of Christ Jesus, Who came not to call the just, but sinners, he may know how to deal zealously, patiently, and meekly with sinners. Thus, as a good father, he will sustain all things for his spiritual children: for charity is patient, ... bears all things, ... endures all things.

The Confessor must be full of charity toward penitents, both at the beginning, and in the course, and at the end of Confession. It is pleasing to hear St. Alphonsus himself speaking on these things.

1414. - I. At the beginning of Confession. "First he" (the Confessor) "must employ charity in receiving kindly all, whether they are poor, or rude, or sinners. Some spend time only in hearing the Confessions of certain devout persons or persons of rank, because they have not so much courage as to repel these from themselves. But if some miserable sinner approaches them, he is heard unwillingly and is driven away loaded with reproaches: whence it happens that that wretched one, after he has brought the greatest force upon himself so that he might come to confess his sins, feeling himself so harshly received, conceives hatred for the Sacrament of Penance, and, despairing that he can find someone who may help him and absolve him from sins, rushes headlong with loosened reins into the slippery way of a lost life, and falls into despair of salvation. Good confessors act otherwise. When sinners of this kind flow together to them, they receive them kindly, and, as a victor over captured prey, they exult, considering that the lot has fallen to them to snatch a soul from the hands of the demon. They know that this Sacrament was instituted properly not for the just, but for sinners; for venial faults, in order to be remitted, do not need sacramental absolution, since they can be blotted out in many other ways. They know also that Christ protested in these words: I came not to call the just, but sinners. Therefore the confessor, clothing himself with the bowels of charity, the more he finds souls stained by the multitude and atrocity of sins, the more, that he may gain them for God, should embrace them with greater charity, and give them courage with these or similar words: Come, brother, be of good courage, do not fear; confess your sins fearlessly. Open all things confidently; be ashamed of nothing: it does not matter if you have not looked into all the recesses of your conscience; it suffices if you answer what is asked. Give thanks to God, Who has awaited you until now for penance. Now your life must be changed. Rejoice, because God certainly remits all sins to you, however great, if you have a good will, and therefore He has awaited you, that He might spare you: therefore say all things with a cheerful soul, cover nothing with wrappings."

1415. - II. In the course of Confession. "He must show far greater charity in hearing the Confession. Let him take care not to show himself impatient or affected by weariness; nor let him show himself struck with amazement at the sins which are narrated; provided the penitent is not so hard or insolent in soul that he exposes several and more atrocious sins without any shame, and without any displeasure and sense of soul; because then one must labor with all one's powers that the penitent may perceive how great is their deformity and magnitude; and therefore then a sharper correction is required, so that he may be awakened from lethal lethargy. It is indeed true that... in the act of Confession confessors must abstain from making correction, lest perhaps penitents, frightened, hold back sins; nevertheless this is understood when speaking regularly: besides, many times it is expedient not to proceed to further things, and immediately to correct the penitent, especially when he confesses a very enormous sin, or if he has been habituated in some vice, so that he may comprehend the gravity of the sin. Yet let him advert not to exasperate him, nor to terrify him. Wherefore, after he has corrected him as much as shall have been needed, immediately let him give him courage for confessing the remaining sins, saying: Come, brother, do you wish to recover from this vice? Is it not so? And since you are prepared to do this, be of cheerful soul. Therefore narrate the remaining sins, holding back nothing. Take care, I beg you, lest you commit some sacrilege; for this would be the greatest of all the sins which you have committed until now. Therefore say all things with a strong soul; conquer yourself: confess all things sincerely: for God is prepared to spare you."

1416. - III. At the end of Confession. "At the end of Confession also it is necessary that the confessor apply himself with a more vehement ardor and zeal, so that he may make the penitent perceive the gravity and multitude of his sins, and the miserable state of damnation in which he is found; but let this always be done with the greatest charity. Nevertheless it is more fitting then to use graver words, so that thus he may better be able to return to a good fruit of mind; nevertheless he must effect that the penitent understand that what is said to him proceeds not from an angry soul, but from singular love and commiseration toward his soul, which can be expressed in this way: My son, do you consider the life of a damned one which you have led? Do you perceive the evil which you have worked? What evil has your God ever done to you, Whom you have so recklessly despised? If there had been no one more hostile to you than Jesus Christ, could you have borne yourself worse toward Him? But, I ask you, consider who this Jesus is? He is the one Who, though He was God, needing nothing, was made man for you, wished to die on the cross, that He might redeem you from hell. Ah! son, if meanwhile you had died, if on this night, whither would you have gone? Where would you now be? You would be in the eternal fire of hell. What will become of you, if you go on in the future to live the life you have led until now? Will you be able to be saved thus? Awake and see that, unless you change your morals for the better, you are already damned. What good have you gathered for yourself from so many sins? Do you not consider that you prepare for yourself a double hell, one here of anguish and misery, another there of punishments? Come, son, turn away from evil, cease to sin, and commit yourself wholly into the arms of God, which are extended to receive you: enough, as much as you have sinned against Him. I wish to help you with all my powers and with my whole heart; come to me always and whenever you please, since you will find a father who will receive you kindly. Behold, now firmly resolve that you wish to be made holy. It depends on you. For God is always prepared, and has imparted this time to you for this, that you may turn yourself away from evil and do good. O how good it is to have God as a friend! etc."

To the charity of Father can also be referred the following warning of the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore: "Lest any delay hinder those wishing to confess, we earnestly exhort and beseech pastors of souls that they be present at the confessionals for hearing penitents on each Sabbath, and on the Vigils of Feasts at least in the evening time, and on Sundays and feast days in the morning before the first Mass.... But if the number of the faithful is greater than that all who approach can be heard on one day, let him also choose other times, other days, which he may spend on this necessary work."

V. The confessor, as father, generally is bound from charity, insofar as it can be done, to propose apt motives of contrition to the indisposed and thus prepare them for absolution.

It is said 1) to the indisposed: for if the confessor prudently judges that the penitent is well disposed, he is strictly bound to nothing, although to exhort to contrition is always expedient because the exhortation of the confessor is effective before others, and at least he can briefly exhort him to renew the act of contrition;

2. apt motives, such as the deformity of sin, the value of divine grace, danger of damnation, the brevity of life and danger of death, the goodness of God, the love and benefits of Christ, and like things, according to the capacity and disposition of each;

3. from charity, and not strictly from office, because for this it suffices to absolve those who are disposed, but he can send away the indisposed until they are disposed; but from charity he is often bound to act otherwise;

4. insofar as it can be done, that is, if there is founded hope, and time for disposing to contrition; unless nevertheless in extreme necessity, in which there is a grave office of attempting all things even with the greatest inconvenience.

It is proved: From charity we are generally bound to procure the good of the penitent and avert grave damage from him, at least if it can be done easily. But a sinner who is dismissed without absolution incurs grave damage, since he is exposed to the danger of remaining for a long time in the state of mortal sin, and perhaps is deterred from confession. But since the indisposed cannot be absolved, insofar as it can be done the confessor must dispose him. Whence the Roman Ritual, l. c., n. 18: "he will strive to lead him by efficacious words to sorrow and contrition, and will induce him to amend and better institute his life, and will hand down remedies for sins."

This obligation of itself is grave, at least if the neighbor is in grave spiritual necessity and without great inconvenience can be induced to due disposition.

613. Principle V. The confessor, as father, generally is bound from charity, insofar as it can be done, to propose apt motives of contrition to the indisposed and thus to prepare them for absolution.

It is said: 1) to the indisposed: for if the confessor prudently judges that the penitent is well disposed, he is strictly bound to nothing, although it is always expedient to exhort to contrition because the exhortation of the confessor is especially efficacious, and he can at least briefly exhort him to renew the act of contrition;

2. apt motives, such as the deformity of sin, the value of divine grace, the danger of damnation, the brevity of life and the danger of death, the goodness of God and the benefits of Christ and other similar things, according to the capacity and disposition of each one;

3. from charity, and not strictly from office, because for this it suffices to absolve those who are disposed, but he can send away the indisposed until they are disposed; yet from charity he is often bound to act otherwise;

4. insofar as it can be done, i.e., if there is founded hope and time for disposing to contrition; unless, however, in extreme necessity, in which there is a grave obligation of trying all things even with the greatest inconvenience.

It is proved: From charity each one is generally bound to procure the good of his neighbor and to avert grave harm from him, at least if it can easily be done. But the sinner who is dismissed without absolution incurs grave harm, since he is exposed to the danger of remaining for a long time in the state of mortal sin, and perhaps of being deterred from confession. Therefore the confessor is bound to avert this harm from the penitent, at least if it can easily be done. But since the penitent cannot be absolved while indisposed, the confessor must dispose him insofar as it can be done. Hence the Ritual, l.c., n. 18: "he will try by efficacious words to bring him to sorrow and contrition, and will induce him to amend and better institute his life, and will hand down remedies for sins."

The obligation of itself is grave, at least if the neighbor is in grave spiritual necessity and can be induced to the due disposition without great inconvenience. Thus according to the rules handed down in the treatise on Charity.

Four offices must be performed by the confessor in the very act of confession, namely those of father, physician, teacher, and judge. But when the diverse nature of penitents has been considered, the obligations which flow from these four offices can and must be modified; but if you attend to their substance, assuredly they must always be observed. A few things concerning each, but see more in the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, nn. 279 and following.

I say. Every confessor, as such, is truly and properly the spiritual father of penitents. The reason is taken from a twofold head; for the confessor not only through the absolution which he imparts truly furnishes or increases spiritual life, namely grace, although instrumentally, but also bears the place of the best parent of all, namely of Christ himself. There is added the very sense of the faithful, who all and everywhere throughout the world call the priest in the sacred tribunal of Penance father. Hence:

1°. The confessor, while he receives confessions, must both have and show great charity toward penitents; for that which is contained above all in the name of father is distinguished and inexhaustible charity. Therefore Leo XII, in the Bull for the great Jubilee of the year 1825, admonished each confessor that, "clothed with the bowels of mercy of Christ Jesus, who did not come to call the just, but sinners, he should know how to deal earnestly, patiently, and meekly with sinners."

2°. The confessor must show this paternal charity at the beginning, in the course, and at the end of confession. At the beginning indeed, insofar as he receives all kindly and promptly without any distinction, whether they are rich and pious, or whether they are poor, uncultivated, and sinners. Besides, if he sees someone unprepared, let him help him and render him prepared; if he notices someone timid because of shame or entangled because of scruples, let him add courage and say that the whole matter can be arranged with easy business. - In the course of confession let him beware lest he exhibit himself as impatient or affected with weariness, nor let him show that he is struck with wonder at the sins which are narrated. Finally, at the end it is necessary that the confessor perform the office of father with more vehement ardor; for on the one hand he must then briefly indeed, but more severely, place before the eyes of the penitent the multitude and gravity of his sins, especially if the penitent does not appear very disposed; and on the other he must use those words, and act with such meekness, that the penitent can take no offense from it, or be less prompt in the future to return to him. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, Prax. Confess. ch. 1, § 1.

I say. The confessor is a true physician of souls; for just as sinners are often compared in the Scriptures to the sick or even to the dead, indeed are also properly called by these names, so the confessor can not only be compared to a physician, but also is one; for he must rescue the souls of penitents from the various diseases of sin and restore them to divine grace. Hence:

1°. The confessor must know the cause of the disease; for just as a bodily physician must first devote all his diligence and strength to this, that he may investigate the very root of the disease, so also the confessor; otherwise he will supply useless or insufficient, or even harmful, remedies. Therefore good confessors inquire not only about the number and species of sins and about dispositions, but also about habits, occasions, and other circumstances which are connected with the disease, if indeed the disease is present and not only some passing weakness.

2°. He must heal the disease; for it is not enough to know the origin of the disease, but it is necessary besides to place the finger on that part of the wound which flows with the greater corruption, and either by cutting away or by fostering to obtain the cure of it. Therefore the confessor must make due observations, suggest counsels, and declare what is to be done. To the point St. Alphonsus says: "The confessor must not attend to other penitents who surround him. For, as St. Francis Xavier used to say, it is better to hear the confessions of a few rightly made than the disordered confessions of many and without fruit. And it matters little that others wait or depart unconfessed; for the confessor must render an account on the day of judgment only concerning this one who now confesses to him, but not concerning the others." - Cf. St. Alphonsus, Prax. Confessarii, nn. 6, 7 and 10.

3°. He must guard against relapse; which certainly the confessor will perform by assigning to the penitent remedies suited to the disease. But remedies are either general or particular. General ones are reduced to pious prayers, to frequent invocation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, to consideration of the eternal truths, to the evening examination of conscience, and especially to frequency of the sacraments. But particular remedies must necessarily be diverse according to the diversity of penitents and of the circumstances in which they are found; nor will he rightly indicate them unless he uses great prudence. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, Prax. Confessarii, n. 15; and Hom. Ap., tract. 21, nn. 5 and 6.

I say. The confessor deserves the office of teacher for himself by a twofold reason, namely insofar as he must teach penitents all those things which pertain to the sacrament to be rightly received here and now, and insofar as he has already acquired for himself competent knowledge before he begins to receive confessions. The reason of the first is because it pertains essentially to the nature of a Minister divinely instituted to procure the valid and licit reception of the sacrament which is here and now to be administered by him. But the reason of the second is taken above all from the Scriptures; for it is said in Malachi ii, 7: "The lips of the priest shall keep knowledge, and they shall seek the law from his mouth"; and Hosea iv, 6: "Because you have rejected knowledge, I will reject you, lest you perform the priesthood for me." It is also established from the natural law itself; for the confessor entering the sacramental tribunal of Penance without being furnished with competent knowledge exposes himself to the evident danger of gravely erring, with grave injury to the sacrament and to the great detriment of souls. Therefore Christ himself says, Matthew xv, 14: "If the blind man furnishes guidance to the blind, both fall into the pit." And St. Alphonsus did not hesitate to utter these words: "I affirm that that confessor is in the state of damnation who exposes himself to receiving confessions without sufficient knowledge." But according to the mind of St. Alphonsus himself, by the name of sufficient knowledge is not understood that by which the confessor can always, immediately, and by himself solve all doubts which occur, but only that by which he can understand and resolve cases commonly occurring, and in more difficult ones knows at least how to doubt. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 627. - Lugo, disp. 21, n. 70.

From the things just said the following conclusions must be deduced:

1°. Every confessor is held to know all those things which pertain to the value, substance, integrity, and effect of the sacrament of Penance, and which are required for its licit administration, both on his own part and on the part of the penitent.

2°. He must also know the common and proper obligations of states, the various species of sins, their circumstances changing the species, the principles of discerning between mortal and venial sins, and what are mortal and venial in the individual precepts, at least according to general principles and the common opinion of theologians; likewise what acts are valid and licit. The reason is clear, because he must know that concerning which he must judge; otherwise he will not be able to render an equitable judgment.

3°. He must know reserved cases and the censures in force, the impediments of marriage, the conditions of contracts, the various causes of restitution, the roots and occasions of sins, the remedies to be applied to them, salutary and suitable satisfactions to be imposed, etc.

4°. Therefore the confessor sins who knows that the aforesaid knowledge is lacking to him, even if he receives confessions from charity alone and obedience. Nor does the approval of the Bishop excuse him of itself; for this does not give the knowledge due from the nature of the thing, nor does it supply for its defect.

5°. The superior also sins who gives permission to an ignorant confessor to receive confessions, because he consents to and cooperates with his sin; nor can he be excused except on account of necessity: namely, if learned priests are not present and meanwhile the good of souls must be provided for.

6°. The penitent himself also sins who purposely chooses an inept confessor. Yet if someone is in good faith, the confession will be valid; because on the part of the penitent there intervenes an integral declaration of sins and a due disposition of soul; on the part of the confessor there intervenes at least knowledge of sins under the confused aspect of sin, which suffices for the matter of the sacrament.

7°. Experience cannot supply knowledge, but only assist it; but where it is destitute of the aid of knowledge, it will drive a rash confessor into very many errors, and those very grave.

8°. Therefore every confessor is held diligently to devote himself to the study of moral theology; and, as St. Alphonsus says: "He must never interrupt that study; because from so many things so diverse and mutually unlike, which pertain to this knowledge, many things, although read, because they occur more rarely, fall away from the mind with the progress of time; for which reason it is necessary always by frequent study to recall them into the mind." Whence it must be said that they gravely err who regard the knowledge of moral theology as easy and scarcely worthy of any attention, saying repeatedly that almost all cases can be solved by some common sense with knowledge of general principles. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 628; and Hom. Ap. n. 100. - Baller. note (a), p. 567.

Question 1. Whether the confessor, besides those things which are necessary for the sacrament to be rightly received here and now, is also held to teach penitents those things which are necessary for living as Christians?

Resp. Affirmatively, at least speaking generally; and consequently, where he notices that someone is ignorant of the obligations of his state, he must instruct him. The reason is taken from the general principle of charity and from the great opportunity which the confessor alone has of teaching certain obligations. Nevertheless this obligation is not to be extended so far that the confessor is held to instruct penitents concerning all things which they themselves must know and can learn elsewhere, both because this would turn to the grave inconvenience not only of the confessor but also of other penitents, and because other means, perhaps more suitable, are not lacking for dispelling such ignorance. Cf. St. Alphonsus, nn. 607 and following.

"Bishops will take care that priests receiving confessions have fixed and immovable that sacramental absolution is invalid when imparted to one ignorant of things necessary by necessity of means; nor can men be reconciled to God through a sacrament of this sort unless first, the darkness of this ignorance being shaken off, they are led to the acknowledgement of Faith. But confessors will carefully note that the absolution of one who through his own fault does not know things necessary by necessity of precept is to be put off to another time; and only sometimes in this case can the penitent be absolved, in which he recognizes and accuses himself as guilty of this vincible ignorance, and deeply sorrowing both begs pardon from God and seriously promises the priest that he will devote earnest effort by which, with the aid of divine grace, he may learn also the things necessary by precept." - Cf. Benedict XIV in the Constitution Etsi minime. Congregation de Propaganda Fide, 13 April 1807.

Question 2. Whether a penitent laboring under ignorance concerning some obligation must always be warned?

Resp. Affirmatively, if the ignorance seems vincible, that is, if the confessor notices that the penitent doubts in such a way that good faith is already lacking. The reason is because in giving the warning no danger threatens; but otherwise the penitent acting with that doubt is not immune from sin. - But if the ignorance is invincible, the penitent is to be warned if fruit from the warning is hoped for; otherwise, speaking generally, he is not, if it is not hoped for. The reason is because on the one hand this warning would not help, and on the other it would harm him, since, after being warned, he would formally sin in the future. Therefore the penitent is to be warned: 1°. whenever he himself asks concerning the malice of some thing, because, since he doubts about the licitness of the thing, he is no longer situated in invincible ignorance; 2°. whenever the silence of the confessor would confirm him in the purpose of performing an evil thing; 3°. whenever his ignorance concerns the primary principles of natural law, or the proximate conclusions of them, because such ignorance, if it is possible, cannot long be invincible; 4°. whenever, if the warning is omitted, the penitent would remain in a proximate occasion of formally sinning, or his ignorance would bring spiritual harm to the community. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, nn. 610, 614 and 615. - Baller. note (a), (b), and (c), p. 570.

By a twofold different reason the confessor is held to perform the office of judge, namely insofar as he must instruct the cause or interrogate penitents, and insofar as he must render sentence. Hence:

I say 1°. The confessor is held, with ordinary diligence, to interrogate penitents about the species, number, and circumstances changing the species, about the causes of sins, about habit and proximate occasions, as often as he reasonably presumes or prudently doubts that these things are not sufficiently declared. The reason is because the confessor, as Minister of the sacrament, must procure its integrity, and as judge he must acquire for himself the knowledge necessary for rendering an equitable judgment. - I said 1°. with ordinary diligence, because the penitent himself is not held to examine himself with the highest and exquisite diligence, but only ordinary diligence. But the obligation of the confessor cannot be heavier than that of the penitent, since the confessor is not held to examine the penitent except secondarily or in defect of him. - I said 2°. as often as he reasonably presumes, etc., because the obligation of the confessor, as was said just now, is only secondary or conditioned upon the ignorance or malice of the penitent who does not know or does not wish to manifest all things. Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 607; Hom. Ap. n. 103; and Prax. Confess. nn. 19 and 20.

But that interrogations may be made more easily and at the same time more prudently, attention must be given to the following practical rules, which Doctors commonly hand down:

Rule I. Interrogation must be moderate; and therefore the confessor must beware lest he be excessive or almost anxious in interrogating; otherwise confession would become very burdensome and odious both to himself and especially to the penitent. Hence let him never ask useless things, nor allow them to be narrated to himself. - Nor should you say that it is no burden for some, especially women, to pursue long narrations; for it is answered that by those narrations some injury is done to the sacrament, occasion is given to the jests of malevolent men, and time is lost. Therefore the Roman Ritual rightly says: "Let [the confessor] beware lest ... he detain anyone with useless interrogations." Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 607. - Sporer, 792. - Reuter, Neoconfessarius, ch. 3.

Rule II. Interrogation must be discreet; namely, the confessor must interrogate with great prudence, carefully guarding 1°. lest he interrogate about sins which probably were not committed, when the condition and capacity, etc., of the penitent have been considered; 2°. lest he interrogate about those things from which the penitent might learn to sin or suffer scandal, as the Roman Ritual warns, where after the words just reported it is added: "especially by imprudently questioning younger persons of either sex, or others, about that which they do not know, lest they suffer scandal and from it learn to sin"; 3°. nor let him interrogate too curiously or lightly even in those things about which one must interrogate, for example, immodestly about immodest things, etc. In one word, he must strive that in any interrogations there appear only gravity, piety, modesty, and paternal charity, just as the nature and dignity of this office require. Hence:

1°. The confessor must be very cautious in interrogating about the matter of luxury, especially with women, adolescents, and children, who can much more easily suffer scandal. But with married persons, without grave cause, let him never make mention of the conjugal debt; and it will be enough, where the matter demands, to ask a woman whether she has shown due fidelity and obedience to her husband in all things.

2°. The rule admitted by all must be carefully observed: In the matter of luxury it is much better in many things to fall short than in one thing to abound, by reason of the integrity of confession. Therefore in doubt whether in such a case you can or ought to interrogate, the negative part must always be stood by; for it is a lesser evil for the integrity of confession to be lacking than to incur the danger of losing a soul.

Rule III. Interrogation must be opportune, that is, it must be made at the time at which it is fitting; but certain interrogations are ordinarily to be made before confession, but few, lest the penitent be offended, for example: since what time has he not confessed? whether he was absolved? whether he fulfilled the penance? whether he is at peace concerning his past life? This last interrogation must be made only when the penitent has not confessed for a long time, or when a general confession is instituted from a determinate time. - The other questions concerning condition, state, age, etc., will more fittingly be made, when occasion is given, in the course of confession; thus on the one hand every suspicion of curiosity and levity will be avoided, and on the other the penitent will answer more easily, since his confidence in the confessor will have been more increased. - Cf. Berardi, vol. 1, de Recidivis et Occasionariis, dissertation 1. - Konings, nn. 1424 and following.

Question. What must the confessor do in doubt concerning the sincerity of the penitent?

Resp. There is a common rule, and as it were an accepted axiom: The penitent is to be believed, whether speaking for himself or against himself. The reason is because the penitent in the sacred tribunal is at once accused and witness, his own accuser and advocate, and besides, in doubt, he is always to be presumed truthful. Wherefore, after opportune interrogations, the confessor must absolve the penitent who denies. - But if the confessor knows certainly that some sin is being concealed or denied by the penitent, then a distinction must be made and it must be resolved as follows:

1°. If he knows that sin from the confession of another, he must, lest the seal of confession be violated, only interrogate generally, just as otherwise he would have done or ought to have done; but if the penitent, having been questioned, denies, let him reply nothing, but, if he can do this without suspicion, let him merely exhort generally that the conscience be opened with all confidence. But whether the confessor must absolve such a penitent is controverted. - And if indeed it is admitted that it is then certain or evident to him that the penitent is lying and confessing sacrilegiously, you will not be able to absolve him, just as St. Alphonsus teaches, who, after reporting the opinions of others, concludes thus: "Lacroix thinks better, in my judgment, that in that case he should by no means absolve, but only pray something in order to conceal the denial of absolution." - Nevertheless grave authors are not lacking who deny the hypothesis, namely that such evidence or certitude can be had from the confession of others, and especially from the confession of one accomplice; and therefore they teach that in that case the penitent is to be absolved absolutely, or at least under condition. For, they say, in this tribunal the penitent must be believed in his own cause more than others. Other theologians add another reason, for they say that the knowledge which the confessor has from the confession of another must be regarded as nothing.

2°. But if the confessor knows that sin outside confession, of itself he must absolve the penitent who denies, because the penitent speaking for himself and against himself is to be believed; nor of itself can the report of another make greater faith than the declaration of the penitent himself; nor consequently is the confessor held to believe others more than the penitent himself. For if the penitent committed that sin, the confessor must presume that he either has forgotten his sin, or has confessed it to another, or has a just cause for concealing it, or that the reporters rather were deceived. - I said of itself; for if the confessor is altogether certain about the sin committed by the penitent because, for example, he himself saw him stealing, etc., or he knows it from the altogether certain report of others, for example, because the penitent is publicly known as a concubinary, he cannot absolve one denying, provided he is certain that he has not forgotten his sin and has no motive for concealing it; for this rule: The penitent is to be believed, etc., has force indeed in a less certain matter, but not in a matter evidently certain. Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 631. - Lugo, disp. 22, n. 22. - Baller. note (a), p. 575; and note (a), p. 577.

I say 2°. Absolution must always and altogether be denied to a certainly indisposed penitent; but to him who certainly is disposed, it must of itself be granted from justice and under grave obligation. The reason of the first is because, if the certain indisposition of the penitent is supposed, sacrilege could not be avoided. But the reason of the second is both because in the very act of confession a certain quasi-contract has been entered upon, by virtue of which the penitent rightly confessed and disposed has a right to receive the sacrament; and because the end of the institution of this sacrament demands this; and finally because otherwise the penitent would be obliged either to put off the recovery of grace to another time with danger to eternal salvation, or to approach another confessor without being able besides to trust certainly that he will receive absolution from that new confessor. Therefore a priest denying absolution to a disposed penitent would act unjustly, would pervert the end of the sacrament itself, and would impose an intolerable burden.

Question 1. Whether it is expedient to use the remedy of deferring absolution for a sufficiently disposed penitent?

Resp. If the confessor cannot doubt concerning the dispositions of the penitent, and the latter asks for absolution, absolution is neither to be denied nor deferred (Can. 886).

Certainly the examples of the Lord and of the saints persuade that it would be better for the confessor to render an account of too much charity than of austerity. "With absolution deferred for these (attrite persons), they remain enemies of God, incapable of every merit and satisfaction; for their works according to St. Thomas, in 4, dist. 15, since they are done without charity, are not satisfactory. Therefore the prudent and benign practice, fortified by so many testimonies, of immediately absolving sinners whether attrite or contrite flourishes in the whole Catholic Church. ... Therefore the manner full of wisdom and charity is to rescue sinful souls most swiftly from the state of sin, according to the practice of the universal Church founded in the Gospel of Christ, so that they may quickly receive the first robe; and not to prolong, but, as far as can be done, to hasten the spirit of penance according to the form which the Council of Trent has most wholesomely prescribed, so that before reconciliation they may resolve, and after it, having been restored to the state of grace more securely and wholesomely, they may strive to make satisfaction." Instruction of the S. C. de Prop. F., 3 Oct. 1736. Collect. n. 321.

Question 2. Whether certitude concerning the disposition of the penitent is required so that he can be absolved?

Resp. Absolute certitude is not required, nor even strict moral certitude, such as is required in other sacraments, for example concerning the wine for the consecration of the Eucharist. The reason is because the sacrament of Penance scarcely admits a judgment of this sort with more certitude. But a prudent judgment or broad moral certitude is required and suffices, which, as St. Alphonsus says, is equivalent to prudent probability. For penitents commonly display only probability of disposition. Therefore the Catechism of the Council of Trent, n. 82, thus teaches: "If, after the confession has been heard, [the priest] shall have judged that neither diligence in enumerating sins nor sorrow in detesting them was altogether lacking to the penitent, he will be able to be absolved." - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 461. - Suarez, disp. 32, sect. 2, n. 1.

Question 3. What is the ordinary sign of sufficient disposition in a penitent, so that the confessor can safely absolve?

Resp. Speaking of itself, and unless something peculiar occurs on the part of the penitent which brings upon the confessor a prudent suspicion concerning his indisposition, confession made in the due manner is by itself alone the common and ordinary sign of sufficient disposition. For, as St. Alphonsus well says, "the penitent on the one hand is not to be presumed evil, so that he would wish to approach the sacrament indisposed; and on the other he is well presumed disposed while he confesses his sins, since spontaneous confession itself is a sign of contrition, unless some positive presumption to the contrary stands in the way; for all agree that sorrow is manifested through confession." - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 459. - Baller. note (b), p. 589.

Question 4. To whom properly is absolution to be denied?

Resp. Many classes of penitents to whom absolution is to be denied are enumerated by diverse authors; but it can be said more briefly and more generally: it is to be denied to all and only those who at least do not promise that they will satisfy some grave and certain obligation in that manner in which they ought. - Cf. Baller. note (a) and (b), p. 590.

I say. Although the confessor has been constituted primarily for the good of those who are bound by great bonds of sins, he must nevertheless devote his labor also to those who are pious and wish to be directed in the way of perfection. For to all confessors are to be applied the words which were once spoken to Jeremiah: "Behold, I have constituted you over the nations, that you may root out and destroy, build and plant." But that direction in the way of perfection may be done by a prudent manner, attention must be given to the following practical rules.

III. Confessors are the fathers of the Christian country, the preservers of public tranquillity, the avengers of outrages, the guardians of evangelical sanctity. These promote the felicity of citizens and reciprocal tranquillity, while they compel subjects to obey princes, to pay them tributes, and to obey their laws. They render princes clement, provident, and just avengers toward their subjects; among the subjects themselves they foster mutual benevolence and justice; and finally they bind both princes and subjects to God.

III. For many centuries the bloody persecutions of the mysteries of the Christian faith have ceased. But wars burn, and indeed internal ones, and therefore more mournful, against the rules and mandates of evangelical sanctity. The battles of opinions grow hot; fights for the soothing of human appetitions are daily renewed; because these conciliate to themselves the favour and acclamation of a raving world. But hear Augustine, ministers of Christ, thundering in his sermon on Psalm 48: Thou art advanced, when thou hearest a reproach concerning Christ; thou art advanced, if thou art such. What dost thou fear for thy forehead, which thou hast armed with the sign of the cross? Again on the Psalm, with a fuller discourse, he inculcates this endowment of fortitude and liberty: Let the lips therefore say what the heart has: let it not have fear and simulation. Let the heart have what the lips say: on the contrary, let the lips have what the heart believes. For sometimes there is fear, and thou darest not say what thou knowest, what thou believest: sometimes there is simulation, and thou sayest what thou hast not in thy heart. … Let thy lips agree with thy heart.

I. That common axiom, No one gives what he has not, is in the highest degree opportune for illustrating our argument. If a confessor be void of the love of God, how can he kindle in penitents the ardour of charity? He that is evil to himself, to whom will he be good? says Ecclesiasticus, chapter 14.

III. Unless it be given as a holy gift by God, this precious gem can scarcely be gained. If the seed be present, it can be perfected by industry, study, and experience. The prudence necessary to confessors is acquired not so much by industry and study as by continual prayer and the cultivation of humility. A confessor is a peacemaker of sinners with God. Unless he be cautious and prudent in procuring this most lofty business, he will profit nothing. I shall exhibit a few rules of prudence.

VII. THE FOURTH RULE. The prudence of a confessor ought chiefly to shine forth in this, that with Christian patience and evangelical meekness he receive, hear, and embrace his penitents as brethren, whom he ought to snatch from the servitude of the devil and to gain for God. Patience is necessary for you — for all assuredly, but for you above all.

III. Fr. Claude La Croix, Book 6, part 2, no. 1788, writes this: “Lamas and Sioz think that those are sufficiently learned for this office (of confessor) who have diligently read an entire SUM, or attentively heard it explained. But if anyone doubt of himself, let him present himself to the examiners appointed by the bishop or superior: and if they judge that he knows enough, he can acquiesce and with confidence in God undertake the function, although it be the greatest and gravest of all. So Sporer.”

VII. But let us meditate one of the aphorisms which Fr. Gobat assigns in the same place, no. 515: “Since in the Shield of Judges we shall show that it is morally almost certain that, speaking of itself, it is lawful to follow either of two opinions truly and practically probable; but since it is also certain that sometimes by reason of various circumstances there lies upon a confessor an obligation of using one rather than the other; therefore let confessors note the most true doctrine of Fr. Lessius, which he hands down in the preface of his work On Right and Justice, namely that a knowledge of contrary practically probable opinions is MOST CONVENIENT and almost NECESSARY for the forum of conscience. Wherefore I do not reckon that those confessors can discharge their office well enough who are, as it is wont to be said, doctors of one opinion only.”

III. Graver always was, and today far graver is, the danger lest confessors decline into the extreme of Laxism rather than of Rigorism. Scarcely in all Italy, Germany, and Spain will you find one Rigorist, so far as it is permitted to conjecture from books and from manifest experience, who should deny the sacraments to Christians sincerely contrite. All human reasonings detract from Rigorism. He who sins by excessive rigour is altogether foolish, because he provokes God and the world against himself. By the world he is traduced as a fanatic, a misanthrope, a Rigorist, a Jansenist; and by God he is punished for an erroneous severity. Unhappy therefore is the Rigorist both in this and in the future age. On the contrary the Laxists, if they shall be unhappy in the future, are at least happy in the present age.

III. The Second Lateran Council, canon 22: Because among other things there is one which most greatly disturbs the holy Church, namely a false penance, we admonish our brethren the presbyters that they suffer not souls to be deceived by false penances, and to be dragged down into hell.

VII. Innumerable other documents both of holy bishops and of graver theologians I pass over from a study of brevity. If you desire more, consult Vol. IX, Book 1, dissertation 1, chapters 9 and 10, where I have transcribed the testimonies which four most learned Jesuits — Bellarmine, Elizalde, Camargo, and de Alberti — exhibit.

Case.—Anna has a great desire for Christian perfection. Accordingly she goes to confession every week, and receives Holy Communion daily, whenever possible, hoping thus to attain by sacramental graces a steadily increasing purity of heart. The results, however, do not meet her expectations, she is conscious of still possessing many faults, hence she loses courage and weakens in her efforts.

Question.—How should a confessor treat his penitent in order to encourage her faithful adherence to the practice of daily Communion?

Solution.—In the well-known decree of December 20, 1905, hope is expressed that Communicants who receive daily, with the right dispositions and in the state of grace, may also gradually avoid venial sins. Anna desires to be freed of her faults, hence her zeal in receiving the Sacraments. She had hoped to draw this fruit quickly from daily Communion, but she is disappointed in her expectations. The confessor, as a wise physician of the soul, must, before all things, inquire into the causes of this disappointment. Possibly it is brought about by the fact that her expectations were exaggerated, or even presumptuous. Anna believed that she would be freed not only from all sins, but even from all imperfections. As imperfections, the moralists designate either acts or omissions contrary, not to a positive commandment, but to a counsel; another definition classes them as violations of the moral law which are quite involuntary, such as distraction in prayer, involuntary emotions of anger, envy, etc., and, in general, all faults that proceed from guiltless ignorance or inattention. This latter definition, where there is discussion of the difference between imperfections and venial sins, is to be preferred to the former, since imperfections in the first sense are not always free from real sin, while, as defined in the other sense, they never include guilt. To free one’s self by degrees from such imperfections, in as far as this is possible to human beings, should be the endeavor of every Christian, but he should not forget that he can never achieve this perfectly in this life. Perfect purity is exclusively the privilege of the spirits dwelling in Heaven; on earth even the just have always occasion to accuse themselves of moral shortcomings, and to lament with the Apostle: “Who will deliver me from the body of this death?”

It would be presumptuous to insist on the gift of angelic purity, and it would surely lead to various errors. To a penitent with such aspirations St. Francis of Sales gave the admonition, “Often we take pains to become good angels, and in our zeal we neglect to be good men and good women.” He pointed out the importance of being patient with oneself: “Patience is that virtue which most assures us perfection. We must practice it in dealing with others, but it is equally necessary to exercise it with ourselves. Those who aspire to a perfect charity, must have more patience with themselves than with others. We must endure our imperfections in order to gain perfection.”

With venial sins it is different. These are more or less voluntary violations of the moral law, for this reason they offend God, and in this aspect they are to be abhorred as a positive evil. While in this life it is not possible to avoid always even the least of venial sins, yet it is possible to lessen their number, or to keep oneself entirely free from a certain species of them. That the penitent may never become lax in this endeavor, should be the special solicitude of the confessor. He will, in order to avoid the rock of extreme severity, and in order to discourage neither himself nor his penitent, clearly distinguish between sins of frailty and sins that result from a perversity of the will, or from bad habits. Even the saints were not wholly free from sins of frailty; they, too, had to confess with St. James: “In many things we all offend.” Such faults enter only too easily into our minds, actions and omissions; they can, however, be just as easily wiped out again, especially through prayer, as St. Augustine teaches: “For the daily, brief, and light sins without which this life is not led, the daily prayer of the faithful makes satisfaction... this prayer completely wipes away slight and daily sins,” Ench. 71. As a matter of fact these very faults of weakness work for the good of those who truly love God; for as they are thus continually reminded of their frailty, they are more firmly imbued with an humble self-knowledge. P. Scupoli tell us how advantageous is this knowledge of our faults: “O happy knowledge (of our frailty) which sanctifies us in this world, and uplifts us to the glory of Heaven! O splendid light, proceeding from the darkness and flooding the soul with celestial clarity! O hidden pearl, shining forth from our obscurity! O nothingness that uplifts us to the possession of all things!” If the saints received extraordinary graces from God, not a little of this was due to the fact that they chose to give themselves up to the contemplation of their own nothingness, and fostered within themselves the spirit of humility and contrition.

Upon this important point Anna must be enlightened so that what should really inspire confidence and courage may not become a cause for discouragement.

When, however, there is question of faults arising from perversity of will, and deliberately committed, then the case assumes another aspect. A spiritual condition of this kind requires careful treatment on the part of the confessor.

How harmful such faults are to our striving for virtue is aptly told by P. Lancicius. He writes, in the introduction to an exhaustive treatise upon venial sins: “During the forty-seven years of my priesthood, I have been at different times the spiritual director of lay persons and of Religious. In this work I was made aware that many persons received great graces from the Lord, but with the greater number I saw that they received lesser graces than the Divine bounty would have poured out upon them if they had been more diligent in avoiding numerous venial sins, especially those committed with deliberation.”

Should the confessor perceive that Anna is enmeshed in faults of this kind, that she commits certain faults from habit, then he will, first of all, prescribe the remedies needed against her shortcomings, and impress upon her the conscientious use of the same. Some pious, but little instructed, persons fall into the error that sacramental grace will do all and that it will suffice to receive Communion frequently in order to attain the heights of Christian perfection. If Anna sincerely desires to be cured of moral ills she will assuredly show her good will by a diligent use of the prescribed remedies, and thus gradually attain the desired goal. Should Anna, however, manifest a lack of good intention, by neglecting to cooperate with sacramental grace by her own suitable effort, then the prudent confessor will regard her case as critical, and, if necessary, treat her with warranted severity. Such souls are frequently in grave danger of straying afar from the path of virtue. In the case of such persons the question arises: Have they, indeed, the pious disposition, which is before all things requisite for daily Communion? Are they, indeed, in the state of grace? Admittedly they will not commit any sin which they regard as a grievous sin. Yet, what security is there, in their deplorable condition, that their supposedly venial sins are not really mortal sins, or at least will not soon lead to such? In judging sinful acts, which Moralists hold to be grievous sins ex genere suo, which, however, may be slight on account of parvitas materiae, it is often very difficult to define the borderline that divides venial sins and grievous ones, and, since even the most skilled Casuists often admit their inability to distinguish in this matter, how can a person, less well-informed, without conscious self-deception claim that this borderline has not been overstepped, when she has over and over again sinned deliberately against charity, justice, etc.? Moreover the neglected grace is gradually withdrawn from the tepid soul, and the Divine warning is being fulfilled which was pronounced upon the Bishop of Ephesus: “Because thou art tepid I will begin to vomit thee out of my mouth.” There is, finally a particular point to be taken into consideration regarding such persons. Not infrequently the habitual faults of those avowing the aspiration to a devout life are yielding scandal. Their lack of charity, of fidelity to duty, of humility, meekness, etc., casts not seldom a dark shadow upon piety itself and brings it into discredit. The scandal which the world takes at the devout is surely often a pharisaical scandal-taking, their malice gleefully making small faults the occasion for vilification of all religion. Unfortunately, however, there is sometimes real scandal of this sort which the confessor must combat with energy. Should all his endeavors fail, then he must not hesitate to keep such persons, who evidently misuse the sacraments, from approaching them until they are induced to make a better use of the same.