Martyrdom

III. Acts of Fortitude. The acts of fortitude are two, namely to sustain and to attack. For sometimes right reason dictates that, with danger of death, we attack the adversaries of the good, so that they may be driven back and the assault against the good may cease; but sometimes, and more often, that we patiently sustain such dangers for the sake of the good of virtue, from which one must never withdraw, not even for the sake of removing them. This last act, namely to sustain, is the principal one. For "to attack pertains to fortitude insofar as it moderates daring; but to sustain follows the repression of fear" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 123, a. 6). Now "fortitude is more concerned with repressing fears than with moderating acts of daring; for it is more difficult to repress fear than to moderate daring, because the very danger which is the object of daring and fear contributes of itself somewhat to the repression of daring, but works toward the increase of fear."

Since the cardinal virtue of fortitude is occupied around whatever dangers of death, which, insofar as they are such, are all of the same species, it lacks subjective parts (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 128, single article). But the principal act of fortitude shines forth especially in martyrdom; therefore we wish to note certain things concerning it.

1. Notion of Martyrdom. By the force of the word, martyrdom - for it is derived from the Greek word marturon (μαρτύρων) - signifies any testimony whatever; but by usage it has long been received that by this word, by antonomasia, there is designated an act of supernatural fortitude by which a singular testimony is given for the truth of the Christian faith, and which can be defined: the voluntary endurance of torment lethal of itself for the faith of Christ. This definition will become clearer from the conditions to be assigned.

2. Conditions of Martyrdom. Some conditions are on the part of the torment, namely that it be lethal of itself; others on the part of the martyr, namely that he voluntarily undergo the endurance of torment and from a supernatural motive; others on the part of the persecutor, namely that he be distinct from the one being tormented and inflict the torment from hatred against the faith of Christ. Therefore it is required:

a) That the torment be lethal of itself. "A martyr is so called," says St. Thomas, "as a witness of the Christian faith, by which visible things are proposed as things to be despised for the sake of invisible things" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 124, a. 4). Moreover, so long as a man does not undergo torment lethal of itself, he does not show by deed that he despises all bodily things. But according to the more common opinion it is not demanded that death in fact follow; this is only the natural consequence of martyrdom, and does not pertain to its essence. This is clear both from the practice of the Church, which, for example, venerates St. John the Evangelist as a martyr because he voluntarily endured for the faith of Christ a torment lethal of itself, although by a miracle he came out unharmed from the vat of boiling oil; and from reason. For he who suffers torment lethal of itself, even if divine omnipotence prevents death, shows by deed that he despises all temporal things for the faith of Christ; and in this the outstanding act of fortitude formally exists.

b) That the endurance of torment be voluntary. For where the voluntary is lacking, an honorable act in general is also lacking. Therefore, although this condition, insofar as martyrdom is baptism of blood, is not required for little children, nevertheless it is required for adults, in whom martyrdom must always be an honorable act. An actual voluntary acceptance of this torment is best; a virtual voluntary acceptance also suffices; concerning the sufficiency of a habitual voluntary acceptance authors dispute.

c) That the voluntary endurance of torment be accepted from a supernatural motive, namely for bearing witness to the faith of Christ. For martyrdom is testimony shown to Christ; now he who dies, but not for the faith of Christ, does not show testimony to Christ. Therefore it is required that the truth which the martyr testifies to by his torment be a truth taught by Christ. Hence it follows that before the Church he is not a martyr who dies to avoid a sin which he erroneously thinks to be a sin (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 124, a. 5; Supplement, q. 69, a. 6, ad 9).

d) That another inflict the torment out of hatred against the faith of Christ. For the martyr's testimony for the faith of Christ is solemn, as is clear from the words of Christ;¹ wherefore death must be inflicted by another in hatred of Christ; otherwise testimony is not had.

It is disputed whether soldiers who are killed in a sacred war while fighting for the defense of the faith can be called martyrs in the true sense. Some deny it, since the nature of martyrdom, as the most excellent act of fortitude and an imitation of the Passion of Christ, seems to require that the endurance of torment lethal of itself be sustained patiently without attack. There is added the practice of the Church, which never venerates these soldiers as martyrs. Others, however, affirm it, since by attacking and defending, the soldiers seem to defend the Church and Christ more than themselves; and they try to explain the practice of the Church from the difficulty of investigating from what motive, divine or human, the soldiers fought.

Corollary. Neither a soldier in any war, nor a priest, nor a religious woman who succumbs in the duties of his or her office or of charity, is to be called a martyr; indeed, not even a priest who, falsely accused of homicide and able to free himself by violating the sacramental seal, is condemned to death. The cause of the death appointed on the part of the judge is not the cause of Christ, but the supposed homicide. Nevertheless, all these who succumb in fulfilling their office from a supernatural motive, although they are not martyrs, must truly be said to exercise the most perfect act of the virtue of fortitude; indeed, they place the most perfect act of charity according to the words of Christ: "Greater love than this no one has, that someone lay down his life for his friends";² but that act is not martyrdom, which theologians call baptism of blood.

3. Effects of Martyrdom. a) In the just man it effects second sanctifying grace, and the remission of all venial faults of which he repents, even if attrition without martyrdom would not suffice for their remission, and the removal of all temporal punishments.

b) In the sinner, martyrdom effects first sanctifying grace and the remission of sin, both original sin, if it has not yet been remitted, and personal mortal sin, and the removal of eternal punishments and the other effects assigned for the just man.

Venial sins to which a martyr might die adhering are remitted for him as to guilt by the first act of charity which he elicits immediately after departure from this life (St. Thomas, De malo, q. 7, a. 11; St. Alphonsus, Opera dogmatica, ed. Walter, t. 1, p. 672); and since nothing can delay a martyr from entrance into eternal beatitude, the temporal punishments remaining for these venial sins are removed still by the force of the martyrdom suffered, by the same reason by which the sacrament of Baptism removes these punishments in those adults who, baptized with an affection for venial sins, would immediately depart from life without any sin committed after Baptism.

Note. Concerning the condition required in a martyr that he may obtain the effects of martyrdom, and concerning the manner in which martyrdom produces its effects, cf. the treatise on Baptism.

¹ Matt. 10:32-39.

² John 15:13.

Martyrdom.—As judgment is the chief act of justice (see 1727), so martyrdom is the chief act of fortitude, and in a sense the most perfect of all acts. For martyrdom is defined as “the voluntary acceptance for the sake of God of a violent death inflicted out of hatred of virtue.” Martyrdom belongs to fortitude which produces it, to love of God which commands it (I Cor., xiii. 13), and to faith which attracts it. Merely as an act of courage, it is inferior to some other acts, since fortitude is not the highest virtue, and the goods for which martyrdom is undergone must be preferable to martyrdom itself. But in two ways martyrdom is the greatest act of virtue.

(a) Thus, internally it has charity for its end, and “greater love than this no man hath, that a man lay down his life for his friends” (John, xv. 13); it is the greatest sign of love of God.

(b) Externally it is a profession of faith in the superiority of the invisible and future to the visible and present goods, and no more efficacious proof of this faith can be given than martyrdom (Job, ii. 4; II Cor., iv. 11).

Kinds of Martyrdom.—The word martyrdom is sometimes used loosely or less accurately, and hence we distinguish the following kinds of martyrdom:

(a) false martyrdom is death suffered in an evil cause, as when one dies for erroneous principles or doctrines (e.g., for anarchy), Martyrdom is testimony of blood given to the truth, not to error, and hence it is not the suffering but the cause that makes the martyr. Improper martyrdom is death suffered for some purely natural good, as when a person dies for the cause of science or of a political party, or in defense of natural truths about God but without a religious motive;

(b) true and proper martyrdom, which is not the virtue but the crown of martyrdom, is death inflicted on an infant out of hatred for Christ, as in the case of the Holy Innocents. This is baptism of blood for infants, as the virtue is for adults, supplying the place of baptism of water (Matt., x. 39);

(c) the virtue of martyrdom in the sight of God (theological martyrdom) is either in desire or in act. Martyrdom of desire, which is the wish to die for God, may have the same essential glory as martyrdom in act, but it lacks the accidental glory, since it does not really suffer the trial (see 89-93). Martyrdom in act, which is external suffering for justice’s sake, has three degrees: the lowest degree is suffering that lacks one or other of the essential conditions (see 2444) for supreme self-sacrifice (imperfect martyrdom), the higher degree has all the essential conditions (perfect martyrdom), while the highest degree has also the accidentals that are most suitable for martyrdom (complete martyrdom);

(d) the virtue of martyrdom in the sight of the Church (canonical martyrdom) is that which, in addition to the conditions for perfect martyrdom, possesses also external indications sufficient to prove their existence and character.

Conditions for Martyrdom.—Since martyrdom is a virtue and the supreme testimony, it must have the following conditions:

(a) the cause of the martyrdom must be faith (e.g., persecution because the martyr is a Catholic), or some virtue containing a profession of faith, inasmuch as a divine good (e.g., chastity) or a human good (e.g., the truth of a science, the safety of one’s country) is defended for the sake of God;

(b) the persecutor must act from hatred of virtue, but it is not necessary that he be an unbeliever, or that he avow his hatred of virtue as the motive of persecution, or that he pronounce or execute the sentence of death himself;

(c) the martyr must accept martyrdom willingly (actual or virtual intention suffices, and perhaps also habitual); he must be free from guilt that provoked the sentence, and must be in the state of grace or at least repentant; he must die from a virtuous motive, not from vainglory, despair, or other sinful reason. Some make non-resistance a condition for what we called perfect martyrdom, while others make it a condition for what we called complete martyrdom; according to the former opinion the crusaders or other soldiers dying in a just war cannot be called martyrs of religion, but according to the second opinion they may be ranked with the martyrs;

(d) the punishment inflicted on the martyr must be death, either instant (as in decapitation) or delayed (as in gradual starvation, death by slow poisoning, mortal wounds, imprisonment or other hardship), Hence, those who are not put to death, but who are tortured, mutilated or imprisoned (e.g., St. John the Evangelist), are confessors of the faith, but only in an imperfect sense are they martyrs. Some believe that suffering is necessary for perfect martyrdom, and hence that those who are put to death painlessly are not, strictly speaking, martyrs; but others—and with better reason, it seems—deny this. Those who are not killed (e.g., persons who die from disease contracted while attending the sick or from austerities), or who are killed by themselves (e.g., the Circumcellions who thought to win martyrdom by suicide), are not martyrs (on the cases of Sts. Apollonia and Pelagia, see 1856).

Practical Questions about Martyrdom.—(a) The Desire of Martyrdom.—A general desire for or the willingness to suffer martyrdom if the necessity should arise is required for salvation (I John, iii. 16; Rom., x. 10). Apart from necessity, a special desire of martyrdom is not of precept, since martyrdom is an act of perfection; but such a desire is of counsel, since it is encouraged by Christ (I Peter, ii. 21), and many Saints have prayed for martyrdom.

(b) The Choice of Martyrdom.—Regularly it is not lawful to offer oneself freely for martyrdom, for to do so gives the tyrant an occasion of committing injustice, and as a rule there are not sufficient reasons of public or private good for permitting his sin (see 103 sqq.). Exceptionally it is lawful, when there is no danger that one will be overcome and there are urgent reasons for the act, such as the glory of God or the peace of the faithful.

(c) Provocation of Martyrdom.—Regularly it is not lawful to bring on a persecution by aggression (e.g., by destroying idols), since generally this will make one guilty of complicity and presumption. But there are exceptional cases, when the good of souls demands attack on evils (Dan., xiv. 26; Matt., xiv. 3, 4). It is not provocation of persecution, however, to live virtuously (Tob., ii. 8, 9), or to reprove a persecutor after one has been apprehended (II Mach., viii. 15-17; Acts, vii. 51-54).

(d) Flight from Martyrdom.—Flight is sometimes sinful, sometimes obligatory, sometimes optional, according to circumstances, as was explained in 1005, 1006.

Can men who have departed from life with a reputation for sanctity be adored? - They can be honored with private worship. But they cannot be honored with solemn and public worship, unless they have been numbered by the Supreme Pontiff in the Catalogue of Saints or Blessed. Public worship, however, is that which is exhibited in the name of the Church, or as instituted by her; private worship is that which proceeds only from private devotion, even if it is done before others. Therefore it is not licit to erect churches or altars in honor of Saints not canonized, or at least not beatified, cf. 463; nor is it licit to invoke them publicly in litanies, nor to expose their relics or images for public veneration, or to carry them around in processions. Yet it is permitted to keep these images or relics privately, to kiss them reverently, etc., because such worship is altogether private, which is not prohibited. Struggl 18; E. M.

Those are called Saints who solemnly, a definitive sentence having been issued, are enrolled by the Roman Pontiff in the catalogue of Saints, and their worship is permitted to all the faithful. Those are called Blessed who, from a special concession of the Roman Pontiff, can be honored with some public worship only in some place or in some Religious Institute. Those are Venerable concerning whom the cause of introduction of their beatification has been signed by the Roman Pontiff. Servants of God are those who have died with a reputation for sanctity or martyrdom. But "Our Most Holy Lord Pius Pope X... forbade Servants of God, whose causes are henceforth introduced, to be called Venerable; likewise he decreed that solemnities are not permitted to be carried out on the occasion of the decree issued concerning the introduction of the cause... nor panegyric orations. But he permitted that Servants of God be adorned with the title Venerable only after the decree issued concerning heroic virtue or concerning martyrdom, yet in such a way that from this permission no argument of granted veneration can be inferred or claimed... Solemnities for giving thanks to God even after the decree issued concerning heroic virtue or martyrdom he likewise prohibited; yet by this prohibition he did not intend to prevent the addition in Masses, as is fitting, of a collect for thanksgiving." S. R. C., 26 Aug. 1913. This Decree also contains several other prescriptions to be observed in the beginning of causes of Servants of God, namely so that the cause may be duly instituted. There are special Instructions concerning the processes of causes of Martyrs in regions of unbelievers. Cf. Consulente Ecclesiastico, 1905, p. 313 seqq. Likewise there is a Decree to be observed concerning judicial order in causes of Servants of God proceeding by way of an excepted case. S. R. C., 11 Nov. 1912. "Our Most Holy Lord Pius Pope X, for treating causes of lesser moment of Servants of God, namely concerning reputation for sanctity in general, concerning non-cult, concerning the validity and relevance of processes, and other similar things, constituted a particular Congregation." Decree S. R. C., 9 Dec. 1908.

Is it permitted to offer oneself to martyrdom? - One must distinguish with St. Thomas. Either a legitimate cause is present or not. If the first, for example, to avoid blasphemies, to procure the glory of God and of faith, to remove in one's neighbor the danger of unbelief, it is certainly permitted, since it is a work of the greatest charity. If the second, it is not permitted, since no one is lord of his own life so that he can squander it at his own pleasure. Whence he sins gravely, when good faith or divine inspiration does not excuse, as we know happened in several Saints. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 174, a. 3; L. 32, l. 6, n. 101. "To sustain martyrdom on account of Christ falls under precept, because namely man ought to have his mind so prepared that he would sooner permit himself to be killed than deny Christ or sin mortally. And thus also to leave one's own goods falls under precept, because the mind of a Christian ought to be prepared rather to sustain the plundering of his goods than to deny Christ or sin mortally." S. Th., Quodl. 4, a. 20.

What is baptism of blood; what are its required conditions? - Baptism of blood is the shedding of blood or death endured for faith, or for another Christian virtue. But this baptism is equated with true baptism, because as if ex opere operato, after the manner of baptism, it remits guilt and punishment. As if, because martyrdom does not operate so strictly and properly as the sacraments do, but from a certain privilege by reason of real imitation of the Passion of Christ. Therefore martyrdom profits even infants. The Church honors the Holy Innocents as true martyrs.

For the martyrdom of an adult, that it be such as is necessary for salvation, five things are required: 1. the infliction of death; 2. acceptance of the same from a pious cause; 3. that one not resist the tyrant; 4. that by faith he hold the truth for which he suffers; 5. legitimate disposition for grace. But what such a disposition is, is controverted. The first opinion teaches that true contrition, perfect from love of God above all things, is necessary. The second holds that the will of suffering for Christ suffices, and that there is no need of another penance, even if the man remembers his sins. The third asserts that at least attrition is required, if the man is conscious of sin.

Moreover, contrition can be required for the fruit of martyrdom in two ways: first directly, as a necessary disposition; second indirectly, as a work necessary for avoiding a new sin. - If the one for whom martyrdom is imminent is in mortal sin, contrition is necessary for him for the fruit of martyrdom indirectly, or at least attrition which is thought to be contrition, as a work necessary for avoiding a new sin which would impede its fruit. The reason is that if ever the precept of contrition obliges, it does so especially in danger of death. - Yet contrition is not necessary in itself and directly as a disposition for the fruit of martyrdom, but attrition is required and suffices. The first reason is that the Fathers equate the martyrdom of adults with baptism in its force of destroying sin. Here it must be noted that the very endurance of death according to itself is compared with baptism, and no lesser force in washing away sins is attributed to it than to baptism; nor is this force attributed to internal contrition, but to the external work. Therefore, just as baptism does not require contrition in order to confer grace, so neither does martyrdom. The second reason is that it is certain that for remission of guilt some penance is always required in adults from Trent sess. 14, c. 1.

• Theol. Wirceb. 57 ff.; Suarez d. 29, s. 1, 2; L. 95, 97; St. Thomas Quodl. 6, a. 4; 2.2, q. 124; 3 p., q. 66, a. 12 ad 2.

622. From what has been said concerning the material and formal object, it can easily be deduced what the acts of fortitude are. The office of fortitude is rightly to restrain fears and to moderate acts of daring. "Fortitude, however, concerns the repression of fears more than the moderation of acts of daring. For it is more difficult to repress fear than to moderate daring, because the danger itself, which is the object of daring and fear, of itself contributes something to the repression of daring, but, on the contrary, works toward the increase of fear. To attack pertains to fortitude insofar as it moderates daring; but to endure follows upon the repression of fear. And therefore the more principal act of fortitude is to endure, that is, to stand immovably amid dangers, rather than to attack." Thus, after Aristotle, St. Thomas,¹¹⁰⁵ who also adds: "To endure is more difficult than to attack, for a threefold reason. First, because he who endures seems to be attacked by someone stronger, whereas he who attacks advances as the stronger. But it is more difficult to fight with the stronger than with the weaker. Secondly, because he who endures already feels the dangers threatening, whereas he who attacks has them as future. But it is more difficult not to be moved by present things than by future things. Thirdly, because to endure imports length of time, whereas someone can attack from a sudden movement. But it is more difficult to remain immovable for a long time than to be moved by a sudden movement toward something arduous. Whence the Philosopher says that some are forceful before dangers but withdraw in the dangers themselves; but the brave conduct themselves contrariwise."¹¹⁰⁶ Since, therefore, to endure is the principal act of fortitude, it is easily understood that the act of martyrdom is the most excellent act of fortitude, because Christian martyrs most bravely endured a most painful death on account of the love of God.

¹¹⁰⁵ Cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 123, a. 6.

¹¹⁰⁶ Ib., ad 1.

623. Martyrdom is a Greek word, and in Latin signifies testimony. But in the usage received from the Church, it is taken for testimony to Christian truth through the endurance of bodily death. Therefore, for the perfect notion of martyrdom it is required:

1. That someone truly suffer bodily death. For a martyr is called the most perfect witness of the Christian faith, according to which we ought to suffer all evils rather than incur detriment to the soul. But one who still remains in bodily life has not yet shown absolutely that he despises all earthly things altogether on account of Christ. Therefore, before death has actually been endured on account of Christ, no one can be called a martyr in the perfect sense. Hence those who have suffered torments on account of Christ, but not unto death, are not perfectly and completely martyrs, even if they received a mortal wound from which death naturally ought to have followed, but from which they were miraculously healed.¹¹⁰⁷ Thus, at least according to the more probable opinion. Whence St. John, who was cast into a vat of boiling oil and emerged from it unharmed by divine power, is not to be called a martyr in the strict sense.¹¹⁰⁸ Nevertheless, such saints are sometimes honored by the Church as martyrs, for example, St. John the Evangelist himself and St. Thecla.

2. That someone undergo death inflicted by an enemy in hatred of Christian truth.

Concerning this matter St. Thomas writes:¹¹⁰⁹ "Martyrs are called, as it were, witnesses, because by their bodily sufferings even unto death they bear testimony to truth, not to any truth whatsoever, but to the truth which is according to godliness, which was made known to us through Christ; whence they are also called martyrs of Christ, as though His witnesses. Now truth of this kind is the truth of faith. And therefore the cause of every martyrdom is the truth of faith. But to the truth of faith belongs not only the very belief of the heart but also exterior profession, which indeed is made not only through words, by which someone confesses the faith, but also through deeds, by which someone shows himself to have faith, according to this: 'I will show thee, by works, my faith.'¹¹¹⁰ Whence it is also said concerning certain persons: 'They profess that they know God: but in their works they deny him.'¹¹¹¹ And therefore the works of all the virtues, insofar as they are referred to God, are certain professions of faith, through which it is made known to us that God requires works of this kind from us and rewards us for them; and in this respect they can be the cause of martyrdom. Whence also the martyrdom of blessed John the Baptist is celebrated in the Church, who endured death not for refusing to deny the faith, but for rebuking adultery."

It is required, however, that death be inflicted by an enemy of divine faith or of Christian virtue; whence martyrs in the strict sense are not: a) those who endure death on account of a disease contracted from the care of lepers or of those infected with plague,¹¹¹² which care they undertook on account of the love of God; on the contrary, perhaps those soldiers seem to be martyrs who with a pure intention, that is, on account of God, fought from love of justice and the divine law and were slain in a just war;¹¹¹³ b) those who underwent death on account of natural truths; nor, a fortiori, c) those who suffered death on account of heresy; whence Huss is by no means to be called a martyr.¹¹¹⁴ For the same reason, neither are they martyrs, d) who killed themselves in order to preserve some Christian virtue, because such suicide is unlawful, unless it is excused by the good faith of the agent or by a special impulse of the Holy Spirit. But if the Church venerates as martyrs certain saints who took their own lives in order to preserve virtue, such as St. Apollonia and St. Pelagia, a special impulse of the Holy Spirit is presupposed.¹¹¹⁵

3. That death be accepted voluntarily.

Therefore, if an adult is killed in his sleep on account of the faith, without having thought beforehand about martyrdom, he probably is not a martyr. There are nevertheless authors (among whom is Cajetan¹¹¹⁶) who teach that a man who referred all his things to God is a true martyr if he is killed in his sleep by enemies on account of hatred of the Christian faith. Infants, however, who are killed in hatred of the faith or of Christ, are called true martyrs, because the will is supplied by a special grace.

To the point St. Thomas writes: "Some said that in the Innocents the use of free will was miraculously accelerated, so that they also suffered martyrdom voluntarily. But because this is not confirmed by the authority of Scripture, it is better to say that those little children who were slain attained, through God's grace, the glory of martyrdom which in others their own will merits. For the shedding of blood on account of Christ takes the place of baptism. Whence, just as in baptized children the merit of Christ works through baptismal grace toward obtaining glory, so also in those slain on account of Christ the merit of Christ's martyrdom works toward obtaining the palm of martyrdom."¹¹¹⁷

¹¹⁰⁷ Nevertheless St. Alphonsus (Theol. mor. l. 6, n. 99) says: "It is probable ... that grace is conferred when a martyr receives a lethal wound or torment, although afterward he miraculously does not die. And thus blessed John, cast into a vat of boiling oil, was truly a martyr, and so too the Queen of Martyrs, the Blessed Virgin Mary, standing beside the cross of Jesus."

¹¹⁰⁸ Cf. St. Thomas, Suppl. q. 96, a. 6 ad 7, and S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 4.

¹¹⁰⁹ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 5.

¹¹¹⁰ Jas. 2:18.

¹¹¹¹ Tit. 1:16.

¹¹¹² St. Alphonsus teaches the contrary (Theol. mor. l. 6, n. 100), saying: "Twelve academies, thirteen cardinals, and more than three hundred authors hold that such persons are true martyrs."

¹¹¹³ Cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 5 ad 3; Billuart, De fortitud. diss. 1, a. 2.

¹¹¹⁴ Cf. Benedict XIV, De serv. Dei beatif. l. 3, c. 19-20; Waffelaert, De virt. card. n. 15ff.

¹¹¹⁵ Cf. S. theol., l.c., a. 1 ad 2, and Benedict XIV, l.c., c. 11, n. 12.

¹¹¹⁶ Comm. in 2, 2, q. 124, a. 2.

¹¹¹⁷ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 1 ad 1.

624. On the efficacy and effects of martyrdom. 1. Martyrdom justifies a sinner, whether baptized or not baptized, whether an adult or a little child. In adults, however, it is required that martyrdom be joined at least with attrition concerning sins committed; for if even the sacrament of baptism does not remit sins unless an adult has at least attrition, a fortiori martyrdom requires attrition. This attrition indeed seems sufficiently present if the martyr voluntarily accepts death on account of the love of God.¹¹¹⁸ This efficacy of martyrdom for little children is as though ex opere operato; for martyrdom is, as it were, baptism, whence it is also called the baptism of blood. Therefore, according to the almost common doctrine of theologians, not only the Innocents slain by Herod, but any little children killed for the Christian faith (even those who are killed in the womb of their mother) are martyrs and will obtain eternal life.

2. Martyrdom, since it is the most perfect act of charity: a) deletes in the just every venial fault and every temporal punishment still to be discharged for past sins. Whence every martyr flies immediately into heaven, without having to pass through purgatory, and therefore Innocent III says: "He does injury to a martyr who prays for a martyr";¹¹¹⁹ b) merits a great increase of grace and glory.

3. Martyrdom merits a special crown in heaven, which is called an aureola.

Concerning this aureola Benedict XIV writes,¹¹²⁰ following the doctrine of St. Thomas: "The conjunction of man with God through His perfect vision and fruition is called a golden crown, or simply golden by way of a substantive, just as a triumphal crown woven of laurel is called a laurel by way of a substantive noun. Now, since to essential beatitude, namely joy concerning conjunction with God, another accidental reward is added, that is, a certain joy concerning works performed which have the character of an excellent victory, according to the doctrine of St. Thomas,¹¹²¹ this joy is called an aureola, as though a little crown: The aureola is a certain privileged reward corresponding to a privileged victory."

Theologians commonly admit a threefold aureola, namely, the aureola of virgins, the aureola of doctors, and the aureola of martyrs. "The aureola is said to be something added to the golden crown, that is, a certain joy concerning works performed by oneself which have the character of an excellent victory; this is another joy from that by which someone rejoices concerning conjunction with God, which joy is called the golden crown."¹¹²² The aureola is owed to virgins on account of an excellent victory over carnal pleasure; to martyrs on account of the most difficult victory over the world and the enemies of the faith; but to doctors and strenuous preachers of Christian truth on account of victory over the devil, the prince of darkness and the father of lies. Since in infants who undergo martyrdom there is not properly a struggle, because of the defect of reason, neither is there in them an aureola properly so called, either of virginity or of martyrdom; nevertheless, they participate in some manner in the aureola, insofar as they rejoice in a special manner that they were slain in the service of Christ. Thus St. Thomas,¹¹²³ against several theologians who admit an aureola properly so called even in infant martyrs. The same St. Thomas teaches that the aureola of martyrs is more excellent than the other two aureolae.

¹¹¹⁸ Cf. the diverse opinions concerning this matter in Waffelaert, l.c., n. 24, and in St. Alphonsus, l.c., n. 98.

¹¹¹⁹ c. 6, X, 3, 41.

¹¹²⁰ L.c., c. 15, n. 5.

¹¹²¹ In IV Sent. dist. 49, q. 5, a. 5.

¹¹²² St. Thomas, Suppl. q. 96, a. 1.

¹¹²³ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 6 ad 1.

S. Th. II-II, q. 124.

908. Martyrdom is the real testimony of Christian truth attacked, through the tolerance of bodily death. For this three conditions are required:

1. That someone truly suffer bodily death. For the martyr is the most perfect witness, who professes that all visible things are to be contemned on account of Christ (Heb. XI); but he who still remains in bodily life has not yet shown that he despises all earthly things on account of Christ (a. 4).

Hence a) the desire of martyrdom does not suffice, although it participates in its merit; b) those who have crucified their flesh through graver penances are not true martyrs; c) and those upon whom a sufficient cause of death was inflicted but who were miraculously preserved from death are not martyrs in the perfect and complete sense, although they have the merit of martyrdom; d) and the Blessed Virgin is not called martyr properly, but according to likeness (a. 4, ad 1): for no cause of bodily death was inflicted on her, but only a most vehement torment of soul, although she thus suffered more than martyrs and thus is eminently queen of martyrs.

2. That someone undergo death inflicted by an enemy in hatred of Christian truth, whether directly for the faith to be believed, or indirectly and implicitly for the faith to be enacted, or for every Christian virtue to be exercised or sin to be avoided, but on account of God. St. Thomas shows this thus, a. 5:

"Martyrs are so called as witnesses, because, namely, by their bodily sufferings even unto death they bear testimony to truth, not to any truth whatever, but to the truth which is according to piety, which has become known to us through Christ; hence martyrs are also called, as it were, witnesses of Him. But truth of this sort is the truth of faith. And therefore the cause of any martyrdom is the truth of faith. But to the truth of faith there pertains not only the very belief of the heart, but also exterior protestation; which indeed is made not only by words, by which someone confesses the faith, but also by deeds, by which someone shows that he has faith... And therefore the works of all virtues, according as they are referred to God, are certain protestations of faith, through which it becomes known to us that God requires works of this sort from us and rewards us for them, and according to this they can be the cause of martyrdom. Hence also the martyrdom of Blessed John the Baptist is celebrated in the Church, who sustained death not for denying the faith but for reproving adultery."

Hence they are not martyrs in the strict sense:

a) those who tolerate death on account of sickness contracted from the care of lepers or of those infected with plague, undertaken on account of love of God; b) those who underwent death on account of natural truths, for example, of geometry or of another profane science; c) those who underwent death on account of heresy, as J. Hus; d) those who are killed for the fatherland in a war, even a just one, which they must undergo, even if they intend to die on account of love of virtue, because death is not inflicted on them in hatred of virtue, at least ordinarily; e) those who killed themselves for preserving Christian virtue: for suicide is a sin, unless they are excused by good faith or by a special instinct of the Holy Spirit (a. 1, ad 2).

3. That death be accepted voluntarily from the motive of faith or of the virtue attacked. Hence if an adult is killed in sleep for the cause of faith, without having thought about martyrdom, he does not seem to be a martyr, whatever Cajetan may have said (in a. 2).

Infants who are killed in hatred of faith or of Christ are called martyrs, because in them the will is supplied by the special grace of Baptism: "It must be said," says St. Thomas, a. 1, ad 1, "that the glory of martyrdom which in others their own will merits, those little ones killed attained through the grace of God. For the pouring out of blood on account of Christ takes the place of baptism. Hence just as in baptized children the merit of Christ operates through baptismal grace for obtaining glory, so also in those killed on account of Christ the merit of the martyrdom of Christ operates for obtaining the palm of martyrdom."

909. Martyrdom is an act of the virtue of fortitude. - It is an act of virtue, because it pertains to the account of martyrdom to stand firmly against the attacks of persecutors in truth and virtue, which is the good of reason; but it belongs to virtue to strengthen in the good of reason. Hence to it is promised the reward of beatitude, which is not owed except to acts of virtue, Mt. V, 10: Blessed are they who suffer persecution for justice, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (a. 1).

It is properly an act of fortitude. For it pertains to fortitude to confirm man in the good of virtue against dangers of death, especially that death which is in war (n. 906, 2). But it is manifest that in martyrdom man is firmly confirmed in the good of virtue, while he does not desert faith and virtue on account of dangers of death which threaten from persecutors in a certain particular combat. Hence it is manifest that martyrdom is an act of fortitude; and therefore concerning martyrs the Church sings: They were made strong in war (a. 2).

Hence a) it is an act elicited by fortitude, but commanded by the virtue on account of whose motive, or for which, it is sustained as an end: by faith, religion, justice, chastity, etc., or also by charity toward God, by which it is most apt to be commanded, insofar as it is the greatest sign of love, according to the words of Christ, John XV, 13: Greater love than this no man hath, that a man lay down his life for his friends; b) it is not an act of the greatest perfection if it is considered according to its proper species, respectively to the virtue by which it is elicited, because fortitude is not the greatest of the virtues; yet in the case in which it is commanded by charity of God, it can be called an act of the greatest perfection, insofar as it is the greatest sign of love toward God (a. 3).

910. Efficacy of martyrdom. - Martyrdom, because it is an imitation of the very passion of Christ, justifies the sinner, whether baptized or not baptized, whether adult or little child, as is clear from the perpetual doctrine of the Church.

Its efficacy is as if from the work worked: namely, martyrdom is as it were baptism, whence it is called baptism of blood. Hence for obtaining justification from martyrdom, no disposition is required in children; in adults that disposition suffices which is necessary with the sacrament, namely, sincere attrition for sins committed, which lays aside every affection for sin and retracts sin.

Hence 1. mere death on account of Christ does not suffice, for it can be with an obstacle to justification, or with affection for sin; hence in I Cor. XIII, 3 it is said: "If I should deliver my body, so that I burn, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing";

2. nevertheless perfect contrition or an act of charity is not required, because thus man is justified from the work of the worker even without martyrdom; hence if it were required, no special efficacy would belong to martyrdom; yet the influx of charity is necessary that martyrdom also have merit;

3. but imperfect contrition suffices, in the same way as is explained in the treatise on Penance; because by such contrition every obstacle to justification is removed; hence, it being given, in martyrdom charity is infused into the sinner. And so martyrdom:

a) deletes all mortal sins, because the obstacle of affection for sin was removed by attrition;

b) also deletes every venial fault and every temporal punishment; and this effect, if an obstacle is present on account of affection for venial sin, is produced in the first instant after death, when the obstacle is removed by an act of perfect charity. Hence Innocent III: "He does injury to a martyr who prays for a martyr";

c) also confers in heaven a special crown or aureole, that is, a special joy concerning the most excellent and most difficult victory carried off from the world, in the same way as it is given to confessors and virgins on account of their special victory over the devil or over carnal pleasure; yet the aureole of martyrdom is superior to these.

Yet in infants there is not a proper battle and therefore not victory; hence in them there is not an aureole properly so called; nevertheless they participate in it in some way, insofar as they especially rejoice that they were killed in the service of Christ.

I ASSERT first, that in necessity, either of upholding justice or of dying, everyone is bound to undergo death for Christ.

IT IS PROVED first by St. Bonaventure, on Luke 9: Whoever shall be ashamed of me and of my words, of him the Son of man shall be ashamed, when he shall come in his majesty.

FURTHER it is proved by the Seraphic Doctor, from 1 John 3: Because he laid down his soul for us, and we ought to lay down our souls for the brethren.

THIRD: All are more bound to love God than all created things: Therefore if one must be lost, we ought to squander all created things.

I assert second. Outside of necessity, it is a work of supererogation.

IT IS PROVED by the Seraphic Doctor, first. John 15: Greater love than this no one has, than that a man lay down his soul for his friends: Therefore to undergo death for Christ is of the highest perfection; but the imperfect are not bound to heroic works: Therefore.

FURTHER he proves it from the Gloss on Rom. 6., asserting the same.

THIRD the Seraphic Doctor proves it, from D. Augustine, tractate 5 on the First Epistle of John. This is perfect Charity, that a man be ready to die for the brethren. But the Seraphic Doctor infers that Prelates are bound to a greater perfection than subjects are bound; for they are bound to lay down their souls for all. John 10: The Good Shepherd gives his soul for his Sheep. Which the Seraphic Doctor observes also on John, chapter 10.

THEREFORE in time of pestilence they are bound to expose themselves to danger of life, in administering the necessary Sacraments, as the Doctors commonly assert. But Diana admonishes, Treatise 4 on the Sacraments, resolution 167, that in time of pestilence a moribund person can be anointed with a long rod with Extreme Unction, and resolution 168, that one part can be anointed quickly, saying: By this holy unction, etc. may the Lord pardon you whatever you have sinned by sight, hearing, etc. So also Sylvester, part 3, question 32, article 2, and the Doctors of Louvain, in the years 1573 and 1588, as related by Octavius Tricornicensis, Apostolic Nuncio in Germany, and in the Directory of Ecclesiastical Discipline of Chappeau, chapter 5, question 30. Diana adds that he himself would anoint rather most rapidly, without a cross, one eye, one ear, etc.

CHIEF among the acts of Fortitude is to undergo death for God, which is to endure Martyrdom. Moreover, a Martyr is so called, as it were a confessor.

BASILIDES the heretic, cited by Tertullian in de praescript. toward the end, said that it is not licit to undergo Martyrdom. Gyraldus, however, counseled flight from Martyrdom, as though it were the work only of outstanding saints. St. Bonavent. refutes him in the Apologia pauperum.

I ASSERT that Martyrdom is in every case an act of virtue.

IT IS PROVED by the Holy Doctor from the epist. ad Heb. where, after narrating the deeds of the Martyrs, who for faith and religion experienced mockeries and scourges, chains and prisons, etc., he straightway exhorts in cap. 12. Let us run by patience to the fight proposed to us, looking on the Author of faith, and the finisher JESUS, who, having joy set before him, endured the cross, despising the shame. Where the Gloss: Girded and equipped, let us run without hesitation to the combat of Martyrdom.

NEXT he brings forward 2. Corinth. 12. Most gladly will I spend, and be spent myself, for your souls. Where the Gloss: Perfect Charity is that one be ready even to die for his brethren, and straightway Philippines 1. I desire to be dissolved, and to be with Christ: where the Gloss has: Certain imperfect men, who die with patience.

He also urges that passage 2. Timoth. 4. where Paul, exulting, is near Martyrdom: For I am even now ready to be sacrificed, and the time of my dissolution is at hand. I have fought the good fight, etc. and he cites the Gloss confirming the same.

He urges the same also from Act. 5. where the disciples went rejoicing from the sight of the Council, because they were accounted worthy to suffer reproach for the name of Jesus, as I also related above.

He ADDS that of 1 Peter, cap. 2. Christ suffered for us, leaving you an example, that you should follow his steps.

That it is a HEROIC act to lay down one's life for Christ, is had in Ioan. 5. But to decline death for a time, either to reserve oneself for a more glorious triumph, or for the solace and help of the flock, is not less praiseworthy; for thus the holy Pontiffs often hid themselves. Thus Christ also fled at one time.

He PROVES next by the examples of the Saints, Peter and Paul, Andrew, Laurence, Sebastian, Tiburtius, Vincentius, and the like, who offered themselves spontaneously to Martyrdom; for if that were not licit, they would already have gravely sinned and been damned, dying in a forbidden act, which is an insane thing to say; surely Christ exhorted, Matth. 10. Fear not them who kill the body, and cannot kill the soul.

THE REASONING of St. Bonaventure from the said Scriptures appears firm, for Martyrdom is a firm standing in faith and justice against the persecutors of the Church, and the offering of one's life to God, which is the greatest sign of Charity, as is said Ioan. 15.

I ASSERT secondly, that Martyrdom is an act of Fortitude. So St. Thom. art. 2. and in common with St. Bonavent. de septem donis, de Dono fortitudinis.

IT IS PROVED by the Holy Doctor first from that passage Heb. 11. The Saints by faith conquered kingdoms, were made strong in battle, turned armies to flight, etc. which the Church reads of the holy Martyrs, and St. Gregory homil. 27. in Evang. He expounds it thus: The saints were made strong, they tame the tormentors, they strengthen the spirit, they shine with virtues, they despise earthly things, they desire heavenly things, they can be killed, they cannot be bent, and homil. 30. in Evang. The Apostles would not have presumed to withstand the powers of this world, unless the fortitude of the Holy Spirit had made them firm. Thus Peter answered the Princes threatening him: We ought to obey God rather than men.

IT IS PROVED secondly by St. Bonaventure, by the reasoning drawn thence: The work of fortitude is to make firm in rectitude against perils, especially of death. But in such a way the Martyrs are made firm, as St. Cyprian has it lib. 2. epist. 6. ad Martyres.

I ASSERT thirdly, that Martyrdom is commanded also by Charity.

IT IS PROVED by the Holy Doctor, from the Scriptures cited.

I ADD therefore, that it is an act of the highest perfection, insofar as it is commanded by Charity. It is proved by the Holy Doctor from that passage Ioan. 15. Greater Charity than this no one hath, that a man lay down his life for his friends: but Charity is the greatest virtue, and hence its acts are most perfect, as is said 1 Corinth. 13. Coloss. 3.

I ASSERT fourthly, that a Christian is not bound to go to Tyrants for Martyrdom in every event, nor indeed ought he to offer an occasion for killing without cause; nevertheless in certain causes he not only can but even ought, as if the ignominy of the faith of Christ is at stake, if any are wavering in the faith. Thus the bravest Captain of the Church, St. Sebastian, protested this of himself. So St. Thom. art. 1. ad .¹ and St. Bonaventure pursues this more fully in the place cited, Apolog. Christ counsels, Matth. 10. When they shall persecute you in this city, flee into another, yet this is not to be done absolutely, but the Gloss, with Rabanus, warns it is to be done in some case: indeed even perfect men fled at times on account of causes, either to provide for the flock; or to reserve themselves for a greater occasion, as Athanasius; but other perfect men ran to Martyrdom, whom I recalled above. ¹ N. Editor's note: the 1655 print itself reads 'art. 1. ad .' with the numeral after 'ad' missing; rendered as printed (likely 'ad 1.').

WHENCE the Holy Doctor infers that the adversary argues badly. Perfect men sometimes fled Martyrdom: Therefore it is not a work of perfection. For it is answered by denying the consequence. First, because not all perfect men fled, as I said: Next, because not everything perfect men do is of greater perfection; Jacob, David, Urias, Mathathias fled, yet they were not perfect in all things, for they cultivated neither virginity nor the Evangelical poverty; Athanasius also fled, who nevertheless encountered perils when there was need, but he fled at times from licit causes, not always.

NOR is it an objection, that passage Ioan. 21. Another shall gird thee, and lead thee whither thou wouldst not; for this signifies only that death is not to be inflicted on himself by the Martyr, as St. Bonaventure notes with St. Augustine; but by another, when it is shunned by the senses, although the will commands, for the honor of God, not to shun it, because the perfection of Charity commands also to overcome the fear of death, as the Holy Doctor notes from St. Augustine tract. 123. in Ioan. See the Holy Doctor distinguishing most splendidly.

I ASSERT fifthly, that for the perfect notion of Martyrdom it is required that one endure death for Christ, that is, for God. So St. Thom. quaest. 124. art. 4. St. Bonav. in the places cited, and in 4. dist. 4 part. 2. q. 2. et 3.

IT IS PROVED, because a Martyr is called, as it were, a witness of the Christian faith, by which the visible things are proposed to us as to be despised for the invisible, according to the Apostle Heb. 11. Therefore it belongs to Martyrdom that a man bear witness to the faith, professing that he despises all present things so as to attain the future, which does not happen except by the outpouring of his very life for God. Hence St. Augustine Serm. 4. de Innoc. and Serm. 1. de Sanctis, cited by St. Bonavent. Serm. 2. de B. Bartholomaeo and in 4. d. 4. part. 2. dubio 1. It is not the punishment that makes the Martyr, but the cause. The same he has in the Pharetra, lib. 4. cap. 49. citing St. Gregory in registr. lib. 2. ind. 11. cap. 36. with St. Cyprian.

YET it is not necessary that a Martyr die for the confession of the faith, but it suffices if he suffer for the defense of some virtue, and endure persecutions for justice, as St. Thom. says art. 5. we have an example in John the Baptist, who was killed not for the confession of the faith, but for preaching continence against the adulteress, as Valentia notes quaest. 2. puncto 1. Tanner. d. 4. quaest. 2. dub. 2. num. 34.

The Holy Doctor OBSERVES, however, in 4. d. 4. part. 2. dub. 1. that since for Martyrdom there is required a just will and a just cause, and the first failed in the Innocents, the second in the Thief, neither was a Martyrdom; nevertheless they obtained the laurel of Martyrdom by privilege from the grace of God, so that the effusion of blood for Christ was for them as though voluntarily endured, as Tanner. also warns num. 22. with St. Augustine Serm. 66. inter additos a Lovaniensibus, and others.

IN WHAT WAY Martyrdom is the Baptism of blood, we shall see in 3. part. Tract. de Baptismo, disp. 2. quaest. 1. with St. Bonavent. in 4. d. 4. part. 2. But whether a Martyr with a defect, as Blessed Martin, receives the laurel, I said elsewhere prima 2.

It is ANSWERED with St. Bonaventure in 2. dist. 40. art. 2. quaest. 1. that he has not the golden crown [Aureola], but only the golden one of charity.

I shall say only this with St. Bonaventure there quaest. 3. ad 4. that Martyrdom is called the Baptism of blood because in Martyrdom life is laid down, which is in the blood, as is said Levit. cit. Or because there, in the effusion of blood, every Martyrdom is ordinarily completed. He there observes that the holy Martyrs rescued by others from torments, except the sword. He assigns the reason, because the other torments act almost as it were, creatures working naturally, and because the creatures obey God, it was fitting that they show reverence even to the holy servants of God. Thus Lions and other beasts licked the feet of the Saints. The fire gave way, etc. But in the punishment of the sword free malice operates more, and it does not befit God to allow his work to act freely, although at times it was impeded in some respects, as the sword became torpid, as in St. Pantaleon.

YET the sword is not necessary for Martyrdom; nor fire, but hardships suffice, as St. Bonaventure notes Serm. 3. de S. Andrea. For thus SS. Sylverius, John, and others died, for whom nevertheless therefore the last responsory is changed in the office, and it says: Corona aurea, etc. But not: Hic est vere Martyr, not because they are not Martyrs, but because they did not shed blood. Truly, those who in prisons were consumed by hunger, and who by wasting disease in caverns for Christ, are Martyrs.

The Holy Doctor also TEACHES in 4. dist. 32. quaest. 1. ad secundum, that a wife cannot deny her husband that he proceed to Martyrdom, if it is necessary.

St. Bonaventure relates from the Fathers MANY analogical Martyrdoms in bearing adversities, in the mortification of the flesh, and in the pursuit of virtues, in Pharetra, lib. 4. cap. 49. for sermons. The same he indicates in Psal. 118. in those words Narraverunt mihi iniqui fabulationes.

The Holy Doctor OBSERVES also ad 15. Ioan. ad those words: Quae ego mando, etc. That Martyrdom cannot be nobly sustained without the supreme help of God; for to pour out life, which we love naturally, is not of nature.

4. A man may brave death in a good cause, and not be doing an act of fortitude. So he may subscribe a large sum to a charitable purpose without any exercise of the virtue of charity. A virtue is then only exercised, when its outward act is performed from the proper motive of the virtue, and not from any lower motive. Thus the proper motive of Fortitude is the conviction that death is an evil, the risk of which is to be left out of count as a circumstance relatively inconsiderable, when there is question of the defence of certain interests dearer to a good man than life. An improper motive would be anger, which, however useful as an accessory, by itself is not an intellectual motive at all, and therefore no motive of virtue. The recklessness of an angry man is not Fortitude. It is not Fortitude to be brave from ignorance or stupidity, not appreciating the danger: nor again from experience, knowing that the apparent danger is not real, at least to yourself. The brave man looks a real danger in the face, and knows it, and goes on in spite of it, because so it is meet and just, with the cause that he has, to go on.