Chapter II. On the Acts of Fortitude

622. From what has been said concerning the material and formal object, it can easily be deduced what the acts of fortitude are. The office of fortitude is rightly to restrain fears and to moderate acts of daring. "Fortitude, however, concerns the repression of fears more than the moderation of acts of daring. For it is more difficult to repress fear than to moderate daring, because the danger itself, which is the object of daring and fear, of itself contributes something to the repression of daring, but, on the contrary, works toward the increase of fear. To attack pertains to fortitude insofar as it moderates daring; but to endure follows upon the repression of fear. And therefore the more principal act of fortitude is to endure, that is, to stand immovably amid dangers, rather than to attack." Thus, after Aristotle, St. Thomas,¹¹⁰⁵ who also adds: "To endure is more difficult than to attack, for a threefold reason. First, because he who endures seems to be attacked by someone stronger, whereas he who attacks advances as the stronger. But it is more difficult to fight with the stronger than with the weaker. Secondly, because he who endures already feels the dangers threatening, whereas he who attacks has them as future. But it is more difficult not to be moved by present things than by future things. Thirdly, because to endure imports length of time, whereas someone can attack from a sudden movement. But it is more difficult to remain immovable for a long time than to be moved by a sudden movement toward something arduous. Whence the Philosopher says that some are forceful before dangers but withdraw in the dangers themselves; but the brave conduct themselves contrariwise."¹¹⁰⁶ Since, therefore, to endure is the principal act of fortitude, it is easily understood that the act of martyrdom is the most excellent act of fortitude, because Christian martyrs most bravely endured a most painful death on account of the love of God.

¹¹⁰⁵ Cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 123, a. 6.

¹¹⁰⁶ Ib., ad 1.

623. Martyrdom is a Greek word, and in Latin signifies testimony. But in the usage received from the Church, it is taken for testimony to Christian truth through the endurance of bodily death. Therefore, for the perfect notion of martyrdom it is required:

1. That someone truly suffer bodily death. For a martyr is called the most perfect witness of the Christian faith, according to which we ought to suffer all evils rather than incur detriment to the soul. But one who still remains in bodily life has not yet shown absolutely that he despises all earthly things altogether on account of Christ. Therefore, before death has actually been endured on account of Christ, no one can be called a martyr in the perfect sense. Hence those who have suffered torments on account of Christ, but not unto death, are not perfectly and completely martyrs, even if they received a mortal wound from which death naturally ought to have followed, but from which they were miraculously healed.¹¹⁰⁷ Thus, at least according to the more probable opinion. Whence St. John, who was cast into a vat of boiling oil and emerged from it unharmed by divine power, is not to be called a martyr in the strict sense.¹¹⁰⁸ Nevertheless, such saints are sometimes honored by the Church as martyrs, for example, St. John the Evangelist himself and St. Thecla.

2. That someone undergo death inflicted by an enemy in hatred of Christian truth.

Concerning this matter St. Thomas writes:¹¹⁰⁹ "Martyrs are called, as it were, witnesses, because by their bodily sufferings even unto death they bear testimony to truth, not to any truth whatsoever, but to the truth which is according to godliness, which was made known to us through Christ; whence they are also called martyrs of Christ, as though His witnesses. Now truth of this kind is the truth of faith. And therefore the cause of every martyrdom is the truth of faith. But to the truth of faith belongs not only the very belief of the heart but also exterior profession, which indeed is made not only through words, by which someone confesses the faith, but also through deeds, by which someone shows himself to have faith, according to this: 'I will show thee, by works, my faith.'¹¹¹⁰ Whence it is also said concerning certain persons: 'They profess that they know God: but in their works they deny him.'¹¹¹¹ And therefore the works of all the virtues, insofar as they are referred to God, are certain professions of faith, through which it is made known to us that God requires works of this kind from us and rewards us for them; and in this respect they can be the cause of martyrdom. Whence also the martyrdom of blessed John the Baptist is celebrated in the Church, who endured death not for refusing to deny the faith, but for rebuking adultery."

It is required, however, that death be inflicted by an enemy of divine faith or of Christian virtue; whence martyrs in the strict sense are not: a) those who endure death on account of a disease contracted from the care of lepers or of those infected with plague,¹¹¹² which care they undertook on account of the love of God; on the contrary, perhaps those soldiers seem to be martyrs who with a pure intention, that is, on account of God, fought from love of justice and the divine law and were slain in a just war;¹¹¹³ b) those who underwent death on account of natural truths; nor, a fortiori, c) those who suffered death on account of heresy; whence Huss is by no means to be called a martyr.¹¹¹⁴ For the same reason, neither are they martyrs, d) who killed themselves in order to preserve some Christian virtue, because such suicide is unlawful, unless it is excused by the good faith of the agent or by a special impulse of the Holy Spirit. But if the Church venerates as martyrs certain saints who took their own lives in order to preserve virtue, such as St. Apollonia and St. Pelagia, a special impulse of the Holy Spirit is presupposed.¹¹¹⁵

3. That death be accepted voluntarily.

Therefore, if an adult is killed in his sleep on account of the faith, without having thought beforehand about martyrdom, he probably is not a martyr. There are nevertheless authors (among whom is Cajetan¹¹¹⁶) who teach that a man who referred all his things to God is a true martyr if he is killed in his sleep by enemies on account of hatred of the Christian faith. Infants, however, who are killed in hatred of the faith or of Christ, are called true martyrs, because the will is supplied by a special grace.

To the point St. Thomas writes: "Some said that in the Innocents the use of free will was miraculously accelerated, so that they also suffered martyrdom voluntarily. But because this is not confirmed by the authority of Scripture, it is better to say that those little children who were slain attained, through God's grace, the glory of martyrdom which in others their own will merits. For the shedding of blood on account of Christ takes the place of baptism. Whence, just as in baptized children the merit of Christ works through baptismal grace toward obtaining glory, so also in those slain on account of Christ the merit of Christ's martyrdom works toward obtaining the palm of martyrdom."¹¹¹⁷

¹¹⁰⁷ Nevertheless St. Alphonsus (Theol. mor. l. 6, n. 99) says: "It is probable ... that grace is conferred when a martyr receives a lethal wound or torment, although afterward he miraculously does not die. And thus blessed John, cast into a vat of boiling oil, was truly a martyr, and so too the Queen of Martyrs, the Blessed Virgin Mary, standing beside the cross of Jesus."

¹¹⁰⁸ Cf. St. Thomas, Suppl. q. 96, a. 6 ad 7, and S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 4.

¹¹⁰⁹ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 5.

¹¹¹⁰ Jas. 2:18.

¹¹¹¹ Tit. 1:16.

¹¹¹² St. Alphonsus teaches the contrary (Theol. mor. l. 6, n. 100), saying: "Twelve academies, thirteen cardinals, and more than three hundred authors hold that such persons are true martyrs."

¹¹¹³ Cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 5 ad 3; Billuart, De fortitud. diss. 1, a. 2.

¹¹¹⁴ Cf. Benedict XIV, De serv. Dei beatif. l. 3, c. 19-20; Waffelaert, De virt. card. n. 15ff.

¹¹¹⁵ Cf. S. theol., l.c., a. 1 ad 2, and Benedict XIV, l.c., c. 11, n. 12.

¹¹¹⁶ Comm. in 2, 2, q. 124, a. 2.

¹¹¹⁷ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 1 ad 1.

624. On the efficacy and effects of martyrdom. 1. Martyrdom justifies a sinner, whether baptized or not baptized, whether an adult or a little child. In adults, however, it is required that martyrdom be joined at least with attrition concerning sins committed; for if even the sacrament of baptism does not remit sins unless an adult has at least attrition, a fortiori martyrdom requires attrition. This attrition indeed seems sufficiently present if the martyr voluntarily accepts death on account of the love of God.¹¹¹⁸ This efficacy of martyrdom for little children is as though ex opere operato; for martyrdom is, as it were, baptism, whence it is also called the baptism of blood. Therefore, according to the almost common doctrine of theologians, not only the Innocents slain by Herod, but any little children killed for the Christian faith (even those who are killed in the womb of their mother) are martyrs and will obtain eternal life.

2. Martyrdom, since it is the most perfect act of charity: a) deletes in the just every venial fault and every temporal punishment still to be discharged for past sins. Whence every martyr flies immediately into heaven, without having to pass through purgatory, and therefore Innocent III says: "He does injury to a martyr who prays for a martyr";¹¹¹⁹ b) merits a great increase of grace and glory.

3. Martyrdom merits a special crown in heaven, which is called an aureola.

Concerning this aureola Benedict XIV writes,¹¹²⁰ following the doctrine of St. Thomas: "The conjunction of man with God through His perfect vision and fruition is called a golden crown, or simply golden by way of a substantive, just as a triumphal crown woven of laurel is called a laurel by way of a substantive noun. Now, since to essential beatitude, namely joy concerning conjunction with God, another accidental reward is added, that is, a certain joy concerning works performed which have the character of an excellent victory, according to the doctrine of St. Thomas,¹¹²¹ this joy is called an aureola, as though a little crown: The aureola is a certain privileged reward corresponding to a privileged victory."

Theologians commonly admit a threefold aureola, namely, the aureola of virgins, the aureola of doctors, and the aureola of martyrs. "The aureola is said to be something added to the golden crown, that is, a certain joy concerning works performed by oneself which have the character of an excellent victory; this is another joy from that by which someone rejoices concerning conjunction with God, which joy is called the golden crown."¹¹²² The aureola is owed to virgins on account of an excellent victory over carnal pleasure; to martyrs on account of the most difficult victory over the world and the enemies of the faith; but to doctors and strenuous preachers of Christian truth on account of victory over the devil, the prince of darkness and the father of lies. Since in infants who undergo martyrdom there is not properly a struggle, because of the defect of reason, neither is there in them an aureola properly so called, either of virginity or of martyrdom; nevertheless, they participate in some manner in the aureola, insofar as they rejoice in a special manner that they were slain in the service of Christ. Thus St. Thomas,¹¹²³ against several theologians who admit an aureola properly so called even in infant martyrs. The same St. Thomas teaches that the aureola of martyrs is more excellent than the other two aureolae.

¹¹¹⁸ Cf. the diverse opinions concerning this matter in Waffelaert, l.c., n. 24, and in St. Alphonsus, l.c., n. 98.

¹¹¹⁹ c. 6, X, 3, 41.

¹¹²⁰ L.c., c. 15, n. 5.

¹¹²¹ In IV Sent. dist. 49, q. 5, a. 5.

¹¹²² St. Thomas, Suppl. q. 96, a. 1.

¹¹²³ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 124, a. 6 ad 1.