Positive Duties of Clerics

The Positive Duties of Clerics.—(a) Duties to God.—All clerics are held to frequent reception of the Sacrament of Penance, to daily devotions (i.e., mental prayer, visit to the Blessed Sacrament, a third part of the Rosary, examen), and to triennial spiritual retreats (Canons 125, 126). Moreover, clerics in Sacred Orders, benefice holders, and solemnly professed religious bound to the choir are obliged to the daily recitation of the Canonical Hours, each one according to his own rite and calendar (Canons 135, 213 sqq., 1475, 610). This obligation is grave, because its purpose is the important one of consecrating each hour of the day by the public prayer of the Church according to the usage that goes back to the earliest centuries. But the choral obligation of simply professed religious is light, unless the choir is impossible without their presence.

(b) Duties to Superiors.—Clerics are especially obliged to show respect to their Ordinaries and to give them the obedience promised in ordination (Canon 127).

(c) Duties to the Clerical State.—Clerics are required to cultivate their minds by sacred and sound studies, and to this end examinations and conferences are also prescribed (Canons 129-131); to keep themselves pure in soul and body by the observance of celibate chastity (Canons 132, 133); to conduct themselves in externals (dwelling, dress, etc.) in a manner befitting their position (Canons 134, 136). The clerical garb in this country is the cassock or habit in the house and church, and dark clothes and the Roman collar, or other distinctive sign for priests and brothers elsewhere. The dress of the clergy should avoid the extremes of dudishness and slovenliness (Second Council of Baltimore, 148; Third Council, 77). The duty of wearing clerical dress at least away from home and regularly is of serious importance, since its purpose is the honor of the clerical state and the protection of its members. It is also forbidden to clerics to cultivate their hair (e.g., to grow long locks, to use curling irons, to oil or perfume their head in dandyish fashion), since this is unbecoming in the followers of a thorn-crowned Leader. The use of the beard is a thing indifferent in itself, and hence it is forbidden in some places (generally in the Latin Church) and required in others (as in the Orient), according to tradition and local usage.

What about the holiness of life of clerics? - The life of clerics ought to be strong in internal holiness and external edification, not only negatively as regards immunity from sin, but also positively as regards the exercise of virtues. This is established: 1. From Sacred Scripture, from the Councils, from the Fathers, from Trent s. 22, c. 1 de R., s. 23, c. 4 de R., from the Letters of Pius X, Haerent animo, to the Catholic Clergy, August 4, 1908. 2. From the very excellence of the state and the office which they profess. But whether the clerical state strictly taken, insofar namely as it is distinguished from the state of Religious and of Bishops, is or is not a state of perfection, is disputed among doctors. Nevertheless it does not seem able to be denied that it is at least in some way a state of perfection. Suarez de Relig. t. 3, l. 1, c. 17, n. 2-4; S. Th. 2. 2. q. 184, a. 8; Suppl. q. 36, a. 4; L. l. 6, n. 803; E. M.

Note: In order that they might promote this interior holiness of life and exterior edification in clerics, the Supreme Pontiffs very greatly commended spiritual exercises. Cf. 220; A. S. S. v. 37, p. 422 ff.

The Council of Trent, moreover, exhorts deacons and subdeacons to receive Communion at least on Sundays and feasts, s. 23, c. 13 de R., and priests at least to celebrate Mass on the aforesaid days, ib. c. 14.

Are clerics bound to preserving celibacy? - In the Latin Church all clerics, from the episcopate to the subdiaconate inclusive, are held under a most grave precept to preserve perpetual chastity, so that they neither can licitly use a marriage contracted before sacred ordination, nor licitly nor validly afterward contract it. This is established from several chapters of Canon Law, especially C. 1, Dist. 28; C. unic. de Voto in 6; Trent s. 24, c. 9.

In the Latin Church. For some exception is given by tolerance of the Church among the Orientals. In the Oriental Church priests can never enter marriage after priestly ordination, nor deacons after the diaconate; but those married before the diaconate can be promoted to further orders, and nevertheless live with their wives. Bishops are excepted, all of whom must constantly preserve perfect chastity. Hence among the Greeks the subdiaconate is not numbered among sacred orders; and upon unmarried clerics in the ordination of the diaconate the precept of chastity is imposed. In some provinces, in which the ancient discipline of the Western Church has been restored, the same obligation is imposed in the ordination of the subdiaconate. Cf. 1015. L. l. 6, n. 806; S. Th. Suppl. q. 53, a. 3; C. Ut Clericorum 13 de Vit. et honest. cler., C. A crapula 14 e. t.; C. 1, 2 Qui cler. vel vov.; C. 1, 4 de Cler. coniug.; Benedict XIV, C. for the Italo-Greeks Etsi pastoralis, May 26, 1742, § 7, n.

26; Instruction for the Copts Eo quamvis tempore, May 4, 1745, § 30 ff.; E. M.

Ruthenian clerics in the Canadian region cannot be admitted into the Seminary unless they have promised before the Bishop that they will preserve celibacy perpetually; and only celibates will be able to be promoted to sacred orders in the Canadian region. For exercising the sacred ministry among the faithful of the Ruthenian rite, none can be admitted except celibate priests, or at least widowers and without children. S. C. de P. F., August 8, 1913, art. 10, 11; A. A. S. v. 5, p. 395. Celibacy is prescribed in the very same way for the Ruthenian clergy in the United States of North America by Pius X, C. Ea semper, XVIII Kal. Jul. 1907, c. 2, art. 10, 12; Supplem. 369.

During the first five centuries in the Western Church the obligation of preserving continence attached to the order of subdiaconate is not found. The first to command subdeacons to preserve it was St. Leo the Great, around the year 440, as is clear from his Epistle 84 to Anastasius, Bishop of Thessalonica. But since St. Leo's precept was no longer being sufficiently observed, D. Gregory the Great renewed it, around the year 581, further declaring that the subdiaconate is a sacred order and aggregated to the major orders. And then it is expressly and determinately established in the Decretals of Innocent III, C. Miramur 7 de Serv. non ordinandis. De Iustis de Dispens. Matrim. l. 3, c. 15, Appendix n. 11.

Is the obligation of celibacy of divine law? - Reply: Negatively; for if this law were of divine law, it would not vary concerning it between the Latin and Greek Church, since divine law does not vary according to diversity of places. It is therefore from the ordinance of the Church. Therefore the Church can dispense from that obligation.

Whether that obligation is immediately from a precept of the Church, or immediately from a vow to be emitted by precept of the Church? Trent s. 24, c. 9 refers to both, but does not define. There are those who teach that those ordained in sacred orders are held to chastity not from a vow, but from the sole ordinance of the Church, both because no mention of a vow is made, and because a precept of the Church is sufficient for this. But others commonly, with S. Th. 2. 2. q. 88, a. 11, derive this obligation immediately from a vow of chastity, which is emitted in the very fact of ordination according to the mind of the Church, and this is expressly had in the Law. C. Cum olim de Cler. coniug.; Benedict XIV, C. Inter praeteritos, December 3, 1749, § 41. And Boniface VIII declared this vow to be solemn. C. un. de vot. et vot. redempt. in 6. Wherefore a cleric initiated into sacred orders, sinning against chastity, sins also against religion by acts both external and internal. Therefore the obligation of celibacy extends to preserving all chastity. Cf. L. l. 6, n. 807, 808; Albit. de Inconst. in Fide c. 36, n. 132 ff.

What if someone were promoted to sacred orders either invincibly ignorant of the obligation of chastity attached to them, or expressly unwilling to vow that obligation itself, or if he were compelled to this by grave fear, or if he were ordained in the very age of infancy? - Reply to the first: Some probably say that he is held to chastity, namely by force of the universal law itself of the Church. Others "probably judge that if the ignorance had been altogether invincible, the ordained man would not be held to chastity, neither from a vow nor from a precept of the Church, because the Church would not intend to oblige such a one; but otherwise if the ignorance had been culpable, or if someone intended to receive the order with the same obligation with which others receive it." Ignorance of this kind is not presumed in the external forum, since it concerns a law so clear and most commonly handed down.

Reply to the second: "In such a case he would be held to chastity not from a vow, but from the precept of the Church, which from a motive of religion would bind him to chastity, the vow being absent."

Reply to the third: One must distinguish: If he did not have the intention of receiving sacred ordination, he is not held, as having been invalidly ordained. If he had the mind of receiving sacred orders, and the fear was just, more probably he is held, because since he is unwilling unreasonably, such fear neither exempts from law nor invalidates the vow. If again he had the mind of receiving sacred orders, but the fear was unjust, more probably he is not held, because of the opposite reason. Wherefore he can validly contract marriage, "but he cannot minister in the order while the marriage stands, nor enjoy clerical privileges." But the nullity of the ordination must be established in the external forum by canonical process. Cf. 106.

Reply to the fourth: "It is certain that he who is ordained before the use of reason, although the ordination is valid, nevertheless is not held to chastity; whence he can validly and licitly enter marriage." Benedict XIV, Bull Eo quamvis tempore, May 4, 1745, commands that in the sixteenth year of age an option be given to them; and, if they wish to preserve chastity, they are admitted to the exercise of the order; otherwise, if they do not wish. And he adds that after ratification they invalidly contract marriage and are held to the divine office. If after the use of reason, but before puberty, some probably say that he is held, others not improbably deny it. The reason is that such a vow, from which this obligation more probably comes, "constitutes a man in an irrevocable state, in which the Pontiff never or rarely dispenses; whence such a vow requires a mature and perfect use of reason." L. l. 6, n. 80, 781, 809-811; S. Th. Suppl. q. 39, a. 2; Sanchez in Dec. l. 5, c. 6, n. 5-8.

What about tonsure and habit? - Clerics are obliged to wear the tonsure and clerical clothing. This is established from various places of Canon Law, especially Conc. Tr. s. 14, c. 6 de R., s. 22, c. 1 de R., s. 23, c. 6 de R.; L. l. 6, n. 825; S. Th. 4, d. 24, q. 3, a. 1, q. 1; Suppl. q. 40, a. 1.

Do clerics sin gravely who outside their own house do not wear the habit or crown? - Reply to the first: Those clerics are either simply clerics, or beneficed, or constituted in sacred orders. If the first, they more commonly teach that, speaking in itself, they do not sin, not even venially, since by common law this grave obligation has been imposed only on clerics in sacred orders and on beneficed clerics. But they lack the privilege of the forum. Cf. Trent s. 23, c. 6 de R. Speaking in itself, for particular laws and customs of places must be attended to. If the second, it is certain that they sin mortally, unless there is a just excusing cause or smallness of matter; for grave penalties are imposed on them in Canon Law. But what span of time is required for mortal sin cannot be determined in general, but only from the circumstances. They commonly admit that it is venial to put aside the habit only once or again. La-Croix l. 1, n. 672 extends a brief time to five or six days. Nevertheless they also commonly admit that clerics sin gravely if even for a brief time they lay aside or conceal the clerical habit for an evil end. Benedict XIV de Syn. l. 11, c. 8; Trent s. 14, c. 6 de R.

Reply to the second: Clerics who are not constituted in sacred orders and are not beneficed never sin gravely. Thus most commonly. But again, do they lack the privilege of the forum? Cf. Trent s. 23, c. 6 de R. Even clerics, beneficed or initiated into sacred orders, at least do not sin gravely unless they omit wearing the crown, without a grave excusing cause and for a notable time, such as in this matter is not a time of one or another month. But whether it is grave not to wear the crown for an entire year is not clear. Theologians more commonly affirm it; but it is not clearly proved, because here doctors easily mix the crown with tonsure. L. l. 6, n. 825-827; La-Croix l. 1, n. 672; l. 4, n. 1372; E. M.

What properly are tonsure, crown, and clerical habit? - Tonsure, to be worn by clerics, insofar as it is distinguished from crown, is the prohibition made to clerics of nourishing a beard, which today by custom must be altogether shaved, unless some necessity is present; and of letting the hair grow long, which is grave unless the hair is moderate, C. 4, 5, 7 de Vit. et honest. cler., or the custom of the region bears otherwise and scandal is absent. Nor indeed can they use artificial hair without the command of the bishop, S. C. C., December 9, 1690, unless custom obtains otherwise. The crown today is the tonsure on the top of the head in the manner of a crown. The crown must be broader or narrower according to order and dignity. La-Croix l. 4, n. 1373; Benedict XIV, Notification 96; de Syn. l. 11, c. 9; L. l. 6, n. 826; Clem. 2, C. 4, 5, 15 de Vit. et honest. cler.; Trent ll. cc.

Clerical habit is a cassock, and other things congruent to the order in the judgment of the Bishop, Trent s. 14 de R., c. 6; s. 22 de R., c. 1; s. 24 de R., c. 12 in fine; therefore they vary according to various places. A cassock is said to be a garment which flows down to the ankles, or at least to the knees, which by a certain epikeia and the custom of certain places has been received in towns and villages; and in the cities themselves also it is permitted outside sacred functions and the celebration of Mass. C. Clerici 15 de Vit. et honest. cler.; Sixtus V, C. Cum sacrosanctum, January 9, 1589; Benedict XIV, Notification 71, n. 9; S. Th. Suppl. q. 40, a. 1; E. M.

Note: Since many things, especially as regards the exterior attire of clerics, are by no means determined in particular by common law, but are various according to various regions, one must stand by the Statutes of each diocese, which a confessor of clerics must altogether not be ignorant of. In many dioceses it is altogether prohibited to admit to the celebration of Mass priests not wearing clerical habit, cassock, and tonsure. The penalties, however, laid down against those not wearing habit and tonsure do not seem to affect those who do not wear tonsure only.

Clerics are prohibited from wearing a ring, unless it belongs to them from the office of dignity, as are Bishops, Abbots, etc. C. 15 de Vit. et hon. cler.

Who are obliged to the recitation of the canonical hours? - The canonical hours are public prayers, which its ministers pour forth in the name of the Church in the form prescribed by the same Church. Hence the fruit of these prayers is from the work of the minister working and from the work of the Church working; and it redounds to the minister himself, to those for whom they are specially applied, to the founders of benefices, and to all the faithful, for whom the Church prays.

In the Western Church the following are obliged to recite the canonical hours daily: 1. All clerics constituted in sacred orders, even those suspended and excommunicated. This is established from various places of Canon Law, from the Lateran Council of 1215, from the Bull of S. Pius V Quod a nobis, from the Constitution of Pius X Divino afflatu, Kalends of November 1911. 2. All beneficed persons who have right in the thing and full dominion of the benefice. It is drawn from the Lateran Council under Leo X, and also from the Bull of S. Pius V Ex proximo. 3. All religious of both sexes professed in an Order approved by the Church and destined for choir. This is clear from custom, and also from the Decree of Gregory X, etc. Cf. the Works of S. Peter Damian, Migne vol. 145, col. 222 ff.; Lugo, Resp. Mor. l. 5, d. 5, 6.

In the Western Church; for, as Benedict XIV says, C. Eo quamvis tempore, §§ 44, 45, "deacons, subdeacons, and priests of the Eastern Church are compelled by no express law... to the recitation of the divine office." Nevertheless, "even among the Orientals the laudable custom of reciting the divine office has prevailed." And indeed this has the force of law; whence "the discipline of the Eastern Church subjects generally all those constituted in sacred order to the obligation and precept of reciting the divine office, according to the custom of the nation." L. 140 ff.; S. Th. 4, dist. 15, q. 4, a. 1, q. 3; E. M.

You will resolve: Those who are constituted in minor orders are not held to the hours, or to another determined prayer. A cleric begins to be obligated from the hour of receiving the subdiaconate, and indeed to the hours corresponding to the hour at which he is ordained. Wherefore one ordained at midday must begin from Sext, and cannot begin from Vespers. But whether a subdeacon who recited that part before ordination has satisfied his obligation, some deny, while others probably affirm. The reason is that that debt can well be paid in anticipation which certainly is to be contracted morally. L. 140. As regards beneficed persons, the obligation begins from the day of entering into possession of the benefice, and therefore they must begin from Matins. They are not held before accepted possession, nor if without their fault they receive no fruits and are not going to receive them, because they do not have the benefice according to every effect. This is certain. But it is probable that one who does not reside by legitimate permission or dispensation, and therefore does not receive fruits, is not held to the hours, because this obligation is on account of the sustenance given. On the contrary, he is held who, although he does not receive all his fruits, nevertheless receives so great a part as suffices for sustenance. Nor is he excused, if he is not constituted in sacred orders, because he has proposed to himself not to receive the fruits of the benefice; because benefices have been instituted not for the advantages of private persons, but for divine worship. Cf. Trent s. 21, c. 6 de R.; Lugo, Resp. Mor. l. 5, d. 6, 2; Viva on Alexander VII, prop. 21, § ult.; L. 144 and l. 3, n. 664 ff. As regards religious, the obligation begins from the hour of profession made, from the hour of the day, not of choir.

Novices, lay brothers, religious of the Society of Jesus, military religious, hospitallers, and the rest not destined for choir are not held to the hours. L. 141.

Is one who received sacred order through fear unjustly inflicted held to recite the office? - More probably they deny it. The reason is that although fear does not remove the voluntary, nevertheless the Church is not reasonably judged to wish to oblige to the burden of the office except those who receive the order altogether spontaneously. And therefore such persons ordained through grave fear are not even held to chastity. In the external forum, however, they are held to both until the fear has been established before the S. C. of the Sacraments. L. 144; A. S. S. v. 1, p. 330; v. 2, p. 443; v. 6, p. 85. Cf. here 99.

Are religious men and nuns, if for a just cause they do not come to choir, held to recite the office privately? - Reply: Negatively, if they have only simple vows. If for a just cause; for unless they are legitimately impeded, they too are held to be present at choir. S. C. of Bishops and Regulars, March 24, 1882; May 2, 1883; May 3, 1902; July 28, 1902. Affirmatively, if they have solemn vows. The reason is that the principal obligation for a religious man and a nun does not fall upon choir, but upon recitation of the office by reason of Religion, which undertook that burden from its institute. This obligation is established besides from the universal custom of nuns and religious, who, when they cannot be present at choir, believe themselves bound under grave obligation to recite the office privately. But a universal custom which was constantly observed with great inconvenience provides a sufficient argument concerning a grave obligation undertaken. S. Penitentiary to the Bishop of Perigueux, November 26, 1852.

From a privilege conceded by Innocent IV, regulars and nuns can for a reasonable cause satisfy by reciting the prayers of laymen and laywomen; for example, if a nun is scrupulous, extraordinarily weary, or occupied in useful ministries; if a religious is weakened from a journey or from preaching. Likewise prelates, even inferiors, can for a cause, for example studies, dispense with their subjects, as in other observances, so that they do not recite. L. 62, 142; Pellizzar. de Monialib. c. 6, n. 12 ff.; De Alexandris, Confess. monial. c. 8, q. 5; E. M.

Does a religious man or nun sin gravely who recites the office privately while he or she could easily be present at choir? - Reply: Negatively. For the obligation of choir, although it is grave for the community, is nevertheless held to be light for individual private persons, provided the choir is not entirely removed. But for choir four fit persons suffice, that is, those valid and free to sustain choir. But if the religious are fewer, they are in no way obliged to recite the office in choir; yet they are not exempted from private recitation, as was just said. Four fit persons, "for if they are sick, or legitimately occupied, they are not obliged to choir even if they are four. But Viva, etc., probably think that it suffices for satisfying choir that novices alone be present, because in favorable matters they are reckoned as religious." L. 143. A moderate cause, however, will be able to excuse from the light obligation of coming to choir. Clem. Gravi de Celebr. missar.

Note: That prelates sin gravely who from negligence permit a notable part to be omitted from being recited in choir. That those are not held to supply in choir what is omitted who, while others sing, prepare or transfer books, search out the psalms, strike the organ or bells, or perform other things necessary for choir, because while someone is occupied in matters pertaining to the solemnity of the office, the whole choir supplies for him, and all constitute one moral body. But he who responds alternately to choir by playing the organ, without pronouncing the versicle of his own part, does not seem to satisfy, because the organ does not pronounce words, and the office is not recited integrally. L. 143, 156; La-Croix 1300.

What specifically must be noted as regards recitation in choir or with a companion? - He who recites the office in choir or with a companion must recite integrally those things which are said secretly; hymns, psalms, and versicles by alternate, not by third, turns. But it suffices to hear, while another reads them, the antiphons, brief responsories, chapters, and lessons. As regards those things which the companion recites or reads, so that someone can satisfy, it is necessary that he pronounce all things duly and correctly, and that the person himself hear these things, although the companion may not be obliged to recite the divine office, indeed although he may be distracted; because these things do not impede someone from reciting according to the custom of the Church and communicating with a companion. Although, if the companion is obliged and does not attend, he does not satisfy, since he does not communicate with another. But because all those reciting constitute as it were one body, and because those things which they recite or read in turn are communicated, if someone is not at fault for not perceiving by ear those things which the other part of the choir or the companion recites, it is probable, provided he attends as much as he can, that he satisfies.

Hence one who is somewhat deaf and hears in confusion also satisfies, for example because there is noise, because the companion recites in a low voice, or because of the ineptitude of the reader. "For this precept of the office, from the benignity of the Church, must be interpreted benignly. On the other hand, it will be very liable to anxieties that companions in the office must always be solicitous as to what quantity the omission of hearing has reached, so that they are held or not held to repeat." L. 163.

Somewhat deaf; and also the deaf? If he recites with a companion, whom he is not compelled to use, doctors commonly deny it. If in choir, still more deny; but many also affirm, and not undeservedly, for the obligations and rights of choir must be measured by an equitable reason. Kenrick tr. 8, n. 16; D'Annibale ed. 3, p. 3, n. 151; La-Croix 1295; L. 162, 163; Laymann de Orat. et Hor. Canon. c. 5, n. 7; S. Jerome, Epist. 108, n. 19, Migne vol. 22, col. 896.

Outside choir, if only one or two recite the office, and in the choir of nuns, the Confiteor is recited only once and by all at the same time, with those words omitted, tibi pater, or vobis fratres; te pater or vos fratres; and then it is said: Misereatur nostri, peccatis nostris, perducat nos.

The reading of the Martyrology, which is read daily in choir at Prime before the verse Pretiosa, except the triduum before Easter, is part of the divine office; and it is established from the Rubrics of the same Martyrology that the memorial of the Saints must be read on the day preceding their feast. Lugo, Resp. Mor. l. 5, d. 17.

Note: "It is the common opinion that he satisfies well who hears from a companion the lessons, responsories, chapters, prayers, and antiphons. And probably he still satisfies who alone says the psalms and hears the lessons; or who says part of the psalms alone and part with a companion, because he sufficiently communicates in that part which he hears, and which by received usage is already satisfied by hearing." L. 162. "But it is certain that in choir it is not necessary to hear all, but it suffices to hear one, and it suffices to hear in confusion at least part of the other choir, although you cannot hear distinctly." L. 163. He satisfies choir who recites the psalms quietly, hearing the other part, since one part constitutes one body with the other and they communicate mutually; nor is it necessary that those reciting in one choir hear all those reciting in the other. As regards canons, cf. 220; L. 163; La-Croix 1298.

Are religious, living outside the cloister by permission, fugitive religious, those cast out by sentence, and those condemned to the galleys, held to the office? - Reply to the first: S. Alphonsus affirms it with others, adding: "as also those detained in prison." But Busembaum with others denies it concerning a religious "who has obtained a dispensation to live perpetually outside the monastery, because although he remains a religious he is nevertheless not regular." L. 141, 142.

Reply to the second: Bonacina denies it and Tamburini thinks it probable, but Lessius and Concina better teach that they are held. The reason is that just as they do not lose the religious state, so they are not exempted from its burdens. L. 142. And the same must be said of the excommunicated, even those to be avoided.

Reply to the third: "Not improbably they deny it with Busembaum, etc., with Scotus and Laymann, who call this opinion safe. The reason is that in them the essence of the religious state has now been extinguished, since they are no longer held to the vows, as Sanchez supposes as certain, nor is it in their power to return to religion." L. 142. But Sanchez de Matr. l. 8, d. 8, n. 11 speaks of one professed and dispensed for marriage. As regards one cast out, he brings forward another reason, "because since he is now justly outside the monastery and the monastic life, he is exempted from its burdens."

Reply to the fourth: The S. C. C., on August 13, 1707, and afterward when interrogated, was unwilling to decide the matter, and Clement XI also abstained from a decision. Doctors, however, rather excuse. "Cabassutius more commonly denies it, who nevertheless says that clerics constituted in sacred orders are held; but concerning both, Sporer, Lessius, etc. deny it. The reason is that such recitation would seem to yield to the disgrace of the religious order," and of the clerical state, namely if they live together with other condemned men and not in separate cells. And Kenrick tr. 8, n. 6 says, "from equity, the obligation seems remitted." L. 142; D'Annibale ed. 3, p. 3, n. 153; E. M.

How great is the obligation of the divine office? - The obligation of the divine office is grave in itself. Wherefore he sins gravely who, having this burden, omits the hours or a notable part of them. The reason is that he violates a precept in a grave matter, pertaining to the virtue of religion. C. Presbyter 1 de Celebr. miss.; L. 146; l. 3, n. 663; E. M.

Note: "That universally is judged small matter which does not reach the quantity of one complete hour." Thus most commonly. "He who omits the whole office is more truly to be said to commit only one sin, because the whole office of one day falls under one precept." L. 143, 147, 148.

Is it grave to omit Vespers on Holy Saturday? - Reply: Negatively. The reason is that the matter is light, both in itself and with respect to the whole office.

Are nuns who recite only the office of the Blessed Virgin bound to it under grave obligation? - Reply: In Orders in which only the office of the Blessed Virgin Mary is recited, this recitation does not oblige under grave obligation, although solemn vows are emitted in those Orders, for example, in the Order of the nuns called of the Visitation, as was decided several times. Moreover in communities in which, besides the office of the day to be recited, there also had to be recited the office of the Blessed Virgin, or of the Dead, or the seven penitential psalms, the obligation has altogether ceased from the Rubrics of C. Divino afflatu, title VII, n. 2. And if they were held from a peculiar constitution or from a legacy, they must seek commutation from the Holy See. Cf. 129; Gury-Ballerini 146; Bizzarri ed. 1885, p. 72; E. M.

Are beneficed persons who omit the divine office held to restitution? - So great is the obligation of the divine office that it induces for him the burden of restitution of the fruits, in proportion to the omission of the office, who by title of benefice is held to the hours, if, six months having elapsed after obtaining possession, he culpably has not recited the office. After: wherefore he does not make his own fruits, not of the prior and posterior time, but only of the posterior time. This is clear from the Lateran Council under Leo X. S. Pius V then issued a Bull by which he confirmed this decree. And he declared that one who on one day omitted the whole office is held to restore all the fruits corresponding to that day; for example, he who receives annually 365 florins is held for one day to restore one florin; but he who omitted Matins only, half the fruits of one day; he who omitted the remaining hours, also half; but he who omitted one of them, the sixth part. And that restitution is to be made either to the fabric of the church in which the benefice is, or to the poor. Bull of Leo X de Reform. Curiae, chapter Reform. Curiae et aliorum, § Statuimus; S. Pius V, C. Ex proximo, September 22, 1571; L. 151 and l. 3, n. 663, 666, 672, 673; E. M.

Note: Those are not obliged to restitution who from natural forgetfulness, just impediment, good faith, invincible ignorance, or otherwise without fault have omitted the hours. The reason is that in conscience a penalty is not owed where there is no fault. L. 151; l. 3, n. 665. "That a beneficed person can sometimes be excused from restitution for neglected hours by title of money spent, understand after the omission of the hours; for if before the omission, he is not excused, since proposition 33 was condemned by Alexander VII...; although not with this intention, for the poor or other pious uses.... And it is probable according to the opinion which Sanchez holds," etc. L. 153; l. 3, n. 700; La-Croix 1215. Under the name of the poor the beneficed person himself also is contained, provided he truly needs, and did not omit the office fraudulently, namely so that he might assign the fruits to himself as poor. Likewise whatever is spent on repairing or increasing the properties of the benefice is understood to be expended on pious causes. Suarez de Relig. t. 2, l. 4, n. 18, 19; L. l. 3, n. 672; E. M.

How many sins does one commit who is held to recitation of the office by title of benefice, by omitting it? - If one omitting it is unwilling to restore the fruits, he sins both against religion and against justice. The first reason is that the Church obliges to reciting the hours from a motive of religion. The second reason is that from the Lateran Council, he who does not say the office does not make the fruits his own. If one omitting it has the mind of restoring the fruits of the benefice, he indeed does not sin against justice, but he sins against religion. The first reason is that the Church confers the benefice under an obligation of justice, so that he does not make the fruits his own if he does not recite, but by no means under an obligation also of justice that he recite. Wherefore the obligation of the office does not arise immediately from the accepted benefice, but from the precept of the Church, imposed by reason of the benefice, from a motive of religion. The second reason is that, as is established from what has just been said, there are two grave precepts: first, by which beneficed persons are obliged to the office, for this was the end of the Church in the institution of benefices; second, by which one omitting the office is to restore the fruits. L. 145; l. 3, n. 663.

Can a beneficiary omitting the office on one day supply it on another day? - He is not excused from mortal sin, as all teach, and as is established from the cited Bull of S. Pius V. As regards restitution of the fruits, the first opinion, which Bonacina calls probable, affirms it. The reason is that in such a case this man has now repaid an equal thing, just as if a chaplain omits Mass on one day, he can well supply it on another. The second, most common opinion denies it. The reason is that S. Pius V, C. Ex proximo, sanctioned that one does not make the fruits his own who "has interrupted" the canonical hours "on one or several days." Here it must be noted that the Pontiff did not say "has omitted," but "has interrupted," by which word he sufficiently signified that one who interrupts the office on one day does not gain the fruits, even if he supplies on another day; because although he can be said not to have omitted the hours, nevertheless he cannot be said not to have interrupted them. L. l. 3, n. 667; S. Th. Quodl. 3, a. 29.

Is one who omits a part smaller than a complete hour held to restitution? - "If the omitted parts do not constitute grave matter, it is common that no restitution is owed, not even under venial sin, even if the fruits corresponding to that part would reach a great quantity." L. l. 3, n. 668.

Must a beneficiary omitting the office restore all the fruits of the benefice? - Reply: Sanchez, Soto, etc., probably say from benign interpretation that they are not held to restore all the fruits, but only those which correspond to the burden of the omitted office. The reason is both because the Bull of S. Pius was thus received and thus explained by usage, as being more conformable to natural equity; and because it seems harsh that Bishops, pastors, and chaplains, who bear other burdens, should be obliged in the same way as simple beneficiaries, because all these receive fruits not only for the office, but also for other burdens. L. l. 3, n. 673.

Is he held to recite the office again who doubts whether he has said it? - If the doubt is positive, that is, if some reason or probable conjecture is present that he recited it, although a reason also is not lacking for the opposite, he is not held; for he probably satisfied, and, with the probability of satisfaction of the law standing, the law in the case becomes of doubtful obligation. La-Croix 1235, 1237; and S. Alphonsus 150, who handed down this opinion as most common, citing several theologians for it; but afterward he withdrew from this opinion. If the doubt is negative, that is, if no reason or probable conjecture is present, then he is held to the recitation of the breviary. For then the law cannot prudently be called of doubtful obligation, since there is no probable motive suggesting its satisfaction. La-Croix l. c.; L. l. c.

At the end of the cited number this Holy Doctor has the following observation, useful for practice: "If you doubt whether you have said the whole hour or not, the Salmanticenses judge that, if you often labor under such doubt, you are not held to repeat, because then such doubt is easily presumed to arise from scruples; otherwise if rarely." Hence, they say, one is well excused from repeating the office if you do not remember having said something, and you have a just conjecture for believing that you said it; for example, if you remember that you began a psalm, or some lesson, or an hour, and afterward, distracted, reached the end of the psalm, lesson, or hour, without remembering whether you recited the whole; for presumption favors you, because you are accustomed to recite integrally those things whose recitation you began. But if you have reached some hour, for example Sext, and you doubt whether you recited the preceding one, you can hold the same decision, because you are not accustomed to recite a later hour unless you first sent the prior one before it; therefore you can prudently believe that you omitted nothing. La-Croix 1236; L. 150.

In what rite must the office be recited? - The canonical hours, from the preceding law, had to be recited according to the prescription of the Roman breviary issued by order of S. Pius V and afterward corrected by order of other Pontiffs, so that all obliged to the hours would not satisfy their duty if they used another breviary, and therefore a beneficed person would not make the fruits his own. Cf. Suarez de Relig. t. 2, l. 4, de Hor. Can. c. 11, n. 3, 4. Religious are excepted who have the peculiar breviary of the order; the Milanese Church, which uses the Ambrosian rite, and the Chapels of Toledo, which use the Mozarabic rite; likewise Churches which for 200 years before the institution of the breviary by S. Pius V had a peculiar one. Those, however, could change their breviary into the Roman one, if the Bishop and the whole chapter consented. But once they used that faculty, they remained bound to the Roman breviary. Likewise they lost their privilege if they made any additions or changes in their liturgy. The Bishop can in these excepted churches prohibit the use of the Roman breviary; but if no such precept is present, whether someone privately can recite the Roman breviary is disputed. The same must be said of the missal. This is established from the Bull of the same S. Pius V Quod a nobis, July 7, 1568, and from C. Ex proximo; S. R. C., January 10, 1852, Cenomanen., n. 1993; Bouix de Iure Liturg. p. 4; L. 160; Lugo, Resp. Mor. l. 5, d. 7; E. M.

From the preceding law. For a new form of reciting the divine office was introduced by the Constitution of Pius X Divino afflatu, November 1, 1911, which is altogether preceptive. For in the aforesaid Constitution it is said: "In all churches of the secular and regular clergy, in monasteries, orders, congregations, and institutes of religious, by all and each who from office or from custom pay the canonical Hours according to the Roman Breviary issued by S. Pius V and revised by Clement VIII, Urban VIII, and Leo XIII, we command that the new order of the Psalter, such as we have approved with its Rules and Rubrics and have decreed to be published by the Vatican presses, be religiously observed. At the same time we announce the penalties established in law to those who have failed in their duty of paying the canonical Hours daily; and they indeed should know that they will not satisfy so grave a duty unless they use this order of Our Psalter."

Note: Those who are not bound by reciting the office of the Blessed Virgin are not prohibited from using any formula of this kind of office, provided it is Latin, unless there is a legitimate custom of reciting it in the vernacular idiom. S. Pius V, C. Superni, March 11, 1571; S. R. C., January 15, 1897. Both breviaries and missals, and other liturgical books, cannot be printed without the attestation of the Ordinary, by which it is declared that they agree with those which have been printed at Rome. Liturgical books with Gregorian chant, also as regards the several Propers of churches, must be approved by the S. R. C. according to the Decree of November 27, 1908, A. A. S. v. 1, p. 159, 293. Clement VIII, Decree Cum in Ecclesia; Urban VIII, Decree Divinam psalmodiam; S. R. C., April 26, 1834, n. 2716; February 16, 1834, n. 2855; August 4, 1877, n. 3427. Cf. here n. 1306; E. M.

Do those satisfy who recite another breviary preserved from a custom of the place, introduced after the time determined by S. Pius V? - Reply: Negatively. S. R. C., January 10, 1852.

Does a priest need the permission of the Bishop to recite the Roman breviary in the aforesaid place where another is recited? - Reply: Negatively. This is established from the cited response of the S. R. C. "Privately," says Busembaum apud S. Alphonsus 160, "it is probable that it is lawful for all, even regulars, from custom to use the Roman, as Lessius, Rodriguez, Sa, Bonacina teach." Cf. n. seq.; for excepting custom, if there is any, the same reason in this case seems to be present. L. 161. Cf. also A. S. S. v. 1, p. 240.

Are clerics obliged to the breviary held to use the proper office of the diocese? - Reply: Affirmatively, provided that that proper office has been recognized and approved by the S. R. C. The reason is that although the concession of proper offices has the nature of a privilege, nevertheless all private persons are bound to use a privilege conceded to the whole community. The case is excepted, as is clear, in which private persons, by force of an Apostolic Indult, could not use the proper office of the diocese. Cf. n. 167.

Is there still an obligation of reciting the gradual psalms, the little office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the office of the Dead, which are noted in the rubrics of the breviary? - Reply: "The obligation ceases of reciting in choir, on the days prescribed hitherto by the Rubrics, the little office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the office of the Dead, and also the gradual and penitential psalms. But chapters which are held to these additional offices from a peculiar constitution or legacy will obtain their commutation from the Holy See." C. Divino afflatu, Rubr. title VII, n. 2.

Note: "Since through the new disposition of the Psalter the causes of the General Indult of July 5, 1883, for votive offices have ceased, these very offices, and other similar ones conceded from particular Indults, are altogether removed and declared removed." C. Divino afflatu, Rubr. title VII, n. 1.

In the Ambrosian Liturgy, according to the custom which has prevailed up to this time, all clerics ordained in sacred orders through the whole of Lent, except Sundays and Major Week, are held to recite the entire Office of the Dead; and on not a few ferial days through the year, part of the same Office. But from the Indult granted on February 23, 1897, by Leo XIII through the S. C. R., "all clerics constituted in sacred orders who follow the Ambrosian rite, outside choral officiation, on each day of Lent, except Festive days and Major Week, are to recite only Vespers of the Dead, and on the second day of November the entire Office for the Dead."

Must those obliged to the office recite under grave obligation the office of the Dead on the day of the Commemoration of all the Dead, and also the Litanies on the feast of S. Mark and during the triduum of the Rogations? - Reply to the first: "On the Commemoration of all the Faithful Departed, the office and Mass of the current day being omitted, only the office with Mass for the Dead is done, as is prescribed in the Appendix of the new Psalter. If on November 2 a Sunday or some double of the first class occurs, the Commemoration of the Dead is celebrated on the next following day, similarly not impeded; on which, if perhaps a double of the second class occurs, this is transferred according to the rule handed down title III, n. 3." C. Divino afflatu, Rubr. title XIII.

Reply to the second: "On the feast of S. Mark and in the triduum of the Rogations, the burden remains entire of reciting the Litanies of the Saints, even outside choir." C. Divino afflatu, Rubr. title VII, n. 3.

In what order are the canonical hours to be recited? - A twofold order is to be observed in the recitation of the breviary, namely the order of offices and the order of hours. The order of offices is described in the calendar of feasts and in the rubrics for their translation, where several concur at the same time. The order of hours is that which is set forth in the breviary, namely that Matins with Lauds is recited in the first place, then the little hours are added, that is, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, and finally Vespers with Compline follow. As regards the Saints concerning whom the canonical hours are to be recited, the office must be recited according to the calendar of one's own diocese, that is, of that in which someone has domicile or quasi-domicile, or a residential benefice. S. R. C., May 14, 1672, n. 1445. Pastors and their coadjutors are held to recite the offices of their own church, but not other priests who celebrate Mass in it or hear confessions. Masters and students of a seminary, living in it, are held to recite the offices proper to the church of the seminary, although they celebrate elsewhere. S. R. C. n. 2872, 2980.

On a journey: "When someone, for the sake of a journey, or study, or for other reasons, is outside his homeland or diocese, beneficed persons are always held to the office of their own Church; but simple priests can conform themselves to the office of the place where they stay." S. R. C., November 12, 1831, ad 46, n. 2682. But a regular "on a journey should follow the calendar of the divine office of the monastery from which he departed; when he arrives and remains in another monastery, even for a time, he should follow its calendar." S. R. C., August 31, 1839, n. 2801; "because everywhere he is held to be present at choir," S. R. C., September 25, 1852, n. 3001. One reciting privately is held to observe the calendar of the monastery from which he departed, S. R. C., June 27, 1896, ad 13, n. 3919. During Lent, regular preachers of the divine word, staying outside the monastery, must conform themselves to the Calendar of the Province, extended without any diversity for all in each year. S. R. C., August 31, 1839, n. 2801.

What if someone recites another office for the office of the day? - He who deliberately recites one office for another, if it is both of a plainly diverse rite and notably shorter, does not satisfy, as on Palm Sunday the office of Easter or Pentecost. If indeed it is not shorter, but only of a plainly diverse rite, it is probable that he satisfies, as for example if on the Nativity of the Lord he recites the office of the Passion; but he certainly does not lack light fault. But if it is of the same rite, but notably shorter, he does not satisfy. If under both heads it is nearly equal, he satisfies, although likewise he does not lack light fault; and this not only if he has done it three or four times in the year, but also if more often, which is the opinion of many and sufficiently probable, because the substantial form of the office seems to be quantity; but quality is only an accidental form. Indeed he does not even sin lightly if he has done this from some just cause, for example from devotion, or so that he may recite with a companion, or without reflection; and then, if after a small part of the office has been recited he notices that he has erred, it will be in his power either to pursue the one begun or the proper office. But it is better to recite the proper office, lest he persevere in error.

Hence, if someone, deliberately or without reflection, has recited an office notably shorter, he must supply what was more in the proper one. Likewise, whether someone did this deliberately or without reflection, on the day on which the recited office then occurs, this same office must more probably be recited again, not the one which he omitted, lest he err twice. Alexander VII, condemned proposition 34; S. R. C., June 17, 1673, n. 1474; January 27, 1899, n. 1011; L. 161; Lugo, Resp. Mor. l. 5, d. 8; La-Croix 1237, 1250, 1255; E. M.

What kind of sin is it to invert the order in recitation of the hours? - In private recitation, it never exceeds venial sin, because such inversion of order does not contain grave deformity; for the order to be observed is only under a secondary precept and as a circumstance of lesser moment. But if from some just cause you change the order, you will be altogether free from every fault. Some say that inversion of order is a mortal sin if it is done frequently; but this must more probably be denied with S. Ligorius 169. "The same must be said if the order is inverted in the same hour." L. 170, 161 in fine. But he who so disturbs the parts of the office that scarcely the species of the office remains does not satisfy. Suarez d. 11, c. 7.

In public recitation it is disputed whether it is a grave sin or not to invert the order or to change the time of the hours. Some affirm it, if the inversion or change of time is notable and there is no excusing cause. The reason is that the canons repeat several times that the hours are to be recited at the stated times. Clem. Gravi 1 de Celebr. missar. But others deny it, because a circumstance of this kind does not pertain to the substance of the precept, but is merely accidental. Each opinion is probable; but the second is more probable, because a grave precept is not established. L. 171.

1024. Sacred Scripture¹ declares in manifold ways that clerics, especially those initiated in sacred orders, are to be adorned with holiness both internal and external, not only because they are ministers of God, but also because they ought to furnish the faithful with good example: "In all things show thyself an example of good works, in doctrine, in integrity, in gravity, the sound word, irreprehensible, that he who is on the contrary side may fear, having no evil to say of us."²

¹ I Tim., III, 1-13; IV, 6-16; II Tim., I, 6-14; II, 1-26; Tit., I, 5-9; II, 1-8.

² Tit., II, 7-8; cf. I Pet., V, 3, where it is said concerning priests: "Being made a pattern of the flock from the heart."

The Fathers and Councils taught the same, whose decrees the Council of Trent thus contracts:¹ "There is nothing which more continually instructs others unto piety and the worship of God than the life and example of those who have dedicated themselves to the divine ministry; for since they are seen as raised from the things of the world to a higher place, the rest cast their eyes upon them as upon a mirror, and from them take what they may imitate. Wherefore it is altogether fitting that Clerics, called into the lot of the Lord, should so compose their whole life and morals that in habit, gesture, walk, speech, and all other things they show nothing except what is grave, moderate, and full of religion; that they avoid even light delicts, which in them would be greatest, so that their actions may bring veneration to all."

¹ Trident., sess. XXII, cap. 1 de Reformatione. - From the Code, c. 124, "clerics ought to lead an interior and exterior life holier than lay persons, and to excel them in virtue and right deeds as an example." Cf. can. 125, 126.

Since ascetical writers discuss at length the internal holiness and virtues of clerics, here we shall briefly touch upon what the sacred canons have established concerning their external life:² 1. concerning external habit; 2. concerning certain secular arts forbidden to the clergy; 3. concerning certain amusements to be avoided.

² What we explain here in a briefer style, we contract from the manuscripts of S. Many, professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris, who kindly gave me permission to use those things which he collected by assiduous labor and arranged lucidly with a fuller pen.

1. An interior and exterior life holier than that of laymen (c. 124).

This obligation can now be urged more, since the Church reserves clericate to those who, with the intention of receiving priesthood, have begun to devote themselves to theological studies.

Wherefore Ordinaries of places must take care "that all clerics frequently wash the stains of conscience by the sacrament of penance"; that "daily for some time they apply themselves to mental prayer, visit the Most Holy Sacrament, honor the Mother of God by the Marian rosary, and examine their conscience." By this c. 125 at the same time power is conferred on Ordinaries to define these things more and to urge them efficaciously.

2. Reverence and obedience to one's proper Ordinary.

Wherefore, "whenever and for as long as, in the judgment of the proper Ordinary, the necessity of the Church requires it, and unless a legitimate impediment excuses, the office which has been committed to clerics by the bishop must be undertaken and faithfully fulfilled" (c. 128).

The debt of reverence looks to this: that, according to received custom, they render honor and offer services to Superiors.

The form of obedience is this, that clerics be ready to obey the laws, precepts, and admonitions of their Superiors. The matter is ecclesiastical things. The title of obligation is jurisdiction alone. The Ordinary does not have dominative power over secular clerics. The limits are defined by the nature of the state, by usages, and by the office undertaken. This must especially be guarded against: that they not abuse the ecclesiastical offices which they bear, by teaching, preaching, instructing youth, governing a parish, for fostering party interests, but that they administer them according to the intention and mandates of the Church, and not against the direction of Superiors. Cf. Wernz, II, n. 190-192.

3. Reception and faithful fulfillment of an office committed by one's proper Ordinary (c. 128).

That docility for accepting and executing an office is among the duties conjoined with the clerical state: our canon 128 demonstrates this. A twofold condition indeed is set down: a positive one, whenever and for as long as the necessity of the Church requires it; a negative one, unless a legitimate impediment excuses. But the judgment concerning each condition is in the power of the Ordinary; concerning the former, c. 128 expressly establishes this; concerning the latter, it is established from the general rule by which the knowledge of impediments belongs to the Superior to whom the right of commanding belongs. Cf. moreover the discussion and resolution of the Sacred Congregation, August 6-7, 1910, in the cause of St. Jean de Maurienne, care of souls (A.A.S., II, 911; Periodica, V, 290).

4. Studies, especially sacred studies, with care for solid doctrine, alien from rash novelties (c. 125).

5. Wearing of decent ecclesiastical habit; simple care of the hair; and, of itself, tonsure or the clerical crown (c. 136, §1).

During the earlier times of the Church, clerics were distinguished from laymen by modesty of clothing, indeed, but by no peculiar color or form. "We must be distinguished from the common people or the rest by doctrine, not by clothing; by conduct, not by habit; by purity of mind, not by dress." Thus in the fifth century St. Caelestine I, ep. 4 (P. L., 50, 431). Not even in sacred functions did they use vestments of a peculiar form. They took care only that they be of better quality or cleaner. Cf. the deed narrated by Sulpicius Severus, Dialog. II, I (P. L., 20, 201). From the civil Roman habit of the fourth century those vestments were taken. Cf. Batiffol, Études de liturgie et d'archéologie chrétienne, p. 83. But in the sixth century, after the barbarians invading Italy brought in shorter clothing, clerics, preserving the longer clothing of the Romans, began to be distinguished from laymen. The distinction was confirmed by c. 16 of Lateran IV (1215), which became c. 15, X, III, 1. A long and closed garment became customary for clerics. A black or at least darkish color was prescribed by particular decrees from the end of the fifteenth century and much more in the sixteenth century. Sixtus V, by the Constitution Cum sacrosanctum, June 9, 1589, wished to impose the talar habit under severe penalties. Yet the more tempered norm of the Council of Trent prevailed, sess. XIV, c. 6, Ref., that they wear an honest clerical habit, congruent with their order and dignity, and according to the ordinance and mandate of the bishop himself: which norm has been confirmed by the Code.

As regards tonsure, penitents were shorn for greater humiliation. Monks imitated this for contempt of the world. Some, neglecting their hair, cut the hair shorter; others, using a razor, shaved the head completely ¹. The clerics themselves followed this custom, yet with a crown of hair preserved around the head, at least in Africa from the end of the fourth century, because of which in the fifth century they were called "crowned." By this crown, the "tonsure of St. Peter" was distinguished from the complete "tonsure of St. Paul." This seems to be the origin of the distinction between tonsure, which earlier signified the laying aside of hair and sometimes even the shaving of hair, and the crown, which was the sign of dignity. Thus the cited c. 15 prescribes to clerics that they wear tonsure and crown. Canon 41 of the Fourth Council of Toledo (633) reproved that small form of tonsure which now everywhere is used by secular clerics for the crown.

As regards the beard, the custom of shaving the beard prevailed in the Western Church in the fourth and fifth centuries. Chapters 4, 5, 7, III, 1, of the Decretals forbid clerics to nourish hair or beard.

In the sixteenth century a moderate beard was tolerated. But at the end of the seventeenth century, when men, after the example of Louis XIV, laid aside the beard, clerics did the same. But after laymen returned to the beard, they themselves now departed from laymen, and thus the custom was introduced by which in the Western Church the beard is commonly put away by clerics.

What habit is to be worn is defined more by the custom and prescriptions of the Ordinary of the place.

Every affected care of elegance must also be excluded from the care of the hair.

The clerical crown, which for priests is laudably increased so that it correspond to the host of communion, is imposed of itself, unless "the received customs of peoples bear otherwise." Yet a grave obligation of conscience is not established.

If clerics of major Orders or beneficiaries have put aside clerical habit for a long time, that is, according to d'Annibale, III, 146 (7), for five or six days, this is reputed grave. A grave obligation for clerics of minor Orders, setting aside a precept of the bishop or synodal statute, does not seem to be demonstrated. Yet it would be grave for all to put aside the habit from contempt and with scandal. Just fear and, according to the custom of the place, the reason of a journey can excuse from wearing the habit. The Ordinary will opportunely reserve to himself judgment concerning the necessity of a journey. Moreover, the more the habit differs from the ecclesiastical habit so that it is confused with lay habit, the graver reason is required that a cleric wear this instead of that.

By canon 136 nothing is prescribed or permitted concerning the beard. Therefore one must not recede from the custom of the diocese, which can constitute particular law in no way contrary to common law. The things said are confirmed by a response of the Sacred Congregation of the Council.

For to the question of the Most Eminent Bishop of Breslau: "Whether by the Code of Canon Law freedom of wearing a beard has been given to any secular clerics whatsoever, and, respectively, whether it belongs to bishops to sustain in its force the prohibition hitherto in force for their dioceses," the Sacred Congregation of the Council, on June 10, 1920, replied: "Negative to the first part; affirmative to the second."

The use of a ring is positively forbidden to clerics to whom a ring has not been conceded by law or apostolic privilege (c. 136, §1).

There is question of that ring which has the character of an ornament, or is an insignia of privilege or dignity.

¹ Martene, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus, l. I, c. 6, art. 4, n. VII. Among monks, the same doctor writes, tonsure varied in form and manner. De antiquis monachorum ritibus, l. 5, c. 7, n. 4, 5.

— The law of residence, which strictly urges those clerics who have a residential benefice or office, is extended in some way to others, insofar as permission, at least presumed, of their proper Ordinary is called necessary for clerics to be absent from their diocese for a notable time, for example beyond three months. And one who, with permission of his Ordinary given not in perpetuity but for a time, has passed into another diocese, since he remains ascribed to his own diocese, can be recalled for a just cause and with natural equity preserved. It is also intact to the Ordinary of the other diocese to deny him permission of further dwelling in his own territory, unless he has conferred a benefice upon him (cc. 143, 144).

— By canons 126-131 these things are imposed on priests:

1. At least every third year, spiritual exercises, in some pious or religious house. To the proper Ordinary pertain: the designation of the house; the determination of the time; the faculty of exempting a priest in a particular case. Express permission is required (c. 126).

Although c. 592 carries over to religious all obligations contained in cc. 125-142, c. 126 affects only seculars. For it expressly names secular priests; and, from the nature of the matter, the proper constitutions of religious will define what they themselves must perform in this matter.

Because the word "at least" is used, it remains entire for the Ordinary of the place to prescribe more frequent exercises;

2. A peculiar obligation of reverence and obedience (c. 127).

For they are held by a formal promise of obedience; a more frequent useful occasion of obedience is offered to them; with greater harm to the Church and to souls they refuse obedience. The scope of the obligation is defined from the nature of the state and from custom; the promise adds an obligation of fidelity. The bishop can command them from jurisdiction alone;

3. Continuation of sacred studies and, for three years, an annual examination (cc. 129, 130).

The obligation of examination also affects pastors and canons, "unless they have been exempted by the Ordinary of the place for a just cause." The ordering of the examinations belongs to the Ordinary of the place. In conferring offices, account is to be had of those who have stood out more in the remembered tests (c. 130, §2);

4. The obligation of assisting at collations or conferences concerning moral and liturgical matters, and at other exercises which the Ordinary has added as opportune for promoting the knowledge and piety of clerics. These collations are to be instituted in the episcopal city and in the individual vicariates forane or deaneries (c. 131).

These collations must be had more often in the year. How often? This is left to the judgment of the Ordinary. He also establishes norms for sending written responses, if it is difficult for the meeting to be held; and he grants a dispensation, which must be express.

The obligation holds all secular priests; but religious also, even exempt, if they have care of souls, or, being approved for confessions by the Ordinary of the place, lack collations in their own houses. A pastor or quasi-pastor has care of souls, but not a cooperating vicar. Those who contumaciously refuse to be present at collations must be punished; religious confessors who do not exercise care of souls must be suspended from the confessions of seculars.

N.B. - Concerning vocation and the required qualities, we shall treat more conveniently where we treat of the sacrament of Order.

— I. Negative Obligations. 1. On account of danger to virtue and reputation, clerics must keep from themselves women easily suspected; nor can they cohabit except with near relatives or their family, or with women of such probity and age as, in the judgment of the Ordinary, removes every suspicion. Common life, however, is commended to clerics.

2. For protecting peace of soul and honest support, clerics illicitly become sureties without consulting the Ordinary.

3. On account of the decorum of their state, they are prohibited: a. to exercise unbecoming arts; b. to spend time on games of chance, money being exposed, or to indulge in them notably; c. to carry arms, especially publicly, without a just cause; d. to indulge in hunting or to exercise noisy hunting; e. to enter taverns without necessity or a cause approved by the Ordinary. A tavern, from common law, is a common eating-house; but the stricter discipline of certain places must be observed; f. to go to public theaters or, when it is unbecoming, to be present at spectacles, dances, and pageants: concerning cinematographic spectacles the usages of places must be attended to.

4. On account of discrepancy between their proper offices and these other things, they are prohibited: a. without apostolic indult, to exercise medicine or surgery. In the indult which, for example, is granted to missionaries, an incision or cauterization such as may bring danger of life or mutilation is of itself excepted; b. to act as public notaries, unless in the ecclesiastical Curia; c. to assume public offices which bring with them the exercise of lay jurisdiction or administration, such as those of judge or prefect of a province; d. without the permission of their own Ordinary, to manage the goods of laymen or to fulfill secular offices which oblige them to render accounts. Secular clerics, however, can be tutors of related persons; e. to be procurators or advocates outside an ecclesiastical tribunal, unless there is question of their own cause, and perhaps that of relatives, or of their church; f. in a lay criminal trial pursuing a grave personal penalty, to intervene, even as witnesses, without necessity; g. without the consent both of their own Ordinary and of the Ordinary of the place of election, to solicit or accept the office of senator or deputy. Bishops and Ordinaries need at least the tacit assent of the Holy See; h. voluntarily to undertake military service, unless, with the consent of their own Ordinary acceding, they do so that they may more quickly be freed from the burden (c. 141); i. to exercise commerce or business by themselves or through others, for their own utility or for the utility of others. The prohibition first comprehends every gainful business, that is, by which things are bought with the intention that, morally unchanged, they be sold at a higher price; it also touches artificial business, by which things are bought so that, by industry or art, having been reduced into a more useful form, they may be sold more dearly, unless clerics apply their own industry, or there is question of the fruits of their own field. Thus it is lawful, even through hired workers, to fatten animals in one's own pastures and to sell them fattened with profit. The buying together of things which are then retailed to others (negotiatio politica) must also be avoided, unless the end of charity or mercy prudently commands it. But economic dealing is not prohibited, by which fruits collected from one's own field are sold, or things which remain over from goods broadly bought for one's own use; or things which, bought for one's own use, are then, with a plan changed, sold even with profit. Yet every mode which may be unbecoming to clerics must be avoided.

Forbidden business is permitted to be exercised neither by oneself nor through others, whether for one's own utility or for that of others.

But, with stock-exchange dealings and the administration of companies excluded, clerics today do not seem to be prohibited from peacefully possessing securities, even shares, of companies, even commercial ones, and, when the occasion is given, profitably exchanging them: because in common estimation these things neither are unbecoming to clerics nor make anyone a merchant or businessman. Yet there are those who think more strictly.

A cleric will have sinned gravely who has exercised forbidden business, and is said to have to be restrained by suitable penalties; he is excused at least from grave sin who has done this once or again, or on occasions morally separated. It is also tolerated that a cleric who has succeeded to his father carry on the paternal business through others, namely connected co-heirs; or that he provide for his own poverty by honest business. In other successions or necessities, permission or dispensation of the Holy See in Italy, or, with the conditions observed, of the Ordinary outside Italy, will have to be obtained.

II. Positive Obligations. - 1. All clerics must: a. lead an interior and exterior life holier than laymen; b. show their proper Ordinary reverence, according to received custom, and obedience, so that they are prompt in obeying the laws, precepts, and admonitions of competent Superiors. Therefore clerics, not legitimately impeded, must accept and faithfully fulfill the very office which, for the necessity of the Church, has been committed to them by the bishop (c. 128); c. acquire for themselves solid doctrine; d. show a simple care of the hair; e. wear decent ecclesiastical dress, such as is defined by the custom and prescriptions of the Ordinary of the place: to put aside that dress for five or six days without cause is reputed grave if it is done by a beneficed cleric or by a cleric of major orders; f. wear the clerical crown, unless the received customs of peoples bear otherwise: yet this obligation is not judged grave. As to the beard, one must not depart from the custom of the diocese; g. reside in their own diocese in such a way that, without permission, at least presumed, of the Ordinary, they are not long absent from the diocese.

2. All clerics of major orders: a. are kept from marriage by a diriment impediment, and are held by the obligation of preserving perfect chastity, so that those sinning are guilty of sacrilege. And in the Latin Church, they must emit a vow of chastity. Since this is an obligation of state, the candidate himself will have sinned gravely who petitions sacred ordination while he could not prudently judge himself morally fit for fulfilling it; that is, if it would be too difficult for him to avoid every scandal and to preserve perfect chastity, at least habitually. Therefore, regularly, sufficient proof of virtue is to be required before sacred ordination; and that proof is to be the more certain the greater the danger of relapse and scandal is, the less the remaining capacity is, and the easier withdrawal from the priestly state is. And even outside a custom properly so called, clerical life is regularly to be dissuaded for those whose future chastity is foreseen as only maimed and interrupted; b. they are held to daily recitation of the canonical hours from the very moment of received subdiaconate, in such a way nevertheless that even before ordination they seem able validly to recite the hours following it.

Beneficiaries, however, are held from the day of accepted possession of the benefice, if they perceive or will perceive the fruits. Those gravely negligent, at least after the first six months, do not make the fruits their own pro rata, so that from justice they must distribute them either to the fabric of the church, or to the diocesan seminary, or among the poor. With attention to the slightness of benefices, almost never, at least in many regions, will there be place for paying this penalty.

Those solemnly professed, in religions in which there is an obligation of choir, must recite the Breviary at least privately from the moment of profession.

One obliged by several titles nevertheless satisfies the debt by one recitation.

The substantial obligation is that the canonical hours be recited entirely every day "according to the proper and approved liturgical books" (c. 135). Today the obligation of reciting the litanies of All Saints on the very feast of St. Mark and on the Rogation days is certain, but less certainly grave. Those litanies cannot be anticipated on the previous day.

As to the mode of recitation, vocal recitation is prescribed, so that words be formed; without syncopation or abbreviation of words and syllables: the defect will generally be venial, or even excused by stammering or by invincible custom against which one acts; devout, from the intention of worshiping God, and with at least that attention which is called external, and which looks to this: that exterior actions be excluded which cannot be composed with internal attention. Internal attention is distinguished into superficial, or to correct pronunciation; literal, or to the sense of the words; spiritual, or to God and divine things. A different mortal sin does not obstruct the substance of the obligation. Recitation is prescribed, under venial sin, as continuous, so that, excepting a just cause, in one morally continuous course you recite those things which are not permitted to be separated. The individual offices must be recited in their own order: yet the substitution of another office from the same breviary is of itself venial; and, if done from error, satisfies the obligation. A change of order among the hours is venial; nor is it judged grave if in the same hour you invert the order of the parts, provided that you do not change the form too much.

As to time: the office is the burden of the day, so that the whole must be recited under grave obligation from midnight to midnight; the obligation is light of reciting before noon Matins with Lauds and the first two little hours; after noon, however, Vespers and Compline. On the ferias of Lent, after the first Sunday, Vespers, from the rubric, not under fault, are recited before the meal, just as in any part of the year Matins with Lauds are recited before the sacred rite: nor is the obligation of this under fault established. Matins with Lauds can already be anticipated on the preceding day from the second hour; and a greater anticipation is granted quite easily. Foresight of an impediment does not oblige you to anticipate on the preceding day; but a sufficiently certain opinion obliges you to recite Vespers and Compline in the morning if you foresee an afternoon impediment.

The obligation of the divine office is grave. And from the common opinion, which is demonstrated by general persuasion rather than by speculative arguments, the omission of one little hour must be reputed grave, if you except Vespers of Holy Saturday. But, unless acts of will are multiplied by cessation or inconstancy, he commits one sin who has omitted the whole office of one day.

The excusing causes are impotence, from lack of one's proper liturgical book, blindness, etc.; but a notable part which you can recite from memory, you will have to recite; grave inconvenience from external danger, or from dim eyes or from great scruples, from grave illness, or even light illness if it is joined with notable heaviness of the head, weariness of strength, or probable danger or fear of such inconvenience. In doubt there is no obligation; and convalescents, for some days, are excused by the judgment of prudent persons. A graver extraordinary occupation also excuses; for, unless you are dispensed, the obligation of the breviary must be combined with ordinary occupations. Without cause only the Supreme Pontiff can dispense from the breviary; for a just cause a Legate of the Roman Pontiff commutes the breviary, and for a brief time, from universal custom, but not from the Code, the Ordinary of the place does so. In negative doubt concerning the recited breviary, but not in positive probable doubt, the office must be paid. Pious recitation is to be procured in a suitable place. In the recitation of the breviary all scrupulosity must be guarded against. A cathedral and collegiate chapter, and religions which have choir, if four obliged to choir and actually not impeded are present, are held, with indults saved, to the psalmody of the hours and to the conventual Mass. The obligation is grave, in such a way nevertheless that the omission in choir of one little hour is not judged grave by many. The time must be estimated according to the common usage of the place.

One reciting with a companion or in choir must himself recite his proper part. And the psalms, but not the lessons and hymns, must be recited in alternate verses by all. He must also try in a human way to attend to those things which are recited by the companion, by abstaining from reflexively voluntary distraction. Distinct perception which is impeded by some cause does not obstruct validity. Any companion can be chosen. And for one reciting with a companion it is enough that the companion substantially recite his own part.

3. All priests must: a. at least every third year perform spiritual exercises according to the prescriptions of the Ordinary; b. particularly show reverence and obedience to their Ordinary: the promise made in ordination adds an obligation of fidelity; c. for three years undergo an annual examination concerning sacred studies; d. be present at collations concerning moral and liturgical matters, and at other exercises which the Ordinary has prudently commanded; e. celebrate Mass several times in the year.

III. The obligation of celibacy and of the canonical hours is not contracted by a cleric who, coerced by grave fear, has received sacred order, unless afterward, the fear having been removed, he has ratified the same ordination, at least tacitly through the exercise of the order by which he has signified that he subjects himself to the obligations of clerics. Wherefore, coercion and defect of ratification having been legitimately proved, he is reduced to the lay state by judicial sentence. This he can also obtain without judicial form from the Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments.

Therefore the prudent selection of seminarians is commended also for this reason, lest afterward they be able to allege pretexts for petitioning relaxation of obligations: which harms virtue and zeal not a little. The seminary should be open to no one who would wish to enter not fully free, not led by supernatural motives, or with a temperament too prone to venery or loves.

Clerics are chiefly obliged: 1° to sanctity of life; 2° to celibacy; 3° to ecclesiastical habit and tonsure; 4° to the canonical Hours; 5° to suitable knowledge; 6° to the ecclesiastical ministry to be performed fittingly; 7° to the obedience and due reverence to be furnished to the Bishop justly commanding. Concerning the four former here; concerning the rest in their proper places.

1082. • How great the internal sanctity and exterior edification of Clerics must be needs neither demonstration nor exposition. For the very idea alone of Clericate and Priesthood manifestly argues this. Therefore in very few words we shall declare that Clerics must be pious, holy, and modest, both from the nature of their state, and from Scripture, the Fathers, and Councils.

1° From the nature of the clerical state. Most holy is the ministry of Clerics, since they are always applied proximately or at least remotely to sacred things, to the Sacraments to be conferred on the faithful, to the divine praises solemnly to be paid in the name of the Church, to teaching the Christian people concerning the way of eternal salvation, and also to celebrating the Most Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. For why are Clerics and Priests constituted in the Church? That they may be, according to the testimony of the Gospel, the salt of the earth and the light of the world. Moreover they cannot be such unless they shine before others by an illustrious and excellent sanctity of morals. Not only the sublimity and excellence of the offices to be fulfilled, but also the garments with which the Cleric is clothed, cry out that he must profess sanctity. Hence St. Jerome says:¹ "The garment cries out, the state cries out, the profession cries out sanctity of soul."

2° From Scripture. Thus the Lord said concerning the priests of the old law: They will be holy to their God, and they shall not pollute His name: for they offer the incense of the Lord and the breads of their God, and therefore they will be holy.² Likewise in Isaiah it is said: Be cleansed, you who carry the vessels of the Lord.³ Moreover if so great sanctity of life was required in priests who offered oxen and sheep and other animals to God, what will have to be required in those who sacrifice the divine Lamb Himself? And if so great cleanness was required in those who carried the vessels of the Lord, what purity of soul will have to be required in those who carry the Lord Himself in their hands? Read also St. Paul to Titus, Timothy, etc.

3° From the Fathers. Thus St. Chrysostom:⁴ "The Priest ought to have an immaculate life, so that all may look to him as to some excellent example; for God chose us for this, that we may be as lights and teachers of the rest, and may live on earth as Angels." St. Thomas⁵ teaches that greater sanctity is required in a priest than in a simple Religious, saying: "Through Sacred Order someone is deputed to most worthy ministries, by which Christ Himself is served in the ministry of the Altar; for which greater interior sanctity is required than even the State of Religion requires." And in the Supplement:⁶ "For the suitable execution of Orders, goodness of any sort does not suffice; but excellent goodness is required, so that just as those who receive Order are constituted above the people by the grade of Order, so also they may be superior by merit of sanctity."

4° From Councils. Innumerable things are contained in Canon Law concerning the sanctity of Clerics, which also are confirmed by very many Councils. But let it suffice to report that which the Council of Trent has by solemn Decree:¹ "It altogether becomes Clerics called into the lot of the Lord so to compose their whole life and morals, that in habit, gesture, walk, speech, and all other things they display nothing except what is grave, moderate, and full of religion." - The Plenary Council of Baltimore II² exhibits the practical interpretation of this Decree in these words: "Wherever they have been, whether they travel, or walk through the streets, or mingle in conversations among themselves or with those given to the world, let them show in their walk and gesture, and in countenance itself and voice, the modesty and gravity which befit them. Let them avoid with highest zeal excessive raising of the voice, immoderate laughter, scurrilous jokes, finally whatever is an indication of a soul not well composed. Let them not utter more free, insolent, impious words, even by reporting the sayings of others; let them restrain and coerce, if not otherwise, by mouth and countenance, others uttering them."

1083. • All Clerics receiving Sacred Orders contract ipso facto the obligation of celibacy. This is clear from various Decrees of Canon Law; but especially from c. 1. D. 28, where St. Gregory thus prescribed: "Let Bishops presume to make no one subdeacon, unless he has promised that he will live chastely, because no one ought to approach the ministry of the Altar unless his chastity has been proved before the ministry has been received." - Likewise from the Council of Trent,³ where it has thus been defined: "If anyone has said that clerics constituted in Sacred Orders, or Regulars solemnly professed to chastity, can contract marriage, and that the contract is valid, notwithstanding ecclesiastical law or vow, let him be anathema."

1084. Questions. - Query 1° Whether the obligation of celibacy is of divine law?

Resp. Negatively with the common opinion against some; but it is from mere ecclesiastical institution: namely from the force of the precept of the Church, or also from the vow annexed to Sacred Orders. The reason is that celibacy was introduced only from the precept of the Church or of the Apostles. Moreover this is clear from the Council of Trent related above, where it is said: "Notwithstanding ecclesiastical law." Therefore, etc. - Thus commonly Theologians.¹ Therefore the Church can dispense from that obligation. But she never dispenses with those constituted in Sacred Orders, so that they can be bound by the bond of matrimony, except by that law, that they be altogether kept from clerical offices. Thus Pius VII convalidated the sacrilegious marriages of some priests who during the time of the "Gallican" disturbance entered nuptials.

1085. • Query 2° Whether the obligation of celibacy proceeds immediately from a precept of the Church, or mediately, namely from the vow which is emitted in the ordination itself?

Resp. Each opinion according to St. Alphonsus is probable; but the more common and more probable is that which says that this obligation arises from a vow. It is proved, 1° from c. 6. Tit. III. L. III. Decr., where it is said: "Therefore we attending to the fact that the Oriental Church has not admitted the vow of continence," etc. Therefore in the Western Church it is admitted. Moreover this is clear from c. unico. T. XV. L. III in 6°, and from C. Inter praeteritos, § 41, Benedict XIV, Dec. 3, 1749, where this is expressly said. 2° from the fact that if the obligation were from the law of the Church alone, the Pope could absolve all clerics from it: which would be against the common opinion.²

1086. • Query 3° Whether the obligation of celibacy is universal in the Church?

Resp. Some exception is given from the tolerance of the Church among the Orientals. For in the Oriental Church priests indeed can never enter marriage after priestly ordination, or even after diaconate; but married men before diaconate can be advanced to further Orders, and nevertheless converse with their wives. Bishops are excepted, who all must constantly preserve perfect chastity. But among the Greeks subdiaconate is not numbered among Sacred Orders. Hence for clerics not married, in the ordination of Diaconate the precept of chastity is imposed, and today, in a certain Province of the Greek rite, even in the ordination of Subdiaconate, as is clear from the Instruction of the S. C. de P. F.³

1087. • Query 4° Whether he would be held to chastity who expressly did not wish to vow chastity?

Resp. This one would nevertheless be held to chastity, if not from vow, since no one can be bound by a vow unwillingly, yet certainly from the precept of the Church, which from the motive of Religion would bind him to chastity, the vow failing. - Thus commonly with St. Alphonsus.¹ Others wish that he is held to emitting a vow of chastity; and no one will deny that the Church can oblige him to this.

Note. By what pact chastity must be observed by a priest, the Plenary Council of Baltimore II teaches, a. 164-168.

1088. • Clerics, at least those initiated in major Orders, are obliged to wear the tonsure and clerical garment. This is clear from the whole of Canon Law, especially from the Council of Trent, Sess. 14. c. 6 de Ref., where it is said: "For although habit does not make a Monk, nevertheless clerics ought always to wear garments proper and congruent to their Order, so that through the decency of exterior habit they may show the intrinsic honesty of morals." Moreover in the same place it is enjoined on Bishops that they seriously warn transgressors, and, if they do not obey, remove them from sacred functions.

But the clerical habit is various for various regions. Speaking of habit, the Fathers of the Plenary Council of Baltimore II² prescribe these things: 1° "We wish that ... while they are acting at home or in church, they always use the cassock, which is proper to a Cleric. When they go outside for the sake of office or of recreating the mind, or on a journey, it is permitted to be clothed in something shorter, which nevertheless is of black color, and is drawn below the knees." 2° "Let them not cultivate hair and beard studiously, or after the manner of laymen. Pope Pius IX recently condemned the long beard of Clerics.³ We command all ecclesiastics in this matter to follow the custom of the Roman Church as the norm to be followed."

"In this region the tonsure for the most part is not made except in the initiation itself; since we live among heretics, for whom it would foster derision without profit of religion." Thus Kenrick.

1089. • Canonical Hours are called: the collection of prayers and readings to be recited by persons deputed to this, at certain hours, on individual days. Hence the Hours are also called 1° the Divine Office, which is recited in honor of God; 2° the Ecclesiastical Office, which is paid in the name of the Church; 3° the Canonical Office, which must be recited according to the rules of the Canons; 4° the Breviary, because that Office is a compendium of the Old and New Testament, and also of the sentences of the Fathers and the life of the Saints.

The origin of the Divine Office as to substance seems to have to be traced back from the very times of the Apostles, as is gathered from various places of the Acts of the Apostles, from the testimonies of the Fathers, and from various documents.

In the course of times the form and quantity of the Breviary were various. The Council of Trent¹ commanded that a new reform of the Roman Breviary be made. St. Pius V corrected it, increased it with some additions, and by the Bull Quod a Nobis, July 7, 1568, prohibited all other Breviaries which did not exceed 200 years by institution or legitimate custom.

The whole Divine Office is divided into seven Hours, namely Matins with Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline.

It must be treated 1° concerning the obligation of the Breviary; 2° concerning the time established for the recitation of the Hours; 3° concerning the mode of reciting them; 4° concerning the causes excusing from recitation.

Point I. On the obligation of reciting.

1090. Principles. - I. The following are obliged to recite the canonical Hours daily:² 1° All Clerics constituted in Sacred Orders, even those censured and deposed. This is clear from various places of Canon Law; from the Lateran Council, year 1215, from the Bull of St. Pius V Quod a Nobis. - 2° All beneficed persons who have a right in the thing and full dominion of the benefice. It is drawn from the Lateran Council under Leo X, and also from the Bull of Pius V: Ex proximo. - 3° All Religious of each sex professed in an Order approved by the Church, or in which solemn vows are emitted, and destined for choir. It is clear from custom, and also from the Decree of Gregory X, etc. Cf. n. 1205. q. 2°.

II. All these sin gravely if they omit the whole Office or a notable part of it without legitimate cause. The reason is clear; for they violate the law of the Church in a grave matter. - St. Alphonsus,¹ and others most commonly.

III. The obligation of reciting the Hours is affixed to the day, so that it can in no way be satisfied on another day; therefore the obligation, from the mind of the Church, ceases with the day assigned to it, and for this reason is usually called the burden of the day.

1091. Questions. - Query 1° What is grave matter in the omission of the Office?

Resp. Theologians most commonly agree that the omission of one little Hour or of Compline, or of a part of the Nocturns equivalent at least to the quantity of one little Hour, is matter of mortal sin; but that the omission of a lesser part does not exceed venial sin.²

1092. • Query 2° Whether it is grave to omit Vespers on Holy Saturday?

Resp. Negatively, at least more probably, because the matter is very slight both in itself and in respect to the whole Office.³

1093. • Query 3° Whether he commits one or multiple grave sins who omits the whole Office?

Resp. He seems to commit one grave sin only. - Thus commonly Theologians with St. Alphonsus after St. Antoninus, 3rd part tit. 13. c. 4.; because the whole Office of the day falls under one precept. Yet several sins could be committed from an evil will interrupted and resumed several times, for example if someone intends to omit the Office or some hour, afterwards proposes to say it, and again is turned away from the good purpose.⁴

1094. • Query 4° Whether if someone doubts whether he has omitted something in the Office, he is held to recite it?

Resp. Negatively, if either there is present a solitary probability or presumption for the Office having been paid, or it is a question of a scrupulous person; otherwise affirmatively. Cf. things said n. 67. b).

Hence (they say) you are well excused from repeating the Office if you do not remember having said something, and you have a just conjecture of believing that you said it: for example, if you remember that you began some Psalm, or Reading, or Hour, and afterwards, distracted, you have come to the end of the Psalm, Reading, Hour, without remembering whether you recited the whole; for presumption favors you, because you are accustomed to recite integrally those things whose recitation you began. Likewise if you have come to some Hour, for example Sext, and you doubt whether you recited the preceding one, you can hold the same decision, because you are not accustomed to recite a later Hour unless you have recited the prior one first, and therefore you can prudently believe that you omitted nothing.¹

1095. • Query 5° Whether Religious who for just cause do not come to choir are held under grave obligation to recite the Office privately?

Resp. Affirmatively. The reason is that the principal obligation for a Religious does not fall on choir, but on the recitation of the Office by reason of the Religion which undertook that burden from its institute. This obligation is clear from the universal sense and custom of Religious, who, when they cannot be present at choir, believe themselves bound under grave obligation to reciting the Office privately. But universal custom, which has been constantly observed by Religious and Nuns with great inconvenience, furnishes a sufficient argument concerning the grave obligation undertaken. Whence the opinion of some is not probable, who say that the obligation of the Office does not urge a Religious outside choir. Yet both the Constitutions and the legitimate customs of each Order must be consulted.² Those professed of simple vows, concerning whom n. 1187 will be treated, are not held to private recitation; yet they must be present at choir as solemnly professed. Bizzarri, Collect.

1096. • Query 6° Whether a Religious sins gravely who recites the Office privately, while he can easily be present at choir?

Resp. Negatively. For the obligation of choir, although it is grave for the Community, nevertheless is held as light for individual private persons, provided the choir is not altogether taken away. But four free persons, or persons valid for sustaining the choir, suffice for choir. But if Religious are fewer, they are in no way obliged to recite the Office in choir; yet they are not exempted from private recitation, as has just been said.⁴

1096. • Query 7° Whether those obliged to the Office are held to supply those things which they omit in choir on account of the functions of choir, for example by ringing bells or playing organs, or by looking for the Psalms, and other similar things?

Resp. Negatively. The reason is that omission in choir, provided it is not excessive, is supplied by the companions. Thus he satisfies who coughs while others are reciting, etc., and probably even if an entire Psalm is said in the meantime. But he does not satisfy who, while the Office is sung, answers the choir alternately by playing the organ, without uttering the versicles of his own part. A fortiori he is not held to repeat who did not hear some things of the opposite part, even if it is a question of a notable part, provided he sufficiently attended.¹

1097. • Query 8° What Breviary must be used?

Resp. By common law the Breviary reformed by St. Pius V alone must be used; this is clear from the Bull of the same St. Pius V, Quod a Nobis, given July 7, 1568. In this Bull the Pontiff takes away and abolishes all other Breviaries which from institution or legitimate custom do not exceed two hundred years. Yet he permits that even those older than two hundred years can be changed into the Roman Breviary, if the Bishop and the whole Chapter consent. But he commands that this Breviary be observed throughout the whole world, with only the exception just related. Indeed in another Constitution, which begins Ex proximo, he declares that all obliged to the Hours will not satisfy their duty if they use another Breviary.

1098. • Query 9° Is there still given an obligation of reciting the gradual Psalms, the little Office of the B. V. M., and the Office of the dead?

Resp. 1° Negatively as to Clerics who recite the Office privately.

Resp. 2° Negatively also for those reciting the Office in choir, unless where there is present a custom of reciting the aforesaid Offices from the time of St. Pius V. - Thus the S. Congregation of Rites declared several times. Yet this obligation, where it exists from custom, does not affect individual private persons outside choir.²

Query 10° Whether those obliged to the Office must under grave obligation recite the Office of the dead on the day of the Commemoration of all the deceased, and also the Litanies on the feast-day of St. Mark and on the three days of Rogations?

Resp. to 1st Affirmatively, according to all. But this Office consists only of Vespers, Matins, and Lauds.¹

Resp. to 2nd Affirmatively, according to the common opinion. The reason is that in the Rubric after Monday of the fifth Sunday after Easter it is said thus: "Those who are not present at the procession of Rogations shall privately after Lauds say the Litanies with their prayers and orations." But the word "shall say" imports a grave precept when the matter is grave, such as certainly is the matter of the Litanies. Besides, everywhere the custom of reciting the Litanies on these days prevails. But custom is the best interpreter of laws. Yet some deny the grave obligation, saying that the precept is not clear, especially not the grave precept. - "I do not dare to call the second opinion improbable, but the first pleases me more." (f) p. 483.

1099. • 1° The time prescribed for fulfilling the entire recitation of the Office begins from midnight and is ended at the following midnight, so that whoever recites the whole Office within this time is always to be exempted from grave sin, at whatever hour he satisfies such duty. The reason is that, as to substance, one satisfies by reciting the whole Office on the natural day. Indeed Matins and Lauds, by a privilege granted by the Church, can be recited on the preceding day in the evening.

2° Matins and Lauds must be recited by priests before the celebration of Mass. This is clear from the Rubric of the Missal, tit. 1, de Preparat. sac., where it is read: "The priest about to celebrate Mass, at least Matins with Lauds having been completed," etc. Likewise from the Constitution of Innocent IV, year 1254. See below, q. 2 and 3, n. 1100.

3° All the little Hours can be recited in the morning time; and indeed the two earlier ones must be recited before midday; but the two later ones can be said during the whole time both morning and evening. Vespers and Compline are recited from midday up to midnight. Yet in Lent from the first Sunday Vespers can be recited before dinner on account of the ancient discipline, according to which the fast was not broken before the recitation of Vespers. But on Sunday Vespers cannot be anticipated, because the fast is not observed on that day.

Formerly the Hours were recited thus: Matins after midnight, Lauds at dawn, Prime after sunrise, Terce at the ninth hour in the morning, Sext at midday, None at the third hour in the afternoon, Vespers at sunset, Compline at the twilight of night. Hence a cleric ordained subdeacon is held only to reciting the Hours corresponding to the time of ordination. Therefore if the ordination is made before the ninth hour in the morning, he will be held to reciting Terce, but not to the preceding Hours. But more probably he does not satisfy if he recites the part of the Office to which he is held before ordination; yet the opposite opinion is also probable to St. Alphonsus. See the arguments of each opinion in the same author.²

1100. Questions. - Query 1° Whether the little Hours can be recited even before dawn without any cause?

Resp. Affirmatively, more probably. The reason is that since the ancient custom of reciting those Hours at a determined time has been taken away, no other law or new custom has imposed the obligation of paying them only in the time following dawn. Indeed grave Theologians expressly assert that these Hours can be recited during the whole morning time, or from midnight to midday. Thus expressly St. Alphonsus.³

Query 2° Whether the obligation of reciting Matins and Lauds before Mass urges under grave obligation?

Resp. Negatively, at least more probably. The reason is that there is no connection between the Office and Mass, and therefore the recitation of Matins does not seem to be a disposition for celebrating, since a priest can also dispose himself piously for the Sacred rite by praying otherwise; nor does a grave obligation appear from the Rubric related above, and generally it is apprehended not under grave obligation, but under light. - Thus commonly, with St. Alphonsus³ and Benedict XIV.⁴ Otherwise, according to the truer opinion, if it is a question of recitation in choir before the conventual Mass to be celebrated in chant.

Query 3° What cause can excuse from that obligation?

Resp. Any moderate reasonable cause will excuse, for example if someone asking a priest to celebrate Mass for him desires that it be celebrated at once; likewise if the people, or some grave person, is waiting; if the Superior commands; if the time of celebrating has arrived and the celebration cannot be deferred without some inconvenience; if greater convenience of study, or greater utility to be perceived from studies, requires this; if some unexpected business has arisen; if some penitent must be heard first; and similar things.¹

1101. • Query 4° At what hour is it permitted to begin the recitation of Matins in the evening of the preceding day, according to the privilege related above?

Resp. From the common opinion of Theologians it is permitted to begin at the hour of Vespers, which is had when the sun holds the middle of its course between midday and setting; for then, according to all, the ecclesiastical day begins, since first Vespers are accustomed to be chanted. This is confirmed by universal custom. Hence in various places tables are usually prepared determining this hour at the diverse times of the year.² Yet our Bishops can communicate to "ecclesiastical men, whether secular or regular, the faculty which they have," of privately reciting, with a legitimate cause concurring, Matins with Lauds of the following day immediately after two hours have elapsed after midday. See p. LXXII, Faculty 1 among Extra. C.

Query 5° Whether the recitation of Matins must be repeated if it was had before the aforesaid time?

Resp. Affirmatively, more probably. The reason is that the Breviary is the burden of the day; therefore it must be recited on the day itself assigned; but if the aforesaid anticipation is made, now the Office is recited outside the day, just as if the little Hours of the following day were recited before midnight.³ It is confirmed from the declaration apud Muhlbauer.⁴

Addendum and Corrigendum. - I confirm the sentence of St. Alphonsus, according to which more probably the recitation of Matins must be repeated if it was had before that time at which the sun holds the middle of its course between midday and setting, from the declaration which is read apud Muhlbauer. But it was asked whether this declaration is to be understood in such a way that he would not satisfy his obligation who recited Matins with Lauds on the evening of the preceding day before the sun holds the middle of its course between midday and setting. The S. C. responded on 13 July 1883: "Approved Authors are to be consulted." Among the approved authors who have written on this question, that St. Alphonsus is second to none is not something I need say.

1102. • Query 6° Whether the Matins of the Office of the dead and the Litanies for the feast of St. Mark and the days of Rogations can be recited on the previous evening?

Resp. to 1st Affirmatively, more probably. It is clear from universal custom, and also from the Rubrics, which read thus: "The Benedicamus Domino having been said, the Matins of the dead begins absolutely." Therefore since the Matins of the Octave of the feast of All Saints is accustomed, or certainly is able, to be anticipated, consequently the Matins of the dead also can be anticipated.

Some deny this with Lacroix, relying on a Decree of the S. Congregation of Rites, Sept. 1, 1607. But that Decree, according to St. Alphonsus,¹ seems to regard only recitation in choir; concerning which matter indeed there cannot be doubt after the Response of the S. R. C., Sept. 4, 1745 in Ratisbon (apud Gardellini n. 4177).

Resp. to 2nd Negatively. The reason is that the Litanies are affixed to the day, nor do they seem of themselves to be joined with Matins and Lauds. Besides, they supply assistance at the procession, which is altogether affixed to the day. Furthermore if the feast of St. Mark is transferred, the Litanies must not be transferred; therefore they do not inhere in Matins, nor do they have any connection with it.²

1103. • Query 7° Whether one foreseeing an impediment to reciting the Office is held to anticipate the time of the Hours?

Resp. Negatively, probably, if it is a question of Matins and Lauds to be recited the day before, because the time of the precept is not yet running, but only of the privilege. Affirmatively, if the day of precept has already begun, because the Office is prescribed to be recited within the breadth of the whole day, and he who, the precept now urging, is going to be impeded, is held to prevent it. L. V. 155. Cf. above n. 548. q. 3°. n. 550. q. 1°.

1104. • Query 8° At what hour can the recitation of Vespers begin in the morning during Lent?

Resp. The Salmanticenses say³ that Vespers in Lent can be recited from the eleventh hour, or one hour before midday.

But as to the hour of reciting any part whatever of the Office, that must not be passed over which St. Alphonsus has:⁴ "That someone may licitly anticipate or postpone the due time of the Hours, any useful or honest cause suffices, ... greater devotion, or rest, a time more apt for studying, and the like."

Moreover there is no obligation to recite Vespers before midday, but it is a mere privilege, which no one is held to use. But Compline does not enjoy the aforesaid privilege; whence also during Lent it is to be recited after midday.

1105. • 1° As to place. The Office of choir must be recited in the place itself destined for this, or in choir or in the Church. But the Office, if it is recited privately, can be said in every place, whether in an oratory, whether at home, whether in the country, or even in the road while walking, or while making a journey, provided the place is fitting for the attention required and devotion.

2° As to posture. The Office can privately be recited in every decent posture, whether on bended knees, whether standing, whether sitting, whether walking. Thus universal practice, with which all Theologians agree.

1106. Questions. - Query 1° Whether it is permitted to recite the Office lying down in bed?

Resp. Negatively, a reasonable cause being excluded; for such a posture often has some irreverence. The same also must be said of any other posture redolent of softness. Yet this irreverence never exceeds venial sin. - Thus Concina and Viva apud St. Alphonsus.² But any moderate cause whatever will excuse from every fault, for example sickness or any infirmity, headache, weariness, or if someone cannot sleep at night, he could recite the Office without being held to rise.

Query 2° Whether it is permitted to recite the Office in a carriage or on horseback?

Resp. Affirmatively. The reason is that this is prohibited by no law; nor otherwise does it stand in the way of attention, nor of the reverence due to prayer, even if others were traveling and conversing at the same time. For this has obtained by general custom, even of the pious. - Thus commonly.

1107. • Query 3° Whether it is fault not to observe the rubric according to which certain prayers are to be recited on bended knees?

Resp. 1° Negatively, if it is a question of recitation outside choir; for by custom and common interpretation this rubric regards choir alone. These things indeed laudably are done in private recitation, but are omitted without fault. - St. Alphonsus³ and others commonly. Say the same of the Sign of the Cross, and of other signs used in choir.

Resp. 2° If it is a question of recitation in choir, it is disputed. More probably it seems to be affirmed, because a rubric prescribing something imposes a precept. Yet such omission can never exceed venial fault.

Query 4° Whether it is a sin to recite the Breviary in an indecent place?

Resp. More probably it seems to have to be denied of itself, unless the place were an obstacle to due attention, for example on account of a crowd of people, noise, etc.; otherwise it would be indecent to pray in an indecent place, which is false, since, because God is everywhere, He can also be prayed to and adored everywhere, as is clear from the Apostle:² I will men to pray in every place. - St. Alphonsus³ and others, against some who said that there is venial sin, because this is not without some irreverence.

The Hours must be recited 1° in the prescribed order; 2° with due pronunciation; 3° with sufficient attention and devotion.

1108. • A double order must be observed in the recitation of the Breviary, namely the order of Offices and the order of Hours. 1° The order of Offices is described in the calendar of feasts and in the rubrics for their translation, where several occur at once. From the Declarations of the S. R. C.: a) In doubt the Diocesan Directory must be followed, even if to someone it seemed certain that it errs. b) Simple priests, or those who are neither beneficiaries nor, according to St. Alphonsus,⁴ Religious, can conform themselves to the office of the place in which they are staying.⁵ 2° The order of Hours is that which is set forth in the Breviary, namely that Matins with Lauds be recited in the first place, then the little Hours be added, that is, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, and finally Vespers with Compline follow.

1109. Questions. - Query 1° Whether he satisfies the precept of reciting the Hours who by error or inadvertence recites another Office for the Office of the day?

Resp. Affirmatively. The reason is that the Church is not presumed to wish to oblige someone twice to this burden on one day, and because the substance of the recitation has been sufficiently preserved. Hence the common axiom which is held as a rule in these circumstances: Office is valid for Office. Therefore there is no obligation, the recitation having been completed, of reciting another Office. - Thus commonly.¹ - The same also must be said of any part of the Office according to the axiom: An error is corrected where it is discovered.

Yet it is a counsel, says Laymann with others, not an obligation, to add the proper things of the omitted Office. But when the Office would be notably shorter, for example the Office of some Saint for the Office of Sunday, compensation must be made by reciting nine Psalms from the first Nocturn.²

1110. • Query 2° If someone by error has recited only some part of an undue Office, and notices the error, whether he can continue the begun Office, or whether he is held to recite the remaining things from the Office of the day?

Resp. According to the common opinion of Theologians, freedom is given. Therefore he can either continue, or recite the remaining things from the due Office, yet with the Psalm or prayer finished. But it is better to change the Office according to many who establish this rule: "An error is corrected where it is discovered." But this is from mere counsel, not from precept.³

1111. • Query 3° Whether, when you have already said one Office for another, you can recite the omitted Office on the day on which the Office already recited by you will occur?

Resp. Negatively. But the Office recited must be recited again. The reason is that the Church then only prescribes an Office to be transferred when it is impeded by a Sunday or a greater Office; besides, there is present the obligation of conforming oneself with the common rite of the Church. - Thus Lugo.⁴ St. Alphonsus says this more probably,⁵ and it must be held as morally certain from the Decree of the S. R. C., June 17, 1673, apud Gardellini.⁶

1112. • Query 4° Whether or how he sins who knowingly recites another Office for the Office of the day?

Resp. 1° He commits no sin if he does this for a reasonable cause, for example if he cannot easily have the proper Office, or if for the sake of charity he recites with a companion saying a different Office, provided that Office has been approved by the Holy See and is equal or nearly equal; indeed the mere reason of companionship appears sufficiently reasonable, says St. Alphonsus.¹

Resp. 2° The reason being excluded, it will indeed be a sin, but venial only, if the Office is changed into an equal or almost equal one, because the obligation is satisfied as to substance, provided nevertheless (which seems more equitable to St. Alphonsus,² although he holds as sufficiently probable the opinion which does not admit that restriction) that it happen rarely. - St. Alphonsus² against others who say that it is always mortal.

Resp. 3° If a notably shorter Office is recited, it is a grave sin, because then the substance of the obligation is not satisfied. This is clear both from the nature of the thing and from proposition 34 condemned by Alexander VII. See p. XIV.

1113. • Query 5° What kind of sin is it to invert the order in the recitation of the Hours?

Resp. 1° In private recitation it never exceeds venial sin, because such inversion of order does not contain grave deformity; for the order to be observed is only under a secondary precept and as a circumstance of lesser moment. But if from some just cause you change the order, for example to recite with a companion who has already proceeded further in the recitation, you will be wholly without fault. Some say that inversion of order is a mortal sin if it happens frequently; but this is more probably to be denied with St. Alphonsus.³

Resp. 2° In public recitation it is disputed whether it is a grave sin or not to invert the order or to change the time of the Hours. Each opinion is probable; but the negative is more probable, because a grave precept is not clear. - Thus St. Alphonsus, apud whom the reasons of each opinion may be seen.⁴

1114. • Query 6° What is a cause for inverting the order of the Hours?

Resp. Any reasonable cause excuses. But the following can be assigned, namely: 1° if you are invited by a friend to recite some Hour with him, and you have not yet recited the preceding Hour or Hours; 2° if in the morning you do not have a Breviary at hand, and cannot conveniently wait, then from a Diurnal which you have you could recite the day Hours, afterwards to recite Matins; 3° if you do not have the Readings at hand, you can recite the Psalms of Matins and Lauds, indeed also the remaining things, the Readings being postponed; 4° if you come to choir when the Hour has already begun, you can go on with the others and afterwards supply what has been omitted. Likewise if you come to choir when one Hour has already been completed, you can sing the later one with the choir, and afterwards supply the earlier. - Thus St. Alphonsus¹ and others commonly.

1115. • Query 7° Whether it is a sin to say Matins of the following day before the Office of the present day has been completed?

Resp. It is indeed a sin, says Lacroix,² but venial only, if it is done without cause. But neither is it clear that it is venial, since the Office of one day seems to have no order with the Office of another day. But according to the opinion which holds that it is a venial sin, a sufficient cause of beginning Matins of the following day before you have completed the Office of the present day is if you are asked by another to recite Matins of the following day with him; and generally every cause sufficient for inversion of order among the Hours of the same day would suffice also in the present case.

Query 8° Whether he sins who does not recite the commemorations according to the order assigned by the rubric?

Resp. Several deny it, because that rubric, if it is a question of private recitation, seems merely directive, just as those things which regard posture of the body or signs of the Cross.

The obligations by which Clerics are held by reason of STATE can conveniently be reduced to these TWO, namely: 1. that they perform all things which are specially prescribed to them; 2. that they avoid those things which are forbidden to them.

2196. • To Clerics are prescribed: 1. Holiness of life; 2. Celibacy; 3. Recitation of the canonical Hours; 4. Wearing of the habit and tonsure.

"Whoever professes some state," says St. Thomas,¹⁹ "is held to those things which befit that state." From which, for the clerical state, the following are deduced:

Principles. I. Clerics are held, in a peculiar manner, to HOLINESS OF LIFE. This is proved 1) from several places of Sacred Scripture, and especially from the Epistles to Timothy and Titus, in which the Apostle is wholly intent on this, that he impel both priests and Bishops of the New Law, and the ministers of priests, i.e. deacons, to the pursuit of virtue and holiness. - 2) From the doctrine of the Holy Fathers, who everywhere affirm this primary obligation of clerics and gravely exhort them to it.²⁰ "For the suitable execution of Orders" (says St. Thomas, resuming the common doctrine of ecclesiastical writers on this matter), "not just any goodness suffices, but excellent goodness is required: so that, just as those who receive Order are placed above the people by the grade of Order, so also they may be superior in merit of holiness."²¹ - 3) From very many Councils, and especially from these words of Trent:²² "It is wholly fitting that clerics called into the lot of the Lord so compose their whole life and morals that in habit, gesture, gait, speech, and all other things they show forth nothing except what is grave, moderated, and full of religion." - The same is evinced from what was said concerning the one to be Ordained (n. 1912 sqq.).

2197. • II. Clerics IN SACRED ORDERS are held to a holiness SO MUCH GREATER as the GRADE of the sacred hierarchy in which they are placed is higher. - The reason is taken both from the excellence of the office which they perform, by ministering at the altar and praying for the people; and especially from the necessity in which they daily are placed of preaching the divine word and ministering the Sacraments. Whence St. Thomas:²³ "Because through sacred Order someone is deputed to the most worthy ministries, by which Christ Himself is served in the Sacrament of the altar: for this, a greater interior holiness is required than even the state of Religion requires. Whence, other things being equal, a cleric constituted in sacred Orders sins more gravely if he does something contrary to holiness than some Religious who does not have sacred Order."

2198. • Note. Clerics and priests, who before Ordination are already supposed to have reached some grade of perfection, are bound to use those means by which holiness already acquired can be preserved and can take on new increase. Among these means the following in the first place are commended by St. Alphonsus: 1. A life so stably ordered that each thing may be done in its own time. - 2. Frequent prayer, both vocal and mental, especially before and after the celebration of Mass. - 3. Spiritual reading, and this daily, especially in the Lives of the Saints. - 4. Study of sacred theology, and especially of moral theology. - 5. Daily visitation of the Most Holy Sacrament and of the Blessed Virgin Mary. - 6. Daily examination of conscience and frequent confession. - 7. Guard of the senses and flight from conversation with seculars. - 8. Annual celebration of spiritual exercises for a full week, and monthly for one day. - 9. Pious and constant devotion toward the Blessed Virgin, which effectively impels to this, that fervent prayers be recited daily to Her with the third part of the Rosary, and that every Saturday some act of mortification be exercised in Her honor.²⁴

2199. • For the holiness of Clerics and Priests, inviolable chastity of the body is required before all things. Hence the following:

Principles. I. The obligation of observing PERPETUAL CELIBACY is contracted, ipso facto, by all who receive SACRED ORDERS. This is established from various decrees of canon law; and notably from can. 1, dist. 28, where St. Gregory prescribed thus: "Let Bishops presume to make no Subdeacon except one who has promised that he will live chastely: because no one ought to approach the ministry of the altar unless his chastity has been approved before the ministry received." Likewise from Trent, sess. 24, can. 9, where this was defined: "If anyone shall say that Clerics constituted in sacred Orders, or Regulars solemnly professing chastity, can contract marriage, and that the contract is valid, notwithstanding ecclesiastical law or vow: let him be anathema"¹ (cf. n. 2013).

2200. • II. The obligation of ecclesiastical celibacy is not of divine law; but arises from the LAW OF THE CHURCH prescribing chastity, and the vow of chastity.² The reason of the former is "because, although celibacy had its origin from the Apostles, as the Doctors prove, nevertheless only from a precept of the Church or of the Apostles (as Bellarmine proves) was it introduced and established, as is clear from the very words of Trent."³ - The reason of the latter is taken chiefly from the Law,⁴ where it is said: "We therefore, attending to the fact that the Oriental Church has not admitted the vow of continence."

But among the GREEKS, with the Church tolerating it, even to the present times there is in force canon 13 of the Trullan Council, which indeed against the institutes of the Elders permitted that deacons and presbyters can licitly come together with the wives whom they took BEFORE Ordination; meanwhile, however, those two edicts being preserved in their pristine integrity, by one of which it is prescribed that Bishops live in perpetual celibacy, and by the other that, after sacred Orders have been received, it is no longer licit for clerics to contract nuptials.⁵ - Whence it happens that SACRED ORDER is among the Greeks, as among the Latins, a diriment impediment of contracting marriage; but the use of marriage (if married men have been ordained) is gravely illicit only to Bishops, while among the Latins it is gravely illicit to all clerics constituted in Sacred Orders (recall what was said n. 1939, 2, and 2013).

2201. • Will you ASK whether the obligation of celibacy arises immediately from the precept of the Church, or mediately, namely from the vow which is emitted in Ordination itself? - R. Both opinions, according to St. Alphonsus, are probable; but the second, which says that this obligation arises from a vow, is more common and more probable. For this is expressly said in various chapters of canon law; and moreover, if the obligation were from the law of the Church alone, the Supreme Pontiff could release all priests from it: which is against the common opinion of the Doctors.⁶

From these things you will resolve: 1. The Church can dispense in the vow of continence annexed to sacred Orders, as in all other vows.⁷ Yet it never dispenses with those constituted in Sacred Orders except under this condition, that the dispensed be altogether removed from clerical offices.⁸

2. If someone, in receiving Order, expressly did not wish to vow chastity, he would nevertheless be held to celibacy: not indeed by force of the vow, which he did not emit; but by force of the precept of the Church, which would bind him to chastity from a motive of religion when the vow is lacking.⁹

3. If someone were ordained before the use of reason, certainly he would not be held to celibacy. But whether one Ordained before puberty would be held is disputed probably on both sides.¹⁰

4. If someone is ordained through extrinsic fear unjustly inflicted, and does not have the intention of receiving Order, he is not validly ordained, nor is he held to chastity or to the Breviary. Indeed, even if from fear he consented to Ordination, it is more probable that he is not held to the burdens; because his vow is more probably to be judged invalid. Nevertheless, it is expedient that one so Ordained seek dispensation, if he does not wish to exercise the Order but to enter marriage. But he would be held if the fear had been justly inflicted, or if the Ordained man knowingly ratified his ordination, e.g. by spontaneously exercising the Order.¹¹

2202. • Note. The law of celibacy is most fitting to the clerical state, and morally necessary to the end of the Church. - The reasons are: 1) The holiness and dignity of the Eucharistic Sacrifice and of the other mysteries, which are to be handled by ministers of the altar. - 2) The office of teaching and exhorting: for a married priest cannot with perfect authority and efficacy teach the most holy truths of the Gospel, and especially opportunely exhort virgins and widows to continence. - 3) The administration of the Sacraments; for how could the Christian faithful, unless sacred ministers excelled in the vigor of chastity, be induced to open candidly to them the secrets of their consciences, and how would they show to the Sacraments themselves that highest reverence which they merit? - 4) Care of the sick, and generally ministries of charity; for souls empty of carnal cares and affections, and full of the spirit of Christ, pour themselves out into charity and into most abundant beneficence, as is everywhere established from the works of Catholic charity.¹² - See more among the dogmatic Authors, or Canonists.

2203. • The CANONICAL HOURS are vocal prayers instituted by the Church and, from her precept, to be paid to God by persons deputed to this.

They are customarily called by various names. They are called the Breviary, either because they briefly commemorate the oracles of the Scriptures, the sayings of the Fathers, and the deeds of the Saints; or because they are a compendium of the longer prayers which in ancient times had to be recited. - They are also called: the ecclesiastical Office, because they are paid in the name of the Church; the canonical Office, because they must be paid according to the rules of the canons; the divine Office, because they have been instituted for the honor and worship of God.

The canonical Hours are numbered SEVEN, namely: Matins with Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline. - Matins with Lauds and Vespers are called the MAJOR HOURS, the others MINOR or little HOURS.

The canonical Hours, as regards substance, repeat their ORIGIN from the very times of the Apostles, as is established from Acts of the Apostles 2:42, and more manifestly from the Apostolic Constitutions, lib. 8, can. 34, where these things prescribed to Clerics are read: "Make prayers in the morning, at the third hour, sixth, and ninth, and in the evening and at cockcrow."¹³ But as regards the FORM in which they are recited today, it must be said that the canonical Hours are the work of the Roman Pontiffs: first (in the fourth century), St. Damasus, using for this the work of St. Jerome; then (in the fifth century), Gelasius in the Roman Council; then (in the sixth century), St. Gregory the Great; then (in the thirteenth century), Gregory IX, who reduced them into a briefer form; afterward (in the sixteenth century), St. Pius V; then (in the seventeenth century), Clement VIII and Urban VIII;¹⁴ and finally (in our times), Leo XIII.¹⁵

With these things having been premised, there must be explained: 1. what is the obligation (whether for Clerics, or also for Religious) of reciting the canonical Hours; 2. in what form and manner they must be recited; 3. what are the causes excusing from recitation.

2204. • Principles. I. The OBLIGATION of reciting the canonical Hours arises FROM A THREEFOLD title, namely: from the title of sacred Order, from the title of ecclesiastical Benefice, and from the title of Religion bound to choir. Thus all.

1. From the title of ORDER, Clerics constituted in Sacred Orders are bound, even those suspended and excommunicated. "For," says Benedict XIV,¹⁶ "the daily task of the canonical Hours coheres with sacred Order; and the more common opinion of theologians teaches that it was received by ancient tradition and placed in custom by immemorial usage."

This obligation begins from the Hour corresponding to the hour at which the subdiaconate was conferred; whence, if the Order is conferred at the eleventh hour in the morning, the obligation begins from Sext.¹⁷

2. From the title of BENEFICE, all beneficiaries are bound, even if only tonsured, provided they have a right in the thing or full possession of the benefice: which must not be too slight (i.e. which reaches at least a third part of support), and from which they receive or will receive fruits.¹⁸ Thus from the decree of the Fifth Lateran Council, declaring: "We establish that anyone having a benefice, if after six months, the benefice having been obtained, he has not said the divine Office, does not make the fruits his own, in proportion to the omission." But he who, after admonition, continues to omit the recitation of the Office can also be deprived of the benefice. - St. Pius V decreed besides, in the Constitution Ex proximo, that he who omits Matins restore half the part of the fruits corresponding to that day; he who omits the other Hours, the other half; but he who omits only one of the little Hours, a sixth part. - And the same must be said if someone, through several light omissions during the Office of the day, reaches grave matter. - Nor is one omitting the Office on one day excused from restitution if he supplies on another.¹⁹

But this restitution must be made before every sentence; because recitation is absolutely necessary for gaining the fruits. - Further, it must be made to the poor, or to the fabric of the church, or to the house of the benefice, or for increasing its fields. Similarly, it can be applied to Masses for the dead; because souls in purgatory are truly poor.²⁰ Nor can it be supplied by any alms which the beneficiary previously made from the fruits of his benefice, as is established from proposition 33 condemned by Alexander VII. But if someone after the omission has given alms, being either forgetful or perhaps ignorant of the restitution to be made, he can probably compute them.²¹

It is said in the decree: after six months; from which it follows that a beneficiary who neglects the Office during the first six months indeed sins gravely against religion, but not against justice, and therefore is not held to restitution.²²

Will you ASK whether a beneficiary ought to restore ALL THE FRUITS according to the Offices which he omitted? - R. A simple beneficiary, who has only the burden of wearing the habit and tonsure, must restore all the fruits. But other beneficiaries are held to restore only those fruits which correspond to the burden of the Office. "The reason is both because the bull of St. PIUS V has been received thus and has been explained thus by usage, as being more conformable to natural equity; and because it seems harsh that Bishops, pastors, and chaplains, who bear other burdens, should be obliged in the same manner as simple beneficiaries. Therefore they say that a Bishop or pastor is held to restore a third or a fourth (or, as others think, a fifth) part of the fruits, retaining the others for the other burdens which they satisfy; - Canons, half the part (and, according to some, only a fourth); those having a chaplaincy, half or a third part (for a chaplain is held to the Office, since any chaplaincy to be conferred by a Bishop, and erected by his authority, is truly a benefice, even if it is removable at will; otherwise, if it is not erected by authority of the Bishop, although it is conferred by him). The reason is that all these receive fruits not only for the Office, but also for other burdens."²³

3. From the title of RELIGION assigned to choir, all Regulars solemnly professed who come under the name of Choristers, although they have not been promoted to Orders nor are to be promoted to them, are bound under grave sin to the canonical Hours, whether publicly in choir or privately.

This obligation arises from custom already prescribed and having the force of law among Regulars assigned to choir. But the obligatory force of this custom is established both from the fact that it has been constantly observed by Regulars and by Nuns and with great inconvenience, and from the fact that Prelates have always gravely reprehended transgressors. But if, says St. Alphonsus, in some Religion it were established that there is no such custom, such an obligation would not be in it.²⁴

It was asked: "Whether Professed of simple vows, which must be premised to the profession of solemn vows according to the encyclical letters given on 19 March 1857, are held to the divine Office?" And the Sacred Congregation on the State of Regulars, at the command of Pius IX, responded, on 6 August 1858: "that they are not held to private recitation, but nevertheless must be present at Choir as those solemnly Professed."²⁵

2205. • St. Alphonsus further adverts:²⁶ 1. "No individual Religious or Nun is held under grave sin to say the Hours in choir, provided, however, that the choir is not taken away.... But paucity of religious excuses the whole Community from choir. Therefore, unless there are present at least four available ones (i.e. neither sick nor legitimately occupied), there is no obligation of choir."

2. Prelates sin gravely if from negligence they permit a notable part of the Office to be omitted in choir; because they are bound to protect and preserve regular observance.²⁷

3. Religious dwelling with permission outside the cloisters are held to the Office; likewise, if they are fugitives, or imprisoned. - But otherwise, if they have been ejected, or condemned to the galleys.¹

4. Lay brothers ought, from the prescription of the Rule, to recite certain prayers, but not under grave obligation.

2206. • II. The obligation of reciting the canonical Hours is so GRAVE that everyone upon whom this duty is incumbent sins gravely if, without legitimate cause, he omits the whole Office of one day, or a notable part of it. The reason is because he violates a precept in grave matter, namely in matter which pertains to the most excellent virtue of religion. - Yet this omission, according to the truer opinion, is not a sevenfold sin, but only one. "But if someone omitted several Hours from intentions morally interrupted, then he would commit several sins."² (cf. n. 328, Rule 32; n. 331, 3).

Furthermore, in assigning what is that notable part whose omission would be a mortal sin, there is not one opinion of all theologians. - As far as St. Alphonsus is concerned, having rejected as improbable the opinion of those who affirm that the omission of one whole little Hour is light matter, he embraces the opinion of Sanchez, who says that the matter is light whenever it does not reach the quantity of one entire little Hour. Hence it is probable that he does not sin gravely who omits all Vespers of Holy Saturday. But he sins gravely who omits one entire Nocturn, or even three Lessons with the responsories, if they are such that they equal a little Hour. - But neither would he be excused from mortal sin who recited only very little from a little Hour.³

2207. • Two things here come TO BE NOTED: 1. There is a grave obligation of reciting the Office of the Dead on the day of the Commemoration of all the dead; likewise, of reciting the Litanies on the feast-day of St. Mark and during the three days of Rogations.⁴ - 2. Today there is no obligation to recite, on the days assigned in any month, the little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Office of the Dead, the penitential Psalms, or the Gradual Psalms. Except if a custom of reciting them flourishes somewhere: which, however, does not oblige the individuals outside choir, but only the Community. Thus the Sacred Congregation of Rites, 10 January 1609.⁵

It is ASKED. What in DOUBT whether something from the Office has been OMITTED?

Resp. 1. In a STRICT doubt (i.e. negative, or positive and probable on both sides) the part about which you doubt certainly must be recited. Except if an equitable interpretation of the law, or a circumstance of fact, furnishes a legitimate excuse. Thus "the scrupulous are not to be obliged to repeat, because in these persons, for the most part, doubts are not true doubts, but empty apprehensions."

Resp. 2. In a BROAD doubt, i.e. if you have either a unique probability, as often happens, or another founded presumption that you have omitted nothing, you are not held to repeat. "Whence the Authors teach that you are well excused from repeating if you do not remember that you said something, and you have a just conjecture for believing that you said it; for example, if you remember that you began a psalm, a lesson, or an Hour, and afterward, not distracted on purpose, or not interrupted, you find yourself at the end of the Hour, reading or reciting by memory those things in which ordinarily you are not accustomed to err." - Likewise, "if ordinarily you are not accustomed to say a later Hour except after the prior one, you can prudently believe that you have omitted nothing"⁶ (cf. n. 50 and 98, 2).

2208. • The canonical Hours must be RECITED: 1. according to the prescribed form; 2. according to the due order; 3. at a suitable time and place; 4. vocally, integrally, and continuously; 5. attentively and devoutly.

Now concerning each, several things.

I. The canonical Hours must be recited ACCORDING TO THE FORM PRESCRIBED by the Church; whence:

1. The GENERAL FORM must be observed by all, according to the Constitution Quod a nobis of St. PIUS V, given on 7 July 1568, by which the Roman Breviary is prescribed for the whole Latin Church, and all other Breviaries are abolished, unless by institution or legitimate custom they precede by 200 years. Indeed, in the other Constitution Ex proximo, the Pontiff declares that those obliged to the Hours will not satisfy their duty if they use another Breviary, and therefore that Beneficiaries do not make their fruits their own. (Except if a legitimate dispensation is added.)⁷

2. The SPECIAL FORM of one's own Calendar or Directory must be observed, so that the Office is recited on any given day as it is prescribed there, even if the error seemed manifest, e.g. as regards the transfer of some Feast: according to the decision of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, 23 May 1835,⁸ in Namurcen.

But in composing the proper Calendars of dioceses, the decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites approved by URBAN VIII must absolutely be observed: where the Ordinaries of places, both secular and Regular, are forbidden, by their own authority, to change the rite placed in the Roman Calendar or Rubrics of the Breviary into a higher rite, or to extend Offices conceded for one place to another place.⁹ - Likewise, proper Offices approved by the Sacred Congregation of Rites for some diocese or for a religious Order obtain the force of law, although they have the character of a privilege. Moreover, particular Offices granted only in a permissive manner become obligatory if they have once been received by use (Sacred Congregation of Rites, 2 May 1801).

2209. • Note. 1. Regulars dwelling outside the monastery are held to the Breviary of their Order; but if they are assigned to choir and are staying in another Convent of their Order, they ought to follow the Office of that Convent; "because everywhere they are held to be present in choir."¹⁰ - 2. Canons and Beneficiaries are held to the Office of their own Church, even if they are absent from it. Likewise Masters and students dwelling in a Seminary are held to the Office of the Church attached to the Seminary, although they celebrate Mass elsewhere.¹¹ - 3. Clerics who are not beneficiaries, if they are absent from their own diocese, can conform themselves to the Office of the place where they are newcomers; but they are by no means held to this. Indeed, it is also preferable that one's own Office be retained, lest confusion arise. (Sacred Congregation of Rites, 12 November 1831, Marsorum, to 50.)¹²

2210. • II. The canonical Hours must be recited both according to the order of OFFICES and according to the order of HOURS.

A) The ORDER OF OFFICES is found either in the Calendar of Feasts of each diocese or Religion, or in the Rubrics for their transfer, where several concur at the same time. He who knowingly and without reasonable cause changes this order, by reciting for the Office of the day another Office, sins, according to the diversity of Offices, either gravely or lightly: he sins gravely if he recites a notably shorter Office, as is established from proposition 34 condemned by Alexander VII: "On Palm Sunday one reciting the paschal Office satisfies the precept"; but he sins lightly if he changes the Office into an equal or almost equal one; because he satisfies the obligation as to substance; provided, St. Alphonsus adds, that this is done rarely.¹³

But the exchange is devoid of every sin if it is made on account of a reasonable cause, for example if someone cannot easily have the proper Office, or if he recites another approved Office with a companion; "because the very association excuses, provided the Office is not notably shorter."¹⁴ And thus Chaplains and table-companions of Cardinals or Bishops can conform themselves to them in the Office. The same must be said of those who undergo spiritual exercises among Religious. But otherwise, concerning the Chaplain of Nuns, from the Decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, 21 March 1795.¹⁵

It is ASKED. What ought he to do who notices that he has ERRED in the Office?

Resp. 1. If he notices the error after the complete recitation, he is not held to repeat; because the Church is not presumed to wish to oblige someone on one day twice to this burden. - Hence the common axiom: Office for Office. Nevertheless, if the Office had been notably shorter, he ought to supply the defect: e.g. if in place of the Office of a Sunday he had recited the Office of a Saint, he ought to add nine Psalms, taking them from the first Nocturn.

Resp. 2. If he notices the error after a recitation not complete, e.g. after Matins has been recited, he can either continue, or recite the rest from the prescribed Office. This latter is to be preferred, according to that: An error is corrected where it is detected.¹⁶

Resp. 3. He who has erred cannot, on the day on which the Office already recited occurs, say the omitted Office; but he ought to recite again the one recited, so that thus he may conform himself to others. Nor can one who has omitted an Office transfer it to another day, even one not impeded. Thus the Sacred Congregation of Rites, 17 June 1673.¹⁷

2211. • B) The ORDER OF HOURS is that which is indicated in the Breviary, prescribing namely that first Matins with Lauds be recited, then the little Hours, that is, Prime, Terce, Sext, and None, and finally Vespers with Compline. Nor ought Matins of the following day to be recited before the Office of the present day has been completed.

Inversion of this order: 1. OUTSIDE CHOIR and contempt having been set aside, is only venial, even if it is done frequently; because the substance of the precept remains preserved. - Indeed, it is devoid of every fault if it is done from a reasonable cause, e.g. so that you may conform yourself to the choir, or to a friend, etc. 2. IN CHOIR, it is controverted whether it is a grave sin (and the same controversy exists concerning a change of the time of the Hours). The affirmative opinion is probable, but the negative is more probable; because there is no certainty about a grave precept.¹⁸

2212. • III. The Hours must be recited at a suitable TIME and PLACE. - For these two complete the order.

A) As regards TIME, thus formerly the Hours were recited: Matins after midnight, Lauds at dawn, Prime after sunrise, Terce in the morning at the ninth hour, Sext at midday, None at the third hour in the afternoon, Vespers at sunset, Compline at the twilight of night.¹⁹

But according to present discipline: the legitimate TIME, within the limits of which the precept obliges under grave sin, is from midnight of one day until midnight of the following day, so that before the aforesaid first limit no one is held to begin, and after the second no one can satisfy his obligation.²⁰ But each one is free in this to follow either true time, which a sundial indicates, or mean time, which public clocks signify. Thus from the Response of the Sacred Penitentiary, 18 June 1873.²¹ But the suitable TIME, which of itself obliges under light sin, unless a reasonable cause prevents it, is determined in the following manner:

1. The time of Matins, outside choir, from privilege or already prescribed custom, begins from the hour of Vespers of the preceding day (i.e. as soon as the sun becomes nearer to its setting than to midday), and lasts until the following midday. - And this likewise holds for the Office of the Dead outside choir; but not for the Litanies, which must be recited on the very day assigned.²²

But whether one satisfies by saying Matins at the SECOND HOUR after midday? - Some with the Salmanticenses affirm, saying that an anticipation of this sort, by force of a custom already introduced, is licit; but it must more truly be denied, both because there is no certainty about the aforesaid custom, and the tables which are customarily composed in various places are opposed to it; and because (if northern regions in the month of December are excepted) it is not yet the proper hour of Vespers, and therefore the ecclesiastical day has not yet begun.²³ The Holy See is indeed accustomed frequently to grant the privilege of beginning the recitation of Matins at the second hour after midday, and indeed at every time of the year; but it is accustomed to add this clause: "a reasonable cause being added."²⁴ Therefore, if a reasonable cause is lacking, if one endowed with the privilege anticipates the Office, he indeed satisfies his obligation, but he sins venially.

2. The time of the little Hours extends from dawn until midday. Yet they are licitly recited already from midnight; but None (and according to many also Sext) can be recited after midday without cause.²⁵

3. The time of Vespers and Compline (outside choir) runs from midday to midnight. But on Lenten ferias, from the first Sunday, Vespers (not Compline) can (and in choir must) be recited before the meal: in memory of the ancient discipline according to which the fast was not broken before the recitation of Vespers.²⁶

It was said above: unless a reasonable cause prevents it. But what cause must be judged REASONABLE, St. Alphonsus explains thus:²⁷ "That someone may licitly anticipate or postpone the due time of the Hours, any useful or honorable cause suffices, namely a sermon to be prepared or heard, danger of a supervening occupation or labor, greater devotion or rest, a more suitable time for studying,

and the like. Yet deservedly Concina says that mere greater convenience, without another honorable motive, does not suffice for excusing."

2213. • B) As regards PLACE, the divine Office in Cathedrals, in Collegiate churches, and in the churches of Regulars assigned to choir, must be recited publicly, in the place destined for this, or in choir. - But privately it can be recited in every place, provided the recitation is made without contempt, and provided the place is not incompatible with attention and intention.¹

It is ASKED. What concerning the POSTURE OF THE BODY in reciting?

Resp. 1. Not to observe, in choir, the posture prescribed by the Rubrics, e.g. by not standing, not genuflecting, etc., is a light irreverence, which does not exceed venial fault. - 2. Outside choir, to omit it is devoid of every fault, although it is laudable to observe it. - "Yet the Doctors think that he is not excused from venial sin who without cause would recite the Office lying in bed"; for such a posture is not free from irreverence. Otherwise, if someone recited thus because he is kept in bed by infirmity or weariness, or because he passes a sleepless night.²

2214. • IV. The canonical Hours ought to be recited WORTHILY, i.e. vocally, integrally, and continuously. And indeed by these words is expressed the DUTY OF THE MOUTH which, according to the Fourth Lateran Council, Cap. Dolentes, must be carefully fulfilled.

We said: 1. VOCALLY, and indeed distinctly: because the Office is a vocal prayer, and not purely mental. - Hence, it does not suffice to read only with the mind, or to run through with the eyes alone. Nor is it enough to recite in the throat, or between the teeth, or by syncopating, or with a stammering tongue, voluntarily abbreviating, or rushing. Yet according to the more probable opinion, it is not required that the one reciting hear himself; for, as Sylvius teaches, such an obligation is proved by no law.³

Therefore, if someone recites the Office with a companion, both ought to use such a voice that one hears the other, and the recitation ought to proceed so distinctly that neither begins his own verse until the other has completed his; for a companion cannot morally make his own what he does not hear, and accordingly he does not recite the Breviary integrally: which nevertheless is required. - Whence a deaf man, who in choir utters the versicles of his own part, but does not hear the versicles of the other part, ought to supply, by reciting softly what the others sing. - On the contrary, those who, while others are reciting, perform certain things necessary for the choir, even through an entire psalm, are not held to supply what was omitted; "for then through the companions that is supplied which perhaps they themselves do not sufficiently perceive, provided the omission is not too prolonged. - The same must be said of the organist, if he himself utters the versicles of his part."⁴

If you recite the Office with a companion who cuts off syllables, but in such a way that the sense is not notably changed: it is probable that you are not held to repeat, unless it is clear to you that the companion omitted a notable part. "Yet I would think," St. Alphonsus adds, "that you are not excused from venial sin if of your own accord you recite with such a mutilating companion, unless some cause is present, namely if you are invited by a Superior or a very grave person, or for a similar cause."⁵

We said 2. INTEGRALLY. Now to integrity belong the Pater, Ave, and Credo, at the beginning and end of the Hours, as is noted in the Rubrics. Outside choir, the antiphon of the Blessed Virgin Mary is not to be added by precept, except at the end of Lauds and Compline. - Likewise, the Confiteor and Misereatur at Prime and Compline can be recited alternately with a companion, but they ought not to be, except in choir (S. R. C., 12 November 1831 in Marsorum to 42).⁶ Nor do the prayers Aperi and Sacrosanctae belong to the integrity of the Office, though they are laudably and most usefully recited.⁷

We said 3. CONTINUOUSLY, i.e. without interruption in the same Hour, unless a reasonable cause excuses. Yet the common opinion teaches that Lauds can be separated from Matins even without any cause. But when they are separated, Matins having been finished, the Pater noster must be said (which moreover ought to be done after any Hour whatever) with the prayer of the Office of the day; but Lauds are to be begun as in the Psalter.⁸ The Nocturns can probably be separated from one another, at least for three hours, according to the ancient rite, or even for a longer time, with cause.⁹

It must be noted: 1. Among the JUST CAUSES of interrupting the Office, especially if it is long, as the Office of Sunday, St. Alphonsus counts the following: one's own or another's utility, courtesy, devotion, execution of the commands of Superiors, the hearing of the confession of someone who would not willingly wait. - You can similarly interrupt if something suddenly seems to you to need to be done or noted down, so that you may remove distraction, or so that you may not forget the matter; and a fortiori it is licit to interrupt, in order to elicit some pious affection of the heart or some little prayer. We said little prayer; for long prayers would be mixed inopportunely with the recitation of the Office.¹⁰

2. The interruption of some Hour made without reasonable cause, and prolonged for a notable time, cannot be excused from venial sin. - Yet the whole Hour is not to be repeated, although a great interval, for example a whole night, is interposed; because the individual psalms, indeed the individual verses, have a complete signification, and are sufficiently united either through the intention of continuing, or through the subsequent recitation.¹¹

2215. • V. The canonical Hours ought to be recited with ATTENTION AND DEVOTION: in which two things is contained the duty of the mind and heart.

A) As regards ATTENTION, it is certain that some attention is required in the recitation of the Office. A DOUBLE attention can be had, namely external and internal. 1. EXTERNAL attention consists in this, that nothing be done which is incompatible with the recitation: as it would be to chat, write, attentively listen to others speaking, and other things of this kind; but not to walk, wash oneself, gather herbs, flowers, set the fire, make the bed, comb the head, look at a hill, a river, etc., since such actions, of themselves, do not exclude attention to other things. Thus commonly with Navarro, Suarez, etc. "But Bonacina rightly adverts that some actions, with respect to one person, perhaps are distractive, but with respect to another are not."¹²

2. INTERNAL attention is placed in the application of the mind to that which is being done; and this can be threefold, namely: to the words only, that they may be duly pronounced; to the sense of the words, that they may be rightly understood; and finally to God or to divine things, so that the mind and thought of the one reciting are fixed either upon God himself, or upon his attributes, or upon the mysteries of the Lord's Passion, or upon the deeds of the Virgin Mother of God or of the Saints.¹³

With these things having been premised, THREE things are to be established as certain: 1. He who, while reciting the divine Office, does not have at least external attention, does not satisfy his obligation: whence, a Beneficiary voluntarily distracted in this way is held to restitution; because he certainly does not make his fruits his own. Thus all.¹⁴ - 2. He who cares nothing about internal attention sins at least venially; because he acts irreverently toward God¹⁵ (cf. n. 372, 6). - 3. Attention to the words suffices, with the general intention of worshipping God.¹⁶

2216. • It is ASKED. Whether INTERNAL attention is required under grave obligation?

Resp. 1. Very many indeed deny it with St. Antoninus and St. Thomas, teaching that it is true prayer which is made with the intention of praying and external attention. - The reason is both because prayer, according to St. Damascene, is a petition of fitting things from God: but it is not repugnant that our petitions can be represented by us to God even with an actual wandering of the mind; and because, if internal attention were of the essence of prayer, not even one involuntarily distracted would satisfy his obligation; for once the essence of a thing has been destroyed, although inculpably, the thing itself is destroyed. This opinion appears sufficiently probable, so that a Beneficiary, relying upon it, is not held to restore fruits received in good faith.

Resp. 2. But the more common and more probable opinion affirms it; because without internal attention prayer cannot consist, which is generally defined: the elevation of the mind to God; whence, by the very fact that the Church prescribes prayer, she also prescribes internal attention. And with this opinion there seem to harmonize both the words of the Lord, complaining about the Jews (Matt. 15:8): "This people honors me with lips: but their heart is far from me"; and the words of Trent, prescribing (sess. 24, cap. 12) that: "All (namely Canons) be compelled to perform the divine Offices... and in choir... reverently, distinctly, and devoutly to praise the name of God with hymns and canticles."¹⁷

But St. Alphonsus NOTES that even if this latter opinion is held, two things nevertheless are required in order that someone be said not to satisfy the Office: namely, that he distract himself voluntarily, and then that he fully notice his distraction. - It is said that he fully notice it; for the Doctors commonly hold that one reciting does not sin in any way if, when he notices the distraction, he uses moderate diligence for attending to the recitation. But if he half-fully notices the distraction, and does not retract it, he indeed sins venially; but he substantially satisfies the Office, since the first will of attending always perseveres, as long as it has not been revoked with full advertence.¹⁸

2217. • B) As regards PIETY or devotion, at least that is required and prescribed by which the recitation of the Office becomes an act of religion. - Hence he would not satisfy the precept who read the Hours in order to acquire knowledge for himself, to accommodate himself to a friend, etc.; for the intention of praying is necessary, not indeed actual and explicit, but virtual and implicit: which then is already had when, according to custom, the breviary is taken up so that the precept may be fulfilled¹⁹ (cf. n. 213).

The things we have said are valid concerning the bare observation of the PRECEPT. - But St. Alphonsus earnestly commends this to all, that they pay the divine Office with the greatest ardor of piety, extolling its EXCELLENCE with these praises: "A hundred private prayers cannot have so great a price as one prayer of the divine Office includes; because this is offered to the Lord in the name of the whole Church, with the words of God himself.... Let us firmly persuade ourselves that, after the most holy Sacrifice of the Mass, no more precious treasure is found in the Church than the divine Office, from which daily we can draw rivers of graces."²⁰

But that this desirable piety, and due attention, may always accompany the recitation of the Office, the COUNSELS which the holy Doctor supplies in these words will help not a little: "1. At the beginning to form the intention of praising God; - 2. to renew the intention at the Gloria Patri, or at the beginning of each psalm; - 3. to represent to oneself some mystery of the Passion; - 4. carefully to guard the senses, and other things of this sort."²¹

2218. • The principal causes which EXCUSE from the recitation of the divine Office are the following THREE: 1. impotence, 2. charity toward the neighbor, 3. dispensation.²²

I. IMPOTENCE, whether physical or moral, excuses, because no one is held to the impossible. He who can recite a part is held to perform that; indeed, if the part is as great as a little Hour, he is held under grave obligation; for the obligation is divisible, as is established from proposition 54 condemned by Innocent XI (cf. n. 224). - But if the part which you can recite does not reach the matter of a little Hour, "not even under venial sin are you obliged to recite anything; because such a slight part, taken separately, is not judged appreciable for the end intended by the law."²³

Hence: 1. Those laboring under grave illness are excused; likewise, those convalescing from grave illness (for some days, at the judgment of a prudent man) until their strength is restored; and this must be admitted even if they celebrated Mass, or read some book of recreation. - He who is certain that, on account of infirmity, he cannot recite the whole Office, and doubts whether he can recite a part, is excused from the whole Office, lest namely he be distressed by scruples, not knowing how far he can and is held to recite. The reason is because, in doubts of this sort, the natural law of preserving health prevails, and fear of grave harm is already a grave cause (cf. n. 223).²⁴

2. He is excused who in a time of persecution fears lest, from the recitation of the Breviary, he be betrayed.²⁵

3. He is not excused who lacks the Roman Breviary, and has another at hand, for example Benedictine or the like; because by either one the substance of the precept can be fulfilled. And this, St. Alphonsus says, is the more pious, reasonable, and to-be-followed opinion. - Likewise, if, having the common Office and not the proper Office of that day, you are held to say the Hours from the common, as Croix with others more truly thinks.²⁶

4. A blind man is not excused who knows by memory either the whole Office, or a notable part of it; but he is not held to commit to memory what he does not know, because this would be a means extrinsic to the precept. - On the contrary, one not able to recite alone is held to use a companion, if he can use him without his own grave inconvenience; because the use of a companion, in such a case, is judged an ordinary means of fulfilling the precept. - We said without his own grave inconvenience; because if a companion who would recite with you does not readily occur, or if you ought to pay him a stipend, you are not held to a means of this sort, extraordinary, unless you are a Beneficiary and wish to make your fruits certain.²⁷

2219. • II. CHARITY excuses, that is, a grave occupation which cannot be omitted without scandal or notable detriment of the neighbor. The reason is because the natural precept of charity prevails over ecclesiastical law (cf. n. 682).

Hence a priest is EXCUSED, either totally or partially: 1. if through the whole day he receives confessions which he cannot defer; - 2. if unexpectedly he is summoned to a dying person, and afterward no time remains which he might spend on recitation; - 3. if he is held to prepare hastily a sacred sermon which he cannot omit without scandal or reproach; - 4. if he is occupied the whole day in settling quarrels or assisting the sick, e.g. in time of plague.²⁸

2220. • III. DISPENSATION granted by legitimate power excuses. The reason is because what is of ecclesiastical law can be taken away by ecclesiastical power.²⁹ Furthermore, dispensation is validly granted: 1. by the Supreme Pontiff in every case, even without cause; 2. by the Bishop

(or by a Regular Prelate, with respect to his own subjects); but only from a just cause, with someone in particular, and for a brief time. But a cause of dispensing exists when there is doubt about moral impotence, when recourse to the Pope is difficult, when dispensation is sought on account of a motive which recurs frequently, e.g. on account of infirmity. And the Vicar General himself can do this, provided he has received a special mandate from the Bishop.¹

In Germany, and in distant regions, Bishops generally possess a more ample power. For there, by force of quinquennial faculties, they can grant to clerics that, in place of the divine Office, they recite the Rosary or other prayers, in the case in which they would not be able to carry the Breviary with them, or would be impeded by another cause.

2221. • Questions. ASK 1. Whether he who foresees an impediment is held to ANTICIPATE the recitation?

Resp. 1. If he foresees it on the preceding day, he is not held to anticipate Matins with Lauds; because the obligation of the precept has not yet begun, whence he is not held to use a privilege. - 2. If he foresees it on the day itself of the obligation, and can anticipate without great difficulty, he is held to this; because the precept presses for the whole day, and for any part of it; and therefore, within the latitude of the whole day, it must be fulfilled, namely at the time at which it can be done.²

ASK 2. What IN DOUBT, whether the cause of exemption is sufficient or not?

Resp. 1. In doubt whether the recitation will bring grave inconvenience upon you, you are not held to recite, as we have already said (n. 2218. Hence 1). - 2. In doubt whether you are excused in another way, e.g. by reason of labor, journey, charity to be exercised, etc., you are held to recite, unless a uniquely probable reason, or probable judgment, stands in your favor. But in this case it is better to remit the matter to the judgment of a prudent man, and especially to the judgment of the Superior, who can dispense in doubt.

2222. • I. All Clerics are held, from canon law, to carry TONSURE and the CLERICAL HABIT. This is established especially from the Council of Trent,³ which nevertheless left it to the judgment of Bishops to determine what garment is congruent. Therefore in this matter one must stand by the various decrees of places.⁴

Furthermore: 1. Beneficiary Clerics or those constituted in Sacred Orders sin gravely who for a notable time lay aside clerical dress, or who from contempt neglect to carry the crown and shorn hair. But what is to be understood here by a notable time cannot easily be defined. The Authors commonly do not condemn of mortal sin a priest who would go about without tonsure for six or eight weeks; but they say that one going about without clerical dress more easily sins mortally, on account namely of the scandal which, especially in certain regions, would arise from such insolence.⁵

2. Clerics constituted in minor Orders do not sin gravely if they neglect to carry the habit or tonsure. Thus commonly the Doctors. Indeed, from the bull Pastoralis of Sixtus V (31 January 1589), he is excused from every fault who receives neither a pension nor other ecclesiastical goods exceeding the value of 60 ducats annually.

2223. • II. Clerics, even those constituted in Sacred Orders, are excused who lay aside the habit either FOR A BRIEF TIME, or FROM A JUST CAUSE of concealing themselves, e.g. to avert some grave harm.⁶ - And hence it is that in certain regions, as in England and in the federated States of America, clerics, from the prudent concession of Bishops, neither wear the crown nor ever carry the cassock in public.

It is ASKED. What PENALTIES do Clerics not wearing the clerical habit incur?

Resp. 1. If they are in Sacred Orders or beneficed, and after the third admonition of the Bishop they do not amend themselves, they immediately lose the privilege of forum and canon⁷ (cf. n. 2234). - Indeed, "if, after they have been warned by their Bishop, they have not carried the habit..., they ought to be coerced through suspension from orders and office, and from benefice and fruits...; and also, if once corrected they offend again in this, even through deprivation of offices and benefices." Thus Trent, sess. 14, cap. 6, de Ref.

Resp. 2. If they are in minor Orders, and neither serve some church by command of the Bishop, nor by his permission are engaged in some school, they lose the privilege of forum even without any admonition.⁸ But where a Cleric, from the disposition of law, loses the privilege of forum, he also loses ipso facto all other clerical privileges, so that he must be considered as a lay person.⁹ Thus from the Declaration of the Sacred Congregation of IMMUNITY, made on 20 September 1860, which nevertheless, according to certain Authors, extends itself only to clerics of the Pontifical Dominion.¹⁰

§ 1. Those who have been devoted to the divine ministries by at least the first tonsure are called clerics.

§ 2. Not all are in the same grade, but among them there is a sacred hierarchy in which some are subordinated to others.

§ 3. By divine institution the sacred hierarchy, by reason of order, consists of Bishops, priests, and ministers; by reason of jurisdiction, of the supreme pontificate and the subordinate episcopate; but by the institution of the Church other grades also have been added (Can. 108).

§ 1. Every cleric must be ascribed either to some diocese or to some religion, so that wandering clerics are in no way admitted (Can. 111). Clerics alone can obtain the power either of order or of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and ecclesiastical benefices and pensions (Can. 118).

Among the obligations common to all clerics, some are positive and some negative; namely, some things are prescribed to all clerics and some things are forbidden. Something will be said briefly concerning each kind of obligation, and first concerning the positive.

I say. Clerics ought to lead an interior and exterior life holier than laymen, and to excel them in virtue and right deeds as an example (Can. 124). Although the necessity of this holiness does not properly need proof, nevertheless it is useful here to set forth whence it is gathered.

1st. From the nature of the clerical state. Most holy is the ministry of clerics, since they are always applied, proximately or at least remotely, to sacred things, to conferring the sacraments upon the faithful, to solemnly rendering the divine praises in the name of the Church, to teaching the Christian people concerning the way of eternal salvation, and also to celebrating the most holy sacrifice of the Mass. For why have clerics and priests been constituted in the Church? That they may be, as the Gospel bears witness, the salt of the earth and the light of the world. Moreover they cannot be such unless they shine forth with distinguished and splendid holiness of morals. Not only the sublimity and excellence of the offices to be fulfilled, but also the garments with which the cleric is clothed cry out that he ought to profess holiness. Hence St. Jerome says, Epistle 58: "The garment cries out, the state cries out, the profession of the mind cries out holiness."

2nd. From Scripture. Thus concerning the priests of the old law the Lord said, Lev. xxi, 6: "They shall be holy to their God, and shall not pollute his name; for they offer the incense of the Lord and the bread of their God, and therefore they shall be holy." Likewise in Isaiah, lii, 11, it is said: "Be cleansed, you who bear the vessels of the Lord." Moreover, if such holiness of life was required in priests who offered oxen and sheep and other animals to God, what will be required in those who sacrifice the divine Lamb himself? And if such cleanness was required in those who bore the vessels of the Lord, how much purer must it be in those in whose hands the Lord himself is borne?

3rd. From the Fathers and Doctors of the Church. Thus St. Chrysostom, Hom. 10, on I Epistle to Timothy: "The priest ought to have an immaculate life, so that all may look upon him as upon some excellent exemplar; for therefore God has chosen us, that we may be as lights and teachers of the rest, and live on earth as Angels." St. Thomas, Suppl. q. 35, art. 1, ad 3: "The suitable execution of Orders requires, not goodness of just any sort, but excellent goodness, so that just as those who receive Order are constituted above the people by the grade of Order, so also they may be superior by the merit of holiness."

4th. From Councils. They are innumerable both in canon law and concerning the holiness of clerics, which also are confirmed by very many Councils. Let the few words of the Council of Trent suffice. The solemn decree, sess. 22, cap. 1, de Reformat., reads thus: "Thus it is altogether fitting that clerics called into the lot of the Lord should so compose their life and all their morals, that in habit, gesture, gait, speech, and all other things they present before themselves nothing except grave, moderate, and religion-full things."

And from the Plenary Council of Baltimore II, n. 152: "Wherever they may be, priests should bear before themselves, both in gait and gesture, and in their very countenance and voice, the modesty and gravity which befit them. Excessive elevation of voice, immoderate laughter, scurrilous jokes, and finally whatever is an indication of a mind not well composed, let them avoid with the greatest zeal." These same things are confirmed, and many other things added, by the Baltimore Fathers, Plen. Council III, nn. 74 et seq.

Let the oath against Modernism, "the profession of Faith having been premised according to the formula prescribed by Our predecessor Pius IV of holy memory, with the definitions of the Vatican Council added, they shall give to their own prelate," thus Pius X: "1st. Clerics to be initiated into major orders, to each one of whom beforehand let there be handed a copy both of the profession of faith and of the formula for making the oath, so that they may accurately know them beforehand, with the sanction for violation of the oath added. 2nd. Priests destined for receiving confessions and sacred preachers, before they are endowed with the faculty of exercising those duties. 3rd. Pastors, Canons, Beneficiaries, before entering upon possession of the benefice. 4th. Officials in episcopal curias and ecclesiastical tribunals, not excepting the Vicar General and judges. 5th. Those chosen to hold sermons during the time of Quadragesima. 6th. All officials in Roman Congregations or tribunals, before the Cardinal Prefect or the secretary of the same, whether of the congregation or of the tribunal. 7th. Moderators and Doctors of religious families and Congregations before they enter upon Office"; Professors in seminaries and scholasticates must repeat the oath year by year.

Those who refuse or violate the oath are to be reported to the S. Office. - Motu Proprio, Sacrorum Antistitum, 1 Sept. 1910.

Confessors approved by their Ordinary, outside their own diocese, can be admitted to hear confessions even for some more or less long space of time, without being compelled again to take the anti-modernist oath. S. C. Cons. 20 June 1913. The prescriptions concerning the Vigilance Councils and the anti-modernist oath, after the feast day of Pentecost 1918, will continue to remain in force until the Apostolic See shall have established otherwise concerning this matter. S. C. S. Off. 22 March 1918.

Question. Can a Bishop oblige a priest of his diocese to administer sacraments in a place in which such a function would induce danger?

Resp. Affirmatively, for priests are ordained in a diocese for its utility and necessity; and therefore he can by his command compel priests free from incompatible offices to relieve souls constituted in necessity. They promise obedience to their Bishop in ordination so that they may dedicate themselves to the spiritual good of the diocese. Besides, among us a priest can scarcely be found who would even think about the danger. - Cf. Nouv. Rev. Théol., v. 46, p. 244.^1

^1 Cf. Addenda, p. 1087, n. 6.

I say. All clerics receiving sacred Orders, by that very fact contract the obligation of ecclesiastical celibacy. It is established from canon law: Clerics constituted in major orders are barred from nuptials and are held by the obligation of preserving chastity in such a way that those sinning against it are also guilty of sacrilege, with the prescription of can. 214, §1 (Can. 132, §1) being safe. Indeed a major cleric reduced to the lay state is held by the obligation of celibacy, with the prescription of can. 214 being safe, concerning a cleric who, coerced by grave fear, received sacred order and then was legitimately reduced to the lay state. Cf. Can. 212, §2. Likewise from the Council of Trent, sess. 24, can. 9, where it is defined thus: "If anyone says that clerics constituted in sacred Orders, or regulars who have solemnly professed chastity, can contract marriage, and that the contract is valid, notwithstanding ecclesiastical law or vow, let him be anathema."

Question 1. Is the obligation of celibacy of divine law?

Resp. Negatively, according to the common opinion; but it is from mere ecclesiastical institution, namely from the force of the precept of the Church or also from the vow annexed to sacred Orders. The reason is that the existence of such a divine law is proved by no testimony, whether written or handed down, while on the contrary not a few places of the Sacred Canons prove the existence of ecclesiastical law, and especially that place from the Council of Trent related above, where it is said: "Notwithstanding ecclesiastical law." Therefore . . . § 2. Clerics constituted in minor orders can, indeed, contract marriage, but unless they have been coerced by force or grave fear, by that very right they fall from the clerical state (Can. 132). - Cf. St. Alphonsus, de Sacram. Ordin., n. 807.

Question 2. Does the obligation of celibacy proceed immediately from the precept of the Church or mediately, namely from the vow which really, although tacitly, is emitted in the ordination itself?

Resp. Some probably thought that the obligation of celibacy is from ecclesiastical law alone, and that no vow properly so called is emitted in ordination. This opinion, which also today has patrons, as it seems, arises from the doctrine of certain ancients wrongly understood; but the more common and true opinion holds that this obligation arises from vow, inasmuch as the Church commands clerics both chastity and, at the same time, the mode of professing chastity, namely from vow. - Cf. Baller., note (b), p. 30.

Question 3. Is the obligation of celibacy universal in the Church?

Resp. Some exception is given from the tolerance of the Church among the Orientals. For in the oriental Church, priests indeed can never enter marriage after priestly ordination or even after the diaconate; but those married before the diaconate can be advanced to further Orders, and nevertheless have intercourse with their wives. Bishops, however, are excepted, who all ought constantly to preserve perfect chastity. But among the Greeks subdiaconate is not numbered among sacred Orders. Hence the precept of chastity is imposed on unmarried clerics in the ordination of the diaconate.

Question 4. Is he who expressly does not wish to vow chastity held to chastity?

Resp. Affirmatively; if not from vow, since no one is compelled to be bound by vow unwillingly, certainly from the precept of the Church, which by motive of religion binds him to chastity when the vow is lacking. Others hold that he is bound to emit the vow of chastity; but no one doubts that the Church can oblige him to this. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 809.

Question 5. Whether or when can a married man, his wife living, receive sacred Orders?

Resp. Affirmatively, provided the permission of the Apostolic See is added. For such a one is simply impeded; indeed a married man who without Apostolic dispensation has received major orders, even in good faith, is prohibited from the exercise of the same orders. Cf. Can. 987, §2; 132, §3.

I say. §1. Let all clerics wear a becoming ecclesiastical habit according to the legitimate customs of places and the prescriptions of the Ordinary of the place; let them wear the tonsure or clerical crown, unless the received customs of peoples bear otherwise, and let them employ a simple care of the hair.

§2. Let them not use a ring, unless this has been conceded to them by law or by apostolic privilege.

§3. Minor clerics who by their own authority, without legitimate cause, have put aside the ecclesiastical habit and tonsure, and, having been warned by the Ordinary, have not amended themselves within a month, fall by the law itself from the clerical state (Can. 136).

Question. What is specially prescribed in this matter for our priests?

Resp. These things were established by the Plenary Council of Baltimore II, n. 148: "We wish that they [priests] observe the law of the Church, and that while acting at home or in church, they always use the cassock, which is proper to a cleric. When they go out for the sake of office or recreation of mind or on a journey, it is licit to be clothed in a somewhat shorter garment, which nevertheless is to be black in color and extend below the knees. Let them despise and reject certain more becoming and more elegant forms of garments, which are newly invented day by day, since even the more serious among secular men shrink from these. Yet let them be mindful of their dignity, and not present themselves by clothing and habit as rough and uncultivated. St. Charles, that outstanding restorer and vindicator of sacred discipline, warns that in clerical habit there should appear neither too carefully sought elegance of adornment, nor too abject negligence and affected filth."

But the Fathers of the Plenary Council of Baltimore III, n. 77, after they had again confirmed and inculcated those things, add the following: "By strict precept we enjoin upon our priests that, both at home and outside, whether they live in their own diocese or outside it, they wear the collar which is called Roman. And because the reason of the ecclesiastical law concerning the dress of clerics is no less valid concerning regulars than seculars, regular priests also are held by the law of using either the Roman collar or clothing suitable for distinguishing clerics from laymen, whenever, having set aside the habit proper to their own order, they go out."

Clerics constituted in major orders, excepting those of whom in can. 213, 214, are held by the obligation of reciting the canonical hours daily according to their own and approved liturgical books (Can. 135). In the two canons mentioned there is question of those legitimately reduced or to be reduced to the lay state. The canonical hours are called a collection of prayers and lessons to be recited at certain hours, on individual days, by persons deputed to this. Hence they are also called: 1st. the divine office, because they are recited in honor of God; 2nd. the ecclesiastical office, because they are discharged in the name of the Church; 3rd. the canonical office, because they must be recited according to the rules of the Canons; 4th. Breviary, because that Office is a compendium of the Old and New Testament, and also of the sentences of the Fathers and the life of the Saints.

In the course of times the form and quantity of the Breviary was varied. The Council of Trent, sess. 25 at the end, commanded that a new reform of the Roman Breviary be made. St. Pius V corrected it, increased it with some additions, and by the Constitution Quod a nobis, on 7 July 1568, prohibited all other Breviaries which by institution or legitimate custom did not exceed 200 years.

This Roman Breviary, corrected at repeated times, was finally reformed by Pius X in his Constitution Divino Afflatu, issued 1 Nov. 1911.

"Therefore by the authority of these letters, before all things we abolish the order of the Psalter, such as it is in the Roman Breviary today, and we altogether forbid its use from the Kalends of January of the year one thousand nine hundred and thirteen. But from that day, in all churches of the secular and regular Clergy, in monasteries, orders, congregations, and institutes of religious, by all and each who, from office or from custom, discharge the canonical Hours according to the Roman Breviary edited by St. Pius V and revised by Clement VIII, Urban VIII, and Leo XIII, we command the new order of the Psalter, such as We have approved with its Rules and Rubrics and have decreed to be published by the Vatican types, to be religiously observed. At the same time we denounce the penalties established in law against those who have failed in their office of discharging the canonical Hours daily; and indeed let them know that they will not satisfy so grave an office unless they employ this order of Our Psalter."

Therefore all who are obligated to recite the divine office according to the Roman Breviary edited by St. Pius are bound to observe "the norms for discharging the canonical Hours prescribed in the Constitution Divino Afflatu and in other dispositions of the Apostolic See." S. C. R., 11 June 1913; 23 Jan. 1912; Motu Proprio, Abhinc duos annos, 23 Oct. 1913; S. C. R., 28 Oct. 1913, 14 Jan. 1914. Therefore the ancient order of the Psalter has been abolished and its use forbidden; the Psalter according to the new order is obligatory, and indeed for this reason, that if someone observes the other order, he does not satisfy his office. Indeed if someone has obtained a pontifical indult of retaining the old order of the Psalter for private recitation of the Hours, it is not licit for him "at pleasure to follow either order of the Psalter, employing now the old, now the new, according to his own convenience"; but he ought "to recite for each Hour," as Pius X himself decreed, "all the psalms and the remaining things according as they are distributed in the Roman Breviary edited by St. Pius V and revised by Clement VIII, likewise Urban VIII, and Leo XIII, yet with the new order or Calendar observed daily according to the aforesaid Apostolic Constitution (Divino Afflatu) and the rules or rubrics annexed to the same, prescribed for the diocese, chapter, or clergy to which each is ascribed, and with firm abolition of the general indult given on 5 July 1883 for Votive Offices." - S. C. of the Council, 10 March 1913.

The whole divine Office is divided into seven Hours, namely Matins with Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline.

I say 1st. Those obligated to recite the canonical Hours daily are: 1st. all clerics constituted in sacred orders, even suspended and excommunicated; 2nd. all beneficed persons who have a right in the thing and full dominion of the benefice; 3rd. §1. In religions whether of men or of women, in which there is an obligation of choir, in individual houses where there are at least four religious bound to choir and actually not legitimately impeded, and even fewer if the constitutions so provide, according to the norm of the constitutions the divine office must daily be discharged in common (Can. 610).

I say 2nd. This obligation, which indeed is grave, is affixed to the day, so that in no way can satisfaction be made to it on another day; therefore, from the mind of the Church, it ceases with the day assigned to it, and therefore is usually called the burden of the day. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 146.

Question 1. What is grave matter in the omission of the Office?

Resp. Theologians most commonly agree that the omission of one little Hour, or of Compline, or of a part of the Nocturns equivalent at least to the quantity of one little Hour, is a notable part and therefore a mortal sin; but the omission of a smaller part does not exceed venial sin. Yet this does not import that several mortal sins are committed if, with the case of retracting an evil will excluded, several notable parts are omitted, because the whole Office falls under one precept. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, nn. 147 et seq. - Lacroix, lib. 4, n. 1201.

It is light to omit Vespers of Holy Saturday.

Question 2. Are Religious destined to choir, if for a just cause they do not come to choir, bound under grave sin to recite the Office privately?

Resp. Affirmatively. In religions whether of men or of women in which there is an obligation of choir, solemnly professed who were absent from choir must, excepting conversi, recite the canonical hours privately. Cf. Can. 610, §3. Professed of temporary vows of whom in can. 574: where the obligation of choir is in force, they are not bound by the law of privately reciting the divine office, unless they are constituted in sacred orders or the constitutions expressly prescribe otherwise. Cf. Can. 578.

Question 3. Does a Religious sin gravely who recites the Office privately, when he can easily be present at choir?

Resp. Negatively, because the obligation of choir, although it is grave for the community, is nevertheless held light for private individuals, provided that the choir is not wholly taken away. But four free persons, or persons capable of sustaining choir, suffice for choir. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 143.

Question 4. Are those obligated to the Office bound to supply those things which they omit in choir because of functions of choir, for example, by ringing bells or playing organs, or by seeking Psalms, and other similar things?

Resp. Negatively, and the reason is that omission in choir, provided it is not too great, is supplied by the companions. Thus he satisfies who, while others recite, coughs, etc., and probably also if an entire Psalm is said meanwhile. But a fortiori he is not bound to repeat who has not heard some things of the opposite side. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 143.

Question 5. Is there still given an obligation of reciting the Gradual Psalms, the little office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the office of the dead?

Resp. Negatively, because they do not oblige those reciting privately, nor do they now oblige even for choir. "The obligation likewise ceases of reciting in choir, on the days prescribed by the Rubrics hitherto in force, the little office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the office of the dead, and also the Gradual and Penitential Psalms. But chapters which from a peculiar constitution or legacy are held to those added Offices will obtain their commutation from the Holy See." - Const. Divino Afflatu, tit. VIII, 2.

Question 6. Are those obligated to the Office bound under grave sin to recite the Litanies on the feast of St. Mark and the triduum of Rogations?

Resp. Affirmatively. "On the Feast of St. Mark and in the Triduum of Rogations, the burden of reciting the Litanies of the Saints remains entire, even outside choir." Const. Divino Afflatu, tit. VIII, 3. But neither in choir nor outside choir can they be anticipated in the evening. Rubr. Brev.

Question 7. Are Nuns who are obligated to recite the office of the Blessed Virgin Mary bound under grave sin to recite it?

Resp. Negatively, if there is question of those Nuns who are neither destined to choir nor are Nuns strictly so called, as, for example, Sisters of Mercy. Indeed, not only are they not bound under grave sin, but neither under light sin, of themselves, because the obligation of reciting the office of the B. V. M. among Nuns of this sort comes from a rule which does not oblige under sin. - But if there is question of Nuns of the Visitation, who are certainly destined to choir and generally also emit solemn vows, a distinction must be made between those who in fact, among us, have emitted solemn vows and those who have pronounced only simple vows; and it must be said that the former are held under grave sin, but not the latter. For to the Bishop of Le Mans asking: "Are Nuns in general strictly obligated under grave sin by force of their profession to recitation of the divine Office proper to their Institute?" the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars responded on 19 Apr. 1844: "Affirmatively with regard to Nuns professed of solemn vows according to a rule approved by the Apostolic See in which this kind of burden is imposed. But if such a burden is not imposed in the rules, let him consult approved authors in relation to the obligation which can arise from custom. But where the vows are simple, they are not held." But which Nuns among us emit solemn vows will be said below.

Many others judge that the obligation is not grave, or at least that this is not established. For under the name of divine office come the canonical Hours strictly so called. Cf. Vives, 484, 2. - Bucceroni, n. 116. - Bizzari, p. 72, 495. - Vermeersch, De Relig. Inst., v. 1, n. 316. - Ferreres, v. 2, n. 50. - Bulot, v. 2, n. 69.

Question 8. If someone doubts whether he has omitted something in the Office, is he bound to recite it?

Resp. Negatively, if the doubt is positive, that is, if he probably judges that he has satisfied, as is established from the things said concerning probabilism. St. Alphonsus said that this opinion is most common, although afterward in the Reformed Questions he retracted it. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 150; and QQ. reform., elen. 2, n. 1. - Baller., note (c), p. 38.

Hence you are well excused from repeating the Office if you do not remember that you said something, and you have a just conjecture for believing that you said it; suppose, if you remember that you began a Psalm or some Lesson or Hour, and afterward, distracted, came to the end of the Psalm, Lesson, or Hour without remembering whether you recited it whole; for the presumption favors you, because you are accustomed to recite integrally those things whose recitation you have begun. Likewise, if you have come to some Hour, for example Sext, and you doubt whether you recited the preceding one, you can hold the same decision, because you are not accustomed to recite the later Hour unless you first premised the earlier one, and therefore you can prudently believe that you omitted nothing.

I say 1st. The time predetermined for fulfilling the entire recitation of the Office begins from midnight and ends at the following midnight, so that anyone who recites the whole Office within this time, at whatever hour he satisfies such a duty, must always be exempted from grave sin. Indeed Matins and Lauds, by a privilege conceded by the Church, can be recited the day before toward evening; nevertheless no one is bound to use this privilege, even if he foresees an impediment to reciting the Office on the very day of obligation. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 172.

I say 2nd. Formerly the Hours were recited thus: Matins after midnight, Lauds at dawn, Prime after sunrise, Terce at the ninth hour of the morning, Sext at midday, None at the third hour of the afternoon, Vespers at sunset, Compline at the twilight of night. Hence a cleric ordained subdeacon is bound only to reciting the Hours corresponding to the time of ordination. Therefore if ordination is made before the ninth hour of the morning, he will be bound to recite Terce, but not the preceding Hours. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 140.

I say 3rd. But today, by custom and the consensus of theologians, the little Hours can be recited at whatever morning time; indeed the two prior ones, namely Prime and Terce, not only can but also ought to be recited before midday. Vespers and Compline are recited from midday until midnight. In Lent, however, Vespers can be recited before midday, on account of the ancient discipline according to which the fast was not broken before recitation of Vespers; but afterward in the course of times, when the hour of dinner was anticipated to midday, the hour of Vespers also began to be anticipated. From this it is also clear why Sundays are excepted, namely because on those days the fast is not observed. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, Hom. Ap., Append. 3, n. 74.

Question 1. Whether and what sort of obligation is present of reciting Matins and Lauds before Mass?

Resp. It seems certain that some obligation is present, as is drawn both from the Constitution of Innocent IV, year 1254, and from the Rubric of the Missal, Tit. I, de Praepar. Sacerd. celebraturi, and especially Tit. X, de defect. - But it is commonly taught that such obligation is light, and that any moderate reasonable cause excuses from it; no otherwise than, with any useful or honorable cause intervening, someone will be able wholly licitly to recite either Vespers and Compline at morning time, or Matins and Lauds, Prime and Terce at evening time. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 173; and de Euchar., n. 347. - Benedict XIV, de Sacr. Missae, lib. 3, cap. 13.

Question 2. At what hour is it licit to begin the recitation of Matins on the evening of the preceding day, according to the privilege related above?

Resp. In private recitation of the Office, Matins for the following day can be begun at the second hour of the afternoon, nor is it required that the order of the diocesan Directory table be observed; but it cannot be begun at the same hour in public or choral recitation. The hour of reciting Matins can be counted indiscriminately from the local meridian circle, or from the official meridian circle called "Greenwich." - Decr. Authen. R. S. C. R., n. 4158. Cf. Can. 33.

Question 3. At what hour can the recitation of Vespers be begun in the morning during Lent?

Resp. The Salmanticenses say that Vespers in Lent can be recited from the eleventh hour, or one hour before midday. But the general rule is that Vespers can be recited privately at the same hour at which they are customarily recited in choir. Moreover, in choir they must be recited after the conventual Mass and None. But the hour of conventual Mass depends on the custom of places. Besides, there is no obligation present of reciting Vespers before midday, but it is a mere privilege which no one is bound to use. But Compline does not enjoy the aforesaid privilege; whence even through Lent it must be recited after midday. - Cf. Salmant., tract. 16, cap. 3, n. 15.

I say. There is a twofold order to be observed in the recitation of the Breviary, namely the order of Offices and the order of Hours. The order of Offices is described in the calendar of feasts and in the rubrics for their translation where several occur together. But the order of Hours is that which is set forth in the Breviary, namely that first Matins with Lauds be recited, then the little Hours be joined, that is Prime, Terce, Sext, None, and finally Vespers with Compline follow.

Question 1. Does he satisfy the precept of reciting the Hours who, from error or inadvertence, recites another Office for the Office of the day?

Resp. Affirmatively, and the reason is that the Church is not presumed to wish to oblige someone twice in one day to this burden, and because the substance of recitation has been sufficiently preserved. Hence the common axiom, which is held as a kind of rule in these circumstances: Office is valid for Office. Therefore there is no obligation, once recitation has been completed, of reciting another Office. Yet it is counsel, not obligation, to join the proper parts of the omitted Office. But now it must be observed that that general principle, Office for Office, must be understood according to the dispositions of the Constitution Divino Afflatu; and therefore it does not hold if someone follows the suppressed order of the Psalter, but it does hold if he observes the new one.

Question 2. If someone from error has recited only some part of an undue Office, and notices the error, can he continue the Office begun, or rather is he bound to recite the remaining things from the Office of the day?

Resp. According to the common opinion of theologians, liberty is given. Therefore he can either continue or recite the remaining things from the due Office, yet with the Psalm or prayer finished. Nevertheless it is better to change the Office, according to many, who establish this rule: Error is corrected where it is detected. Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 161. - Lacroix, lib. 4, n. 1255.

Question 3. When you have already said one Office for another, can you recite the omitted Office on the day on which the Office already recited by you will occur?

Resp. Negatively, but the Office recited must be recited again, because there is present an obligation, although light, of conforming oneself with the common rite of the Church. St. Alphonsus says this more probably, but it must be held as morally certain from the decree of the S. R. Congregation on 17 June 1673, Authentic Decrees, n. 1474.

Question 4. Whether or how one sins who knowingly recites another Office for the Office of the day?

Resp. He commits no sin if he does this from a reasonable cause, for example, if he cannot easily have the proper Office, or if for the sake of charity he recites with a companion saying a different Office, provided that Office is approved by the Holy See and is equal or nearly equal; indeed St. Alphonsus says that the reason of companionship alone appears sufficiently reasonable. But when the case of a reasonable cause is excluded, it will indeed be a sin, but only venial, if the Office is changed into an equal or nearly equal one, because satisfaction is made to the obligation as to substance. If finally a notably shorter Office is recited, it is grave sin, because then satisfaction is not made to the substance of the obligation. This is clear both from the nature of the thing and from proposition 34, condemned by Alexander VII, which thus sounds: "On Palm Sunday, one reciting the Easter Office satisfies the precept." - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 161.

Question 5. What kind of sin is it to invert the order in the recitation of the Hours?

Resp. In private recitation it never exceeds venial sin, because such inversion of order does not contain a grave deformity; for the order to be observed is only under a secondary precept and as a circumstance of lesser moment. But if from some just cause you change the order, for example, to recite with a companion who has already advanced further in recitation, or because you do not have the Breviary at hand but only the Diurnal while you are carried by vehicle, you will be entirely free from all fault. But a fortiori these reasons and others of this sort excuse you from all fault if you recite Matins of the following day before completing the Office of the present day, even according to those who wish to find some deformity in this inversion, concerning which, however, it is not established. But in public recitation there is controversy whether it is a grave sin or not to invert the order or change the time of the Hours; but the negative opinion is more probable, because this kind of inversion or change does not pertain to the substance of the precept and is merely accidental. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, nn. 170 et seq. - Lacroix, lib. 4, nn. 1309 et seq.

Indeed from a reasonable cause it will be licit to invert the parts of the Hours, for example, to say the psalms and then afterward the lessons, indeed also these after other Hours have been recited, as if someone on a journey did not have the lessons of Matins.

Question 6. Is it licit to recite the Breviary in the vernacular language?

Resp. Negatively, and one acting thus is bound to say it again in Latin. "Those who are obligated to the recitation of the divine office and of any part of the Roman Breviary must recite these only in the Latin language; otherwise they do not satisfy the obligation." On account of this explicit reason, the S. R. C. responds Affirmatively to the question: "Whether a priest, carrying out the Divine Office of the Roman Breviary in the vernacular language, e.g., of the Nativity of the Lord, of the dead, etc., with the people, or discharging the Litanies of the Saints in the processions of Rogations in the same language, is bound to recite these parts of the Roman Breviary again in the Latin language?" 3 July 1904.

I say. Pronunciation ought to be vocal, entire, and continuous. And 1st. indeed it ought to be vocal, for the Office ought to be recited by voice, and indeed by a distinct voice; but it does not suffice that it be read by mind alone, or merely run through with the eyes; nor is it enough if it is recited in the throat or between the teeth, or by syncopating, or by abbreviating with a stumbling tongue; for that which is prescribed is properly vocal prayer. But prayer is not considered properly vocal unless it is made with a distinct voice. 2nd. It ought to be entire; and to integrity belong the Pater, Ave, and Credo at the beginning and end of the Hours, according as is noted in the Rubrics, but not the prayers Aperi Domine and Sacrosanctae, which are recited only by counsel. 3rd. It ought to be continuous; and therefore any notable interruption within one Hour, if it is made without any cause, is not free from fault; but it does not exceed venial sin. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 166.

Question 1. Must one reciting the Office hear himself, so that he can be said to pray vocally?

Resp. Negatively, because vocal prayer is said by opposition to mental prayer, and is truly had as often as the words are truly pronounced, even though they are heard by no one; and therefore it suffices if the one reciting is conscious to himself that he pronounces the words. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 163.

Question 2. What are just causes for interrupting the Office?

Resp. Any reasonable cause suffices for interrupting any Hour whatever; but the following causes are especially enumerated: 1st. any utility, one's own or another's, which cannot be deferred without some inconvenience; 2nd. a reason of urbanity or charity, or a reason of executing the commands of superiors; 3rd. if the confession of someone is to be received who does not gladly wait; 4th. if you wish to do or note something so that you may remove distraction or solicitude, for example, lest you forget, etc., provided however that this is not done frequently, because frequent interruption for this cause is not free from some irreverence; 5th. some brief prayer or some pious affection of the heart can also licitly be inserted into the recitation. Nevertheless it would be less becoming, for the sake of meditating, to linger in these things longer and frequently, because the nature of recitation or vocal prayer would not be sufficiently preserved; and if, by inserting longer vocal prayers and those least pertaining to the Office, a notable part were added to the Hours, this, according to some, would be venial, as contrary to the prescribed form. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 168. - Lacroix, lib. 4, n. 1307.

Question 3. Can Matins be separated from Lauds?

Resp. Affirmatively, in private recitation; Negatively, in public recitation in choir, except on the night of the Nativity of the Lord. Thus the Rubrics of the Breviary, which see for the prayers to be said at the conclusion of Matins and the beginning of Lauds, both on ordinary days, and in the Triduum of the death of the Lord, and in offices of the Dead.

Question 4. Can the Nocturns be separated without cause?

Resp. Affirmatively, as is established from universal custom, to which no law can be opposed. Indeed formerly, from the practice of the Church, they were separated, since they were customarily recited at various hours of the night. Besides, not a few say that this separation, thus made without special cause, can extend to three hours. But if there is a just cause for the sake of which the Nocturns ought to be separated, the interval of three hours can also be prolonged longer according to the measure of that cause. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, nn. 167 and 168. - Reuter, n. 262.

Question 5. To what is one bound, by reason of pronunciation, when reciting the Hours with a companion or with choir?

Resp. To satisfy the obligation it is required: 1st. that the recitation be made by alternate verses, and if more than two recite, after a double choir has been made, it ought to be recited alternately, because this mode is admitted by the custom of the Church; 2nd. that the verses be said successively and not at the same time; nor may one resume before the other has completed his part; 3rd. that the things which are said by one be heard by the others, so that they may communicate and one moral prayer be made. Yet it is not necessary that the hearers pronounce in a low voice the part of the others. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 162.

Question 6. Do you satisfy if you recite the Hours with a layman, or with another not obligated, or with one distracted or not attentive?

Resp. Affirmatively, in all these cases, and the reason is that these things do not impede you from reciting the Hours according to the custom of the Church. The defect of obligation or attention on the part of the other does not change nor vitiate your recitation. Therefore, if the companion is obligated and does not attend, he himself does not satisfy, since he does not communicate with you; but he does not prevent you from communicating with him, if he pronounces rightly and you hear rightly. - Cf. Lacroix, n. 1295.

I say. The Office must be recited attentively and devoutly, since it is prayer, and indeed public prayer, or prayer to be recited by a public minister deputed by the Church. Hence one voluntarily distracted in reciting the Hours sins at least venially.