The Duties of Subjects

III. Excusing causes from the precept are enumerated: one's own or another's necessity, charity, piety, and custom.

1. One's own or another's necessity, that is, grave spiritual, bodily, or temporal harm to be averted from oneself or from a third party. Especially excused are:

a) The poor, who otherwise cannot provide for themselves and their own as to food or clothing. Likewise female servants, who otherwise lack time for mending or washing clothes (St. Alphonsus, III, 297). Although, if someone is known as poor, scandal ought to be absent, it is nevertheless better, as far as can be done, to work secretly.

b) Subjects who are compelled by a master to work; yet if servants must often work on Sunday, let them seek another service (St. Alphonsus, III, 296).

c) Bakers and butchers, who otherwise cannot satisfy those asking (St. Alphonsus, III, 298, 299). Nevertheless they are not excused, unless perhaps on account of competition, if the law forbids it, for example, to bakers.

d) Tailors and other workmen, if the matter is urgent, for example for impending weddings or funerals. Yet let them take care that, without a special cause, by taking on more work, or by refusing a sufficient number of workmen, they do not place themselves in such necessity (St. Alphonsus, III, 303).

e) Pharmacists providing necessities to the sick, unless they have agreed among themselves - as is done rather often today - that only one or another should sell on feast days.

f) Farmers, if from a storm or a similar cause grave harm is imminent (St. Alphonsus, Homo Apostolicus, tr. 6, n. 21).

g) Barbers are excused partly on account of necessity, partly on account of custom (St. Alphonsus, III, 290).

h) Blacksmiths who shoe "the horses of travelers, or of those who (on the following day) will set out on a journey at very early morning or go out into the field to work.... Likewise the plowshares of those who otherwise would not be able to work on the following day can be repaired. So also roads, bridges, etc., can be repaired" (St. Alphonsus, III, 300).

i) Whoever cannot interrupt works once begun without grave harm, as those who labor in foundries, and sometimes also in butter-making establishments (St. Alphonsus, III, 300).

j) Those who prepare things which are necessary for a public festivity, for example on account of the arrival or birthday of a Prince, and which cannot conveniently be prepared beforehand. "The reason is that such signs of joy are morally necessary for the commonwealth" (St. Alphonsus, III, 304).

k) Those who would miss an occasion of gain extraordinary in view of their condition, as was explained in n. 704.

l) Avoiding idleness does not excuse by reason of itself; yet by reason of avoiding sin it excuses those who, morally speaking, will not abstain from sin unless they work, for example prisoners who cannot occupy themselves with works lawful in themselves (St. Alphonsus, III, 302). - But to those who complain of idleness, it can be permitted that they perform lighter works for the benefit of a poor person or of a needy church. If these things cannot be done less conveniently, by epikeia it can be permitted (at least if otherwise there is danger that they will run about) that for some hours they be occupied with other labors, though lighter ones. Likewise light domestic labor is lawfully conceded to a workman who otherwise would be exposed to the danger of making himself drunk, etc.

2. Charity permits someone to serve the sick, bury the dead, and generally to do for another what that other could lawfully do for himself.

Question. To what extent is it lawful to work for the poor?

Resp. 1. It is certainly lawful to work to assist either a determined poor person placed in grave necessity, or a community placed in such necessity (St. Alphonsus, III, 293).

Resp. 2. It is certainly unlawful in common necessity to work or make things so that the gain received from the labor or the things may be granted to the poor.

Resp. 3. It is disputed whether in common necessity it is lawful to make things, for example clothes to be distributed to the poor. With St. Alphonsus and others, against some, it seems it must be denied; for, if that opinion were admitted, it would already be lawful for all and always to work; which seems to oppose the sense of the Church (St. Alphonsus, III, 293).

3. Piety permits servile works as follows:

a) Works which are proximately ordered to divine worship are permitted. Such are: ringing bells, playing organs, blowing them, etc. (St. Alphonsus, III, 291).

b) Works which are ordered to divine worship only remotely or by accident are prohibited unless necessity requires them. Such are, for example, "to cultivate the fields of the church, to carry stones and timber for its building, to whitewash the walls of the temple" (St. Alphonsus, III, 293). Nevertheless, with sufficient probability it is lawful "to labor at making necessary ornaments for a needy church" (St. Alphonsus, cited place).

c) Works which are ordered to divine worship neither so proximately nor so remotely are prohibited at most under light sin, indeed according to St. Alphonsus with sufficient probability not at all. Such are: "to sweep the church, to bake hosts, to adorn the altar and church with tapestries, to erect platforms necessary for a festivity or sepulcher, and similar things." Yet "knowingly to prepare platforms on a feast day for viewing a procession is, of itself, a grave sin; but if they were not made the previous day, they are lawfully made on the feast day" (III, 292).

4. What custom permits has been sufficiently indicated above (n. 705).

5. Finally, in doubt whether a sufficient excusing cause is present, a dispensation is required, about which see n. 183; note, however, that a sufficient cause is undoubtedly present if grave danger of notable harm is imminent.

Duties of Subjects.—The general duties of subjects to superiors are chiefly honor and obedience (see 2351 sqq.).

(a) Honor.—Honor is owed to superiors on account of their position of authority, which is derived from God, not on account of their personal character, for personally they may be wicked. It is disrespectful even in a democracy to deny them the honorable address, salutation or courtesy which is customary, or to treat them insultingly by word, manner or writing. But it is not disrespectful to disagree with the personal views of a superior or to seek legitimately his removal from office if he is unfit or less fit.

(b) Obedience.—Obedience is owed to superiors and their laws when they strictly command what is not sinful or illegal or outside their authority (see 375 sqq.). Unemancipated children are obliged to obey their parents in all that falls under the parental authority, namely, in what pertains to good morals (e.g., attendance at religious duties, avoidance of bad companions) or the good order of the home (e.g., the hours for meals, the time of retiring, the visitors to be received). But parents have no authority to command fraud or other sin; nor are children under subjection in the matter of taking up a state of life, for this demands liking and fitness, and the command of a superior cannot give liking and fitness. It is a serious sin for parents to force a child to take up religious life or the priesthood, or to marry a certain individual; but a child should yield when his parents are reasonably opposed to his choice of a vocation, as when they need his support, or wish him to test his vocation a little, or know that the person selected for wife will disgrace the family.

What are the obligations of subjects toward civil authority?

Subjects are also bound to show love, reverence, and obedience to secular superiors. For in the civil order they are true superiors, bearing toward us in the temporal order the place of God Himself. This is confirmed from Sacred Scripture, Rom. 13:1 seqq.; 1 Pet. 2:13, 17. For this reason the Catechism of the Council of Trent compares and joins an obligation of this sort with that by which we are bound toward paternal and ecclesiastical authority. For, p. 3, on the 4th Commandment, section 15, after it has taught that parents and ecclesiastical superiors are to be honored with due honor, it adds: "The same must be said of Kings, Princes, Magistrates, and the rest, to whose power we are subject. For if we pay them any honor, it is referred to God; for an eminent degree of dignity has the veneration of men, because it is a likeness of divine power; in this also we venerate the providence of God, who has attributed the administration of public office to them, and uses them as ministers of His power." Hence it is clear that reverence is to be shown not only to Princes, but also to their officials according to their office and dignity.

Leo XIII, Enc. Letter Quella lunga, 29 Jun. 1881; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 104, a. 5, 6; Quodl. 8, a. 7; Quodl. 10, a. 12; E. M. Therefore it is not fitting to speak rashly about those who perform public office, nor maliciously to carp at their deeds; although it is permitted to scrutinize them and to speak and write publicly about them, insofar as the laws permit this, so that right judgment may be made concerning them and public utility may be provided for. Therefore they sin against charity and justice who announce in newspapers the hidden offenses of certain persons, which do not harm others, or publish them in conversations and speeches, so that they may repel them from some office. Those wound the observance due to them who inflict insults upon them, whether by words or writings, and who deny them the signs of honor due to them. Kenrick tr. 8, nn. 164, 165.

1000. 2. But in all regions, subjects ought to furnish reverence, obedience, and fidelity to legitimate superiors: -

(A) Reverence indeed, insofar as superiors act in the place of God; and therefore, whatever gifts they shine with or vices they labor under, they have the right of receiving due honor, on account of the authority committed to them, and the excellence which flows from this authority: "Render therefore to all what is due: tribute to whom tribute is due... honor to whom honor."¹ - Therefore those sin who deny due signs of honor to the civil power without just cause, and show it contempt and irreverence. Today indeed the public acts of ministers and officials are deservedly scrutinized and subjected to strict examination, so that abuses which they could favor may thus be forestalled; yet this ought to be done honestly, by avoiding whatever smacks of falsehood and calumny.

¹ Rom., XIII, 7. - How the ancient Christians furnished reverence and obedience to emperors, even persecutors, Guignebert describes, Tertullien, p. 21-128; Adhemar d'Ales, La theologie de Tertullien, p. 397 sq.

1001. (B) Obedience, insofar, namely, as they ought to obey just laws, and also the equitable sentences of judges: "Let every soul be subject to higher powers: for there is no power except from God... Therefore he who resists the power resists the ordinance of God... Therefore be subject of necessity, not only because of wrath, but also because of conscience."² - In reality no society can subsist for a long time without the faithful observance of laws; for if each one acts as he pleases, and laws are despised, soon the weaker will be oppressed by the more powerful, and dissensions and fights will succeed peace and concord. - How far the obligation of obeying laws extends has been explained in the Treatise on Laws, n. 341-348; concerning the law of taxes in particular it has been said, On Justice, n. 591-598.

² Rom., XIII, 1-5.

But when a law seems unjust or less opportune, it is not only licit, but expedient, to use licit means for abrogating or reforming it, by writing to deputies so that they may propose this change, if they wish to be elected again.

1002. (C) Let them also furnish fidelity, insofar as it is not licit to stir up rebellion or to kill those who preside, as we have explained, On Justice, n. 362-363; for since today supreme authority is in the hands of a Legislative Assembly, whose members are elected by the votes of citizens, the votes of citizens have greater force for protecting liberty and justice than arms of any kind.

846. Offices of rulers and subjects in general. - By rulers here are understood not only those who in society hold supreme power, as emperors, kings, dukes, presidents of a republic, but all those upon whom the governance of the republic rests, as ministers, governors, magistrates, judges, even deputies who in modern societies partly enjoy legislative power. But subjects are those who are subjected to their governance. To all these there ought to be common love of country and of the community with its members; to rulers especially there belongs special love, governance, providence, and protection of subjects; but these owe to rulers fidelity, reverence, obedience, and the support of taxes.

These things hold not only concerning civil superiors, but also concerning ecclesiastical superiors, to whom likewise the faithful owe fidelity, reverence, obedience in spiritual matters, and support, as was said in n. 708; but ecclesiastical superiors have special obligations for governing the faithful in order to eternal life, but concerning this it is customary to speak where particular states are treated, or in canon law.

847. Special offices of superiors and rulers. - Legitimate civil rulers and superiors, in the governance of subjects, bear the place of God, whose power they participate in (Prov. VIII, 15; Rom. XIII, 1 sq.); whence they ought to exercise it conformably to natural and divine law. By force of their office, under grave obligation they are bound primarily to intend and procure the temporal common good, in subordination to the good of eternal life, as legal justice prescribes (n. 265); hence they ought:

1. To know in what the material and spiritual common good consists, and diligently to investigate by what means it can be promoted, all circumstances of persons, things, and times being considered.

2. According to their powers, to avert temporal evils, such as wars, seditions, famines, contagious diseases, want, etc.

3. To protect justice: both commutative, by carefully protecting the rights of all citizens and legitimate associations and of society itself; and distributive, in the distribution of offices and burdens, every acceptance of persons being excluded (n. 616 sq.); and vindicative with respect to evildoers in inflicting punishments.

4. To protect and promote honesty of morals and religion, because the exercise of virtue pertains principally to temporal happiness. But since the Catholic religion is the only true one, they cannot impede it; indeed per se they ought positively to protect it.

5. To procure sufficient abundance of temporal goods and economic prosperity, which is required instrumentally for common happiness.

848. Special offices of subjects. - Subjects owe to legitimate superiors and rulers:

1. Fidelity, by which they acknowledge them as legitimate superiors and will to adhere and be subject to them.

They can do nothing unjust to withdraw themselves from the jurisdiction of superiors, nor unjustly contrive anything for thrusting a legitimate ruler down from power, nor excite rebellion or sedition against him, nor a fortiori kill him. Hence proposition 63 of the Syllabus was condemned: "It is licit to refuse obedience to legitimate rulers, indeed even to rebel."

2. Internal and external reverence, insofar as they participate in the authority and excellence of God, to whom honor is to be rendered (Rom. XIII, 7).

Subjects sin against due reverence who bring contumely upon the person or image of the ruler, who mock him by writings, words, pictures, who deny without just cause the signs of reverence due and exhibited by all, or exhibit contempt to him.

3. Obedience in all licit things which regard their governance (I Pet. II, 13 sq.), whether they command by laws, or by judicial sentences, or by administrative decrees, unless the precepts are certainly unjust.

In practice, the obedience due can be diverse. It must be considered which laws are merely penal, which preceptive; when an unjust law cannot be observed, and when it can, or even must, be observed to avoid a greater evil. Here those things which we said concerning civil law (I, n. 286-287) come to be applied.

4. The support of taxes, under which name military service can also come; these things were already declared above (n. 624 sq.).