Chapter I: On the Principal Acts of Religion, and the Vices Opposed

We shall speak both of the principal acts of religion themselves, and of the sins opposed to religion.

Passing over those acts of which we have already spoken, sacrifice, the worship due to Christ, the Blessed Virgin, the Saints, relics, and images, we shall briefly treat of adoration and prayer, and also of devotion, which renders us more prompt for each act.

855. 1. Notion. In the broad sense, adoration is an act by which we profess the excellence of another and our subjection toward him; in this sense kings and men endowed with excellence are said to be adored.² In the strict sense it designates the act by which we profess the infinite excellence of God and His supreme dominion, and our dependence upon Him; of this we speak here. Adoration embraces a twofold act: internal, by which the intellect and will together acknowledge the divine excellence and their own subjection;³ external, or the manifestation of this interior sense by some sensible sign, for example, by sacrifice, prostration upon the earth, genuflection, and other such things, which vary among different nations.

¹ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 84; Suarez, De Virtute et Statu Religionis, Tr. I, l. II, c. 1-2; Billuart, diss. III, art. 1; Bouquillon, De virtute religionis, Bruges, 1880, n. 46-50; Muller, § 40; M. d'Hulst, Careme 1893, Conf. I; Tyrrell, External Religion, La Religion exterieure, lectures II-IV.

² 3 Kings 1:16; Acts 10:25.

³ St. Thomas, with many other theologians, enumerates adoration among the external acts of religion, because he considers it especially as a bodily act; but he supposes that it is nothing other than the expression of interior adoration (Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 84, a. 2).

856. 2. Thesis: properly so-called adoration, internal, external, and public, is due to God. (A) Scripture. Christ, tempted by the devil, answered him:⁴ "For it is written: The Lord thy God shalt thou adore, and Him only shalt thou serve." Moreover He thus openly declares to the Samaritan woman that this adoration ought to be internal:⁵ "But the hour cometh, and now is, when the true adorers shall adore the Father in spirit and in truth. For the Father also seeketh such to adore Him. God is a spirit; and they that adore Him must adore Him in spirit and in truth." That it ought likewise to be public, and therefore external, is clear from the institution of the eucharistic sacrifice, by which the sacrifice of Christ on the cross is vividly represented:⁶ for sacrifice is an external and public act of adoration, offered to God in the name of the whole community.

⁴ Matt. 4:10.

⁵ John 4:23-24.

⁶ This we proved in De Eucharistia, n. 153-161.

857. (B) Reason shows the same. (a) For God is the supreme Lord of men: since He created them out of nothing, and indeed as to their whole being, both as to substance and as to faculties; besides, He conserves them in being; for by their own weight they tend to nothingness, since they are from nothing, and unless they were positively sustained by God at every instant, they would be reduced to nothing; indeed, He concurs with them in acting: for although they enjoy activity implanted in them by God, they cannot break forth into act unless they are helped by the supreme cause of all things. Therefore men, entirely as they are, depend upon God and are constituted under His dominion. But the supreme Lord, upon whom all things depend, has a right, and indeed a strict right, that His dominion be acknowledged by all rational creatures: for they are rational for this reason, that they may follow the order of reason and spontaneously and freely confess their dependence upon the supreme Cause; this indeed is done by adoration, by which we profess God as first principle and last end, or, in other words, as supreme Lord; therefore God has a strict right that He be adored by men, and he who denies it to Him is guilty of true injustice.

858. (b) That this adoration ought to be not only internal, but also external, is clear from a twofold argument:

1. External worship is necessary by reason of itself. For God is the author not only of the soul, but also of the body, and has lavished upon us not only spiritual but also bodily benefits; therefore we depend upon God also as to the body; therefore we ought to express that dependence not only internally, but also in a sensible mode, namely by using the body which we have received from Him. - This indeed will be still more apparent if it is noted that man, as leader of sensible creatures, is as it were the pontiff of irrational nature, and therefore is bound to praise and adore God not only in his own name, but also in the name of inferior creatures. But this he cannot do better than by exhibiting external worship by the help of the body, which is a microcosm, or compendium of the whole of sensible nature.

2. External worship is necessary also by reason of internal worship, namely to express and foster it. For we are so constituted by nature that the interior affections of the soul, especially when they are more vivid, are expressed in a sensible mode, by the eyes, countenance, gesture, and whole bearing of the body; therefore if man truly and sincerely reveres and loves God, spontaneously and as it were necessarily he will manifest reverence and love by external acts, words, gesture, and the whole bearing of the body; but we are bound sincerely to love and adore God; therefore also to express this worship by external acts. - Otherwise internal worship would soon perish: for since, from what has been said, man is naturally prone to manifest outwardly the interior feelings of the soul, when external signs and ceremonies decrease, generally the very sentiments of religion are diminished, and when such signs are removed, commonly religion itself perishes. Nor is this wonderful: for man is led by sensible things to spiritual things, by external things he is stirred to the thought and practice of interior things, and if incentives of this kind are lacking, gradually even the dispositions of the soul languish and are extinguished.

Augustine had already observed this:⁷ "For those praying," he says, "do with the members of their body what is fitting for suppliants, when they fix their knees, when they extend their hands, or even prostrate themselves on the ground, and if they visibly do anything else; although their invisible will and the intention of the heart are known to God, nor does He need these signs in order that the human mind may be opened to Him; but by this man rather stirs himself to praying and groaning more humbly and fervently." Nor can it be said that from this it happens that our religion consists only in external rites; for, as the Angelic Doctor deservedly says,⁸ "because in all acts of latria, that which is external is referred to that which is internal, as to the more principal, therefore external adoration itself is done for the sake of internal adoration; namely that, through the signs of humility which we exhibit bodily, our affection may be stirred to subject itself to God, because it is connatural to us that we proceed through sensible things to intelligible things."

⁷ De Cura pro mortuis, c. V, Migne, P. L., XL, col. 597.

⁸ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 84, a. 2.

859. (c) This adoration ought not only to be external, but also public or social. For man was born for society, and in fact lives in society. Now not only each man, but also society itself, as a moral person, arises from God and depends upon Him; therefore it is necessary that not only private individuals worship God, but also that the whole commonwealth, after the manner of one body, exhibit adoration to God. - For this reason indeed God chose a special day, which would be as it were exclusively devoted to divine worship: for He willed that on this day all should rest from servile work, so that they might be able to exhibit public honor to God, as we shall explain below.

860. 3. Points to be noted for practice. (a) Therefore the faithful should be admonished that external and public acts of religion are indeed necessary, but derive their principal value only from interior acts: "God is a spirit; and they that adore Him must adore Him in spirit and in truth." Wherefore genuflections, inclinations of the head, and other signs of adoration should be performed with the intention of worshiping and loving God.

(b) Since, from what was said in the Treatise on the Incarnate Word, n. 243-246, Christ is the mediator of religion and the supreme Pontiff, through whom the Angels praise the divine majesty and the Dominations adore it, nothing is more fitting than to praise, adore, and glorify God through Christ: "Through Him, and with Him, and in Him, is to Thee, God the Father almighty, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, all honor and glory."⁹

⁹ Roman Missal, Canon of the Mass.

After the preliminary notions concerning prayer have been set forth, we shall explain: 1. its necessity; 2. its efficacy.

³ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 83; Suarez, Tr. IV, lib. I-III; Billuart, diss. II, art. 2-6; St. Alphonsus, little work on prayer written in Italian (Del gran mezzo della preghiera) and translated into various languages; Bouquillon, op. cit., n. 129-225; Lehmkuhl, n. 338-347; Ballerini-Palmieri, n. 313-324; M. d'Hulst, Careme 1893, 3rd Conference; O. Lefranc, La Priere, Paris, Lethielleux, 1904.

861. Notion and species. Prayer, in the broad sense, is a pious elevation of the mind to God; it is distinguished from study, by which we think of divine things without pious affection. Under this respect it embraces the principal acts of religion, namely adoration, thanksgiving for benefits received, penance for sins, meditation on divine things, petition for spiritual goods, etc. - In the strict sense, it is commonly defined as the petition of fitting things from God. That this petition, when it is made with due submission, is truly an act of religion is easily understood: for it proceeds from an intimate sense of our need, and is at the same time a practical acknowledgment of divine excellence and goodness; for we do not ask graces from God unless we are inwardly persuaded that He is the fountain of goods, and at the same time full of mercy, so that He can and wills to help us.

Prayer is mental when it is performed by the mind alone, namely by the intellect and will: by the intellect, namely, we think of God, of the things to be asked, and of the motives on account of which it is expedient to obtain them; by the will, we desire that such or such a grace be granted to us by God. - It is called vocal, or oral, when it is performed not only by the mind, but by the mouth, by words or other signs. - Again, vocal prayer is private if it is made by the one praying in his own name; public if it is made in the name and authority of the Church, by a minister deputed for this; thus the recitation of the divine office is public prayer: of this we treat in the Treatise on the Various Obligations of States, n. 132-160.

862. 1. Errors. Not only atheists, pantheists, and agnostics deny both the necessity and the utility of prayer, but also most rationalists,¹ because, they say, it is foolish to ask God to change the immutable laws of nature, or decrees conceived from eternity. But the Quietists rejected prayer as something imperfect for interior souls; thus Molinos said:² "It is not fitting for one resigned to the divine will to ask anything from God; because to ask is an imperfection, since it is an act of one's own will and choice, and is to will that the divine will be conformed to ours, and not that ours be conformed to the divine; and that saying of the Gospel: Ask and you shall receive, was not said by Christ for interior souls, who do not wish to have a will; indeed souls of this kind come to such a point that they cannot ask anything from God."

¹ J. Simon, La Religion naturelle, 4th Part, ch. 2; for refuting him, see Bougaud, Le Christianisme, t. V, ch. 4; Gondal, La Religion, 1894, l. III; Tanquerey, De Veri Religione, n. 16-19.

² Proposition 14, condemned by Innocent XI, apud Denzinger, n. 1101.

863. 2. Thesis: Prayer is necessary for all adult wayfarers by necessity of precept, indeed by necessity of means, at least according to the ordinary law of God.

Here there is question of prayer properly so called, or of the petition of supernatural goods from God. This, according to all, is necessary as to adults, as long as they live, from a divine precept; but, according to the common and true opinion, it is necessary also by necessity of means, from the ordinary law, insofar as it is a means instituted by God for obtaining, in the present order of things, graces necessary for salvation.

864. (A) Scripture often inculcates the necessity of prayer, asserting that petition is an efficacious means for obtaining grace, or for overcoming temptations, and indeed in such a way that from this it can be gathered that without prayer grace cannot be obtained or temptations overcome: "Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and you shall find; knock, and it shall be opened to you. For everyone that asketh receiveth; and he that seeketh findeth; and to him that knocketh it shall be opened";³ as if He were saying: petition is the means of obtaining grace; therefore, if you do not ask, it will not be given to you. Again Christ says:⁴ "Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation." The Apostles likewise command the faithful to be instant in prayer,⁵ and to watch in prayers.⁶ These things indeed, taken all together, suppose not only a precept, but a necessity of means; for the exhortation to pray that we may obtain grace and overcome temptations supposes that we cannot, at least from the ordinary law of God, attain either without prayer.

³ Matt. 7:7-8; cf. Luke 11:9-10.

⁴ Matt. 26:41.

⁵ Rom. 12:12; Col. 4:2.

⁶ 1 Pet. 4:7.

865. (B) The Fathers likewise often attribute victory against temptations and perseverance in good to prayer, as if it were a means necessary for this. Their doctrine is thus summarized by the author of the book On Ecclesiastical Dogmas, who very probably is Gennadius of Marseilles (flourished in the year 495): "We believe that no one comes to salvation unless God invites him; that no one invited works out his salvation unless God helps him; that no one merits help unless he prays."⁷ Augustine especially taught this, asserting that the gift of perseverance is given only to those praying,⁸ and that God does not command impossibilities; since He admonishes "both to do what you can, and to ask what you cannot."⁹ Trent made these words its own:¹⁰ "For God does not command impossibilities, but by commanding admonishes both to do what you can, and to ask what you cannot; and He helps that you may be able." Manifestly therefore the Council supposes that certain things are impossible, if the grace by which they can be done is not asked.

⁷ De ecclesiasticis Dogmatibus, c. 56, P. L., LVIII, 995.

⁸ "Indeed, since it is clear that God has prepared some things to be given even to those not praying, as the beginning of faith; but others only to those praying, as perseverance unto the end, certainly he who thinks he has this from himself does not pray that he may have it" (De dono perseverantiae, c. 16, n. 39, P. L., XLV, 1017).

⁹ De natura et gratia, c. 43, n. 50, P. L., XLIV, 271.

¹⁰ Sess. VI, ch. 11, Denzinger, n. 686.

866. (C) The matter indeed depends upon the will of God, who could, if He wished, grant grace even to those not praying. Nevertheless it was altogether fitting that grace should be given only to those asking. For it is consonant with reason that man himself, who needs grace for salvation, should concur, as he can, at least by prayer, in coming to the aid of his own necessity. The Catechism of the Council of Trent declares this thus:¹¹ "For, since God owes nothing to anyone, it surely remains that the things which we need should be sought from Him by prayers; and He gave these prayers to us as a necessary instrument for obtaining that which we should desire: especially since it is clear that there are certain things which it is not permitted to obtain except by His help." Afterwards it explains the utility of prayer: (a) by praying we exhibit honor to God; for thus we profess that we are subject to Him, whom we acknowledge as the author of all goods, in whom alone we hope, whom alone we have as the refuge and protection of safety and salvation. (b) By praying we also exercise the virtues of the soul: faith, because the more studiously we pray, the greater and more certain faith we have in divine care and providence; hope, because we ought to ask grace only with confidence; charity, since it is necessary to contemplate the divine goodness in prayer, and, besides, by frequent conversation with God we are enkindled to His love; humility, since, in order to pray, we ought to be conscious of our own need. - Therefore it was most fitting that at least certain goods should be granted only to those asking.

¹¹ Catechism of the Council of Trent, P. IV, c. I, n. 3.

867. (D) From this the difficulties proposed by the Quietists already remain solved: for an act commanded by God, which otherwise carries with it such great utility, cannot be imperfect. - Nor do the arguments of the Rationalists have greater force.

They indeed object that God cannot acquiesce in our petitions unless He changes His counsels. St. Thomas had already anticipated this difficulty; for, as he rightly observes,¹² God indeed decreed all things from all eternity, but, in disposing the present order of things, He foresaw our prayers, and could so order secondary causes that effects consonant with our petitions would be produced at the due time. Hence, when we pray to God, we do not pray for this purpose, that we may change the divine disposition, but that we may obtain that which God disposed to be fulfilled through prayers, namely, that in time we may receive what almighty God disposed before the ages to give to us. - In vain likewise do they add that our prayers cannot be heard without the laws of nature perishing. For this is first of all false when we ask spiritual goods: if we pray God that He help us to do good, by enlightening the intellect or strengthening the will, we by no means demand that our liberty be destroyed, but rather that it be strengthened. The same can be said of temporal goods: when we ask for health, we do not ask that physiological laws cease, but only that God so dispose secondary causes that, these being rightly applied, we can be cured from illness.

¹² St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 83, a. 2.

Nor does it help to say that prayer is not necessary because God, who knows all things, does not need that we set forth our necessities to Him, as Kant said, reheating an old objection; for, as St. Thomas rightly says,¹³ "it is not necessary that we offer prayers to God in order to manifest to Him our needs or desires, but that we ourselves may consider that in these things recourse must be had to divine help"; for thus we better acknowledge our weakness, conceive greater confidence toward God, and concur with Him by greater effort in acting well.

¹³ Ibid., a. 2, ad 1.

868. 3. Practical corollaries. (A) The law of praying, like the precept concerning faith, hope, and charity (above, nn. 644, 718, 754), obliges either by itself or by accident:

(a) By itself, rather frequently in life, though the time cannot be mathematically determined. Hence the faithful are to be exhorted to pray daily, especially in the morning, to ask the helps which they need for that day, and in the evening, to give thanks for benefits received, to elicit penitence for sins, and to hand over their soul to God before they take sleep. Those who omit morning and evening prayers do not indeed sin directly; but experience shows that those who do not recite them, other things being equal, fall into sin more frequently than those who pray daily.

(b) By accident, as often as some duty of Christian life cannot be fulfilled, or a temptation overcome, without prayer. Hence the faithful are to be exhorted to have recourse to prayer whenever some more arduous duty presses, some business of greater moment, or a more dangerous temptation.

869. (B) Prayer must indeed be made in spirit and truth: for God, to whom the hidden thoughts of men lie open, hears prayers even if they are not uttered by the mouth. Yet vocal prayer has its own utility:¹⁴ (a) for stirring up interior devotion, by which the mind is more easily elevated to God, because through external signs internal affection is suggested and rendered more intense; (b) for rendering more perfect service to God, namely that man may serve God according to that whole which he has received from Him, not only by the mind, but also by the body, and thus offer the accumulated sacrifice of soul and body.

¹⁴ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 83, a. 12; Catechism of the Council of Trent, l. c., n. 28.

Yet one must not indulge in much speaking, by which the mind is often distracted; for it is better to recite fewer and shorter prayers attentively and devoutly than more extended ones with almost no attention or mediocre devotion: "And when you are praying, speak not much, as the heathens. For they think that in their much speaking they may be heard. Be not you therefore like to them. For your Father knoweth what is needful for you, before you ask Him."¹⁵ - Especially to be avoided is the vain display of hypocrites:¹⁶ "And when ye pray, ye shall not be as the hypocrites, who love to stand and pray in the synagogues and corners of the streets, that they may be seen by men... But thou, when thou shalt pray, enter into thy chamber, and having shut the door, pray to thy Father in secret; and thy Father who seeth in secret will repay thee." The chamber of which there is question here "can be referred to the heart of man, which it is not enough to enter, but which, besides, ought to be closed, lest anything break in or flow into souls from without, by which the integrity of prayer could be violated."¹⁷

¹⁵ Matt. 6:7-8.

¹⁶ Matt. 6:5-6.

¹⁷ Catechism of the Council of Trent, n. 28.

870. (C) Therefore prayer ought to be attentive; for it would be foolish to ask God that He kindly lend an ear to our prayers, if we ourselves do not attend to what we say. For since prayer is an ascent of the mind to God, the words of prayer are poured forth rashly and irreverently if the mind voluntarily wanders from God, and no effort is applied to dispel distractions. - Nor does external attention suffice for true prayer, by which only every action by its nature incompatible with internal attention is excluded; but, more probably, internal attention, or application of the mind to God, is required.¹

¹ Yet according to Lugo (De Eucharistia, disp. XXII, n. 25-41), probably internal attention is not required for the essence of prayer, but external attention suffices, provided prayer is begun with the intention of praying and attention of mind, and attention perseveres virtually. - But it is difficult to conceive how attention virtually remains in one who is fully distracted, as is said below.

(a) Attention, on the part of the object, can be diverse: if the mind is occupied with rightly pronouncing the words, it is called superficial, or verbal; if with rightly understanding the words, it is called literal, or intellectual; when attention is given to worshiping God Himself, or to a particular mystery, or to the good which is asked, spiritual, or mystical, attention is had; and this is more perfect than the rest, provided however that the mind is truly attentive and does not wander in vain thoughts.

On the part of the subject, attention is more or less perfect and intense or remiss, directed to one object, or divided among several. - Some distinguish between actual attention, which is actually exercised, and virtual attention, which perseveres in virtue as long as it has not been retracted. But this distinction by no means pleases St. Alphonsus, and deservedly: for it is difficult to conceive how attention, which is an act of the mind, remains virtually in one who is distracted, even involuntarily. The matter is otherwise with intention, which, since it belongs to the will, perseveres virtually in the effect. But he who has his mind occupied elsewhere, even if involuntarily distracted, cannot be called attentive even virtually, since he by no means attends to the things which he recites.

871. (b) For the validity of prayer any internal attention suffices, even superficial and remiss. For, the intention of praying being posited, which we suppose to have been elicited from the beginning of prayer and not retracted, as soon as attention is present, even verbal and remiss, there is true speech with God, and a pious petition to Him, as is clear from comparison with men who recite words which they do not understand well, but nevertheless will to express all those things which are contained in the writing.

872. (c) Voluntary distractions in themselves or in their cause, admitted without a sufficient motive, are a venial sin by their nature, because they imply a certain irreverence against God; but they are not a mortal sin, unless otherwise gravely evil or shameful; involuntary distractions, however, even many and long-lasting, constitute no sin.

They are voluntary in themselves when one actually gives consent to them; in their cause, when, before prayer, vain thoughts are freely admitted which are foreseen to be a cause of distractions. They are involuntary when we apply ordinary diligence to forestall or expel them. - Voluntary distractions are venial sins, even in prayers which are not from precept, unless they are excused by a sufficient motive: because, as soon as we will to speak with God, we are bound to do this reverently. But if, while praying, a useful thought occurs, to turn it over for some time is not even a venial sin, provided a proportionately sufficient reason is present.

Distractions, even voluntary ones, do not destroy the substance of prayer; for, notwithstanding these distractions, the soul can remain turned toward God, and sincerely desire to obtain graces; but God, who has known our frame and is prone to mercy, deigns to hear prayers, even if they are infected by certain light faults. - Nor are certain external actions incompatible with true prayer, such as walking, working with the hands, etc., which by no means impede the elevation of the mind to God. Wherefore it is altogether expedient to pray while walking or working; nor is it to be feared that the distractions which then naturally occur are sins: for to admit useful distractions while someone recites certain prayers among manual labors is no sin; for who will accuse as guilty of irreverence him who, among common actions, strives to rise in mind to God, although several times he admits other thoughts even voluntarily? The rigid Concina indeed did not hesitate to assert this, but in this he was deservedly reproved by the other theologians.²

² Concina, In Decalogum, lib. II, diss. 2, c. 9, § 3, n. 8-9; Bouquillon, n. 219, refutes him.

873. (D) We ought to pray, from charity, not only for ourselves, but also for the neighbor, and indeed preserving the order described above, n. 805: for prayer is one of the principal means by which we can help him spiritually. We are not bound to pray specially for determined persons, unless these are constituted in grave or very grave necessity, or are joined to us by a special bond of blood or office. It is not licit to exclude enemies from common prayers.

Nor should the souls detained in Purgatory be passed over, since they are joined to us by a peculiar bond, as we explained in the Treatise on God the Rewarder, n. 49.

874. The effect of prayer is threefold: meritorious, insofar as it can obtain sanctifying grace and its increase, the conditions required for merit being posited, above, n. 199-200; satisfactory, because, since it is an arduous work, it can satisfy for sins; impetratory, insofar as it has the power of obtaining the actual graces which are asked from God, the conditions enumerated below being posited. Since the first two effects have been treated elsewhere (above, n. 196, and De Poenitentia, dogmatic part, n. 75-79), it remains here to speak of the last: 1. whether and in what sense prayer is efficacious; and 2. by what conditions?

875. Thesis: Prayer, clothed with the due conditions, has the power of obtaining, with moral infallibility, what is asked from God.

It is explained. This infallibility is not absolute, but conditioned, nor does it arise from the dignity of prayer alone, but from the superadded promise of God. For if only the dignity of prayer in itself is considered, it indeed has a certain aptitude for obtaining those things which are asked, namely from the goodness and mercy of God; but it does not have infallible efficacy, because of itself it introduces no necessity, since God remains free in such a case to exercise or not to exercise His mercy. But when the divine promise accedes, God owes it to Himself to bestow those things which He has promised, not indeed from strict justice, nor from mere liberality, but from fidelity. Wherefore the infallibility is not absolute, but conditioned and moral, namely provided that the thing asked is necessary or very useful for salvation (below, n. 879-883). For the primary reason on account of which God promised to hear prayers is that He wills us to attain our supernatural end, since all temporal and spiritual goods are finally referred to this end. Hence, if, according to His wisdom, He foresees that some grace in particular, all things considered, will be more harmful than useful, He is not bound by force of His promise to grant it, but will give another more useful or more opportune one.

876. It is proved. (A) Scripture many times proclaims the efficacy of prayer.

(a) An example is had in the prayer of Abraham, who by repeated prayers obtained that wicked Sodom would be spared if ten just men were found in that city;³ in the preservation of the city of Segor, which was saved only by the prayers of Lot;⁴ in the case of the Israelite people, which, when it had deserved to be destroyed, was able to escape ruin by the intercession of Moses.⁵ Besides, Ecclesiasticus thus describes the wondrous effect of prayer:⁶ "The prayer of him that humbleth himself shall pierce the clouds; and till it come nigh he will not be comforted; and he will not depart till the Most High behold... My son, in thy sickness neglect not thyself: but pray to the Lord, and He shall heal thee." The angel of Tobias declares the same poetically:⁷ "When thou didst pray with tears and didst bury the dead... I offered thy prayer to the Lord." - Likewise, in the Gospel, the publican who poured forth a humble prayer went down justified to his house.⁸

³ Gen. 18:16-33.

⁴ Gen. 19:18-22.

⁵ Exod. 32:7-14; cf. Ps. 105:23.

⁶ Eccli. 35:21; 38:9.

⁷ Tob. 12:12.

⁸ Luke 18:14.

877. (b) But the promises of Christ, repeated rather often, have special force:⁹ "Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and you shall find; knock, and it shall be opened to you. For everyone that asketh receiveth; and he that seeketh findeth; and to him that knocketh it shall be opened. Or what man is there among you, of whom if his son shall ask bread, will he reach him a stone?... If you then, being evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father who is in heaven give good things to them that ask Him!" - This is true especially of prayer made in the name of Christ, that is, through Him, and with Him, and in Him, insofar as we trust not in our merits, but in His: "And whatsoever you shall ask the Father in My name, that will I do, that the Father may be glorified in the Son. If you shall ask Me anything in My name, that I will do¹⁰... Amen, amen I say to you, if you ask the Father anything in My name, He will give it you. Hitherto you have not asked anything in My name. Ask, and you shall receive, that your joy may be full."¹¹

⁹ Matt. 7:7-11.

¹⁰ John 14:13-14.

¹¹ John 16:23-24.

(c) Truly, promises of this kind have been proved true by the event. One of the thieves who hung from the cross with Christ prayed thus: "Lord, remember me when Thou shalt come into Thy kingdom. And Jesus said to him: Amen I say to thee, this day thou shalt be with Me in paradise."¹² - The Apostles in the cenacle "were persevering with one mind in prayer, with the women, and Mary the mother of Jesus";¹³ and on the day of Pentecost, "they were all filled with the Holy Spirit."¹⁴ - Stephen the protomartyr prays for his persecutors: "Lord, lay not this sin to their charge,"¹⁵ and soon Saul is converted. - Cornelius the centurion prays earnestly, and thus obtains the gift of true faith: "Thy prayers and thy alms are ascended for a memorial in the sight of God."¹⁶ - Peter, prince of the apostles, is kept in prison: "Prayer was made without ceasing by the Church unto God for him";¹⁷ soon an angel leads him out of prison. - Paul and Silas, who had preached the Gospel at Philippi, are sent into prison; but there "praying, they praised God,"¹⁸ and soon they are divinely delivered. - And many other such facts could be alleged from ecclesiastical history, by which the truth of the promises of Christ would be confirmed.

¹² Luke 23:42-43.

¹³ Acts 1:14.

¹⁴ Acts 2:4.

¹⁵ Acts 7:60.

¹⁶ Acts 10:4.

¹⁷ Acts 12:5.

¹⁸ Acts 16:25.

878. (B) The Fathers often inculcate the same, not a few of whom wrote entire treatises on prayer.

(a) Thus, among others, Tertullian concludes his book On Prayer thus:¹⁹ "For what has God denied to prayer from spirit and truth, He who requires it? We read and hear and believe how great are the proofs of its efficacy. Ancient prayer indeed delivered from fires, and from beasts, and from hunger, and yet it had not received its form from Christ. But by how much more fully is the prayer of Christians prayed! It does not station an angel of dew in the midst of fires, nor close the mouths of lions... but it instructs those suffering, and feeling, and grieving, with endurance; it enlarges grace with virtue, so that faith may know what it obtains from the Lord, understanding what it suffers for the name of God... But now the prayer of justice turns away all the wrath of God, keeps watch for enemies, supplicates for persecutors... It also washes away faults, repels temptations, extinguishes persecutions, consoles the fainthearted, delights the magnanimous, leads travelers, calms waves, stupefies robbers, feeds the poor, rules the rich, raises the fallen, supports those falling, holds those standing. Prayer is the wall of faith, our arms and weapons against the man who watches us on every side." St. Cyprian has similar things in the book On the Lord's Prayer.²⁰

¹⁹ Tertullian, Liber de Oratione, c. 29, P. L., I, 1195-1196.

²⁰ Apud Migne, P. L., IV, 520-544.

(b) Among the Greeks, let Gregory of Nyssa be heard:²¹ "Prayer is the defense and safeguard of chastity, the moderation of anger, the calming and repressing of pride, the cleansing away of the tenacious memory of injuries, the routing of envy, the removal of injustice, the correction of impiety. Prayer is the strength of bodies, the abundance of the home, the right constitution of law and statutes in the city, the strength of the kingdom, the trophy of war, the security of peace, the reconciliation of those dissenting, the preservation of those joined together. Prayer is the seal of virginity, the fidelity of marriage, a shield for travelers, the guardian of those sleeping, the confidence of those watching, fertility for farmers, safety for sailors. Prayer is the advocate of the accused and of those pleading a cause, the relaxation and loosening of the guilty and of chains, rest for the weary, consolation of the sorrowing, delight of the soul for the rejoicing, solace of those mourning, the crown of those contracting marriage, the celebration of a birthday feast, the funeral of the dying." Our Gregory proceeds, enumerating very many facts from which the efficacy of prayer is clear.

²¹ De oratione dominica, Orat. I, P. G., XLIV, 1123.

879. In order that prayer be truly efficacious, certain conditions are required on the part of the object which is asked, of the subject praying, and of those for whom one prays.

(A) On the part of the object, the things which are asked ought to be such that they conduce to eternal salvation: for prayer, like other supernatural goods, ultimately tends to eternal beatitude.

Wherefore, if there is question of supernatural goods, namely salvation and the means necessary or truly useful for it, they can be asked absolutely, but not against or beyond the order of divine Providence. Thus graces by which all difficulties and temptations are removed, which in the present life are necessary for our probation, ought not to be asked; nor, without condition, graces gratis given, as the gift of prophecy or miracles, since from these pride is not rarely nourished.

Natural goods, as knowledge, prosperity, health, riches, honors, can be asked only conditionally, namely insofar as God foresees that they will profit us; for not rarely these are harmful to us. Say the same concerning the removal of certain evils, which can be useful for our sanctification. Hence it is not becoming to ask things altogether indifferent to salvation, for example, gain from a game. But to ask things morally evil, for example help for stealing or for killing an enemy, is in itself a grave sin, both because it involves desire of an evil thing and because a grave injury is inflicted upon God by asking that He cooperate in an evil action.

880. (B) On the part of the subject praying, the state of grace, humility, confidence, and perseverance are desired:

(a) The state of grace; for although the prayers of sinners are often heard, when otherwise they will to do penance, as is clear from the examples of the publican and the thief alleged above, nevertheless a special infallibility is attached to the prayers of the just, as is clear from many words of Scripture: "The eyes of the Lord are upon the just: and His ears unto their prayers";¹ - "If you abide in Me, and My words abide in you, you shall ask whatever you will, and it shall be done unto you";² - "If our heart do not reprehend us, we have confidence toward God; and whatsoever we shall ask, we shall receive of Him, because we keep His commandments and do those things which are pleasing before Him."³ And deservedly: for those who enjoy the state of grace are the friends of God, keep His commandments, and strive to please Him; therefore it is not wonderful that their prayers are more easily heard by God.

¹ Ps. 33:16.

² John 15:7.

³ 1 John 3:21-22.

881. (b) Humility, by which, conscious of our weakness and misery, we lean not upon our merits or strength, but upon the divine mercy. Thus indeed Abraham, who prayed thus:⁴ "I will speak to my Lord, whereas I am dust and ashes"; and thus Daniel:⁵ "For it is not for our justifications that we present our prayers before Thy face, but for the multitude of Thy tender mercies"; thus also the publican, humbly beseeching God, was heard, while the proud Pharisee, who trusted too much in his own justice, by no means pleased God.⁶ On the other hand it is openly said:⁷ "God resisteth the proud, and giveth grace to the humble." The reason is that God does not will to give His glory to another, and therefore refuses grace to those who abuse it in order to exalt themselves against Him.

⁴ Gen. 18:27.

⁵ Dan. 9:18.

⁶ Luke 18:9-14.

⁷ James 4:6.

(c) Confidence, which altogether trusts in the merits and promises of Christ. For this honors God, and sweetly disposes Him to hear us:⁸ "Because he hoped in Me, I will deliver him: he shall cry to Me, and I will hear him." Wherefore Christ required confidence of those whom He cured: "Have confidence, son, thy sins are forgiven thee."⁹ Hence also James said:¹⁰ "But let him ask in faith [confidence], nothing wavering. For he that wavereth is like a wave of the sea, which is moved and carried about by the wind. Therefore let not that man think that he shall receive anything of the Lord." Truly, if someone lacks confidence, by that very fact he doubts the goodness and promises of God, and therefore does not deserve to obtain mercy. "Let us go therefore with confidence to the throne of grace."¹¹

⁸ Ps. 90:14-15.

⁹ Matt. 9:2.

¹⁰ James 1:6-7.

¹¹ Heb. 4:16.

882. (d) Perseverance, because, while God grants certain goods at once, namely those which are necessary here and now, He does not usually give certain others except after assiduous prayers, so that meanwhile we may be better disposed for receiving graces. Christ teaches this by various parables and examples: thus the importunate friend finally obtains the loaves which first had been denied him;¹² thus the Canaanite woman, first repulsed, and indeed several times, on account of perseverance in prayer, obtains the healing of her daughter.¹³ - And indeed it is not rarely expedient that only after long and fervent prayers do we obtain what we desire; for thus we more vividly conceive our unworthiness and inability, and esteem more highly what is obtained with more difficulty.

¹² Luke 11:5-8.

¹³ Matt. 15:21-28.

883. (C) On the part of those for whom one prays. It is controverted among theologians whether prayer made for others is infallibly efficacious or not.

Many with St. Thomas respond negatively:¹⁴ "For it happens sometimes that prayer made for another does not obtain, even if it is made piously and perseveringly, and concerning things pertaining to salvation, because of the impediment which exists on the part of him for whom one prays, according to that saying:¹⁵ If Moses and Samuel shall stand before Me, My soul is not toward this people. Nevertheless prayer will be meritorious for the one praying, who prays from charity." Yet not a few, after Suarez,¹⁶ hold the affirmative opinion; for the words of Christ "Whatever you shall ask" are altogether universal; besides, prayer for others is not only commended, but is declared efficacious: "He that knoweth his brother to sin a sin which is not to death, let him ask, and life shall be given to him who sinneth not to death";¹⁷ - "Pray for one another that you may be saved; for the continual prayer of a just man availeth much."¹⁸

¹⁴ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 83, a. 7, ad 2.

¹⁵ Jer. 15:1.

¹⁶ Suarez, De religione, Tr. IV, lib. I, c. 27.

¹⁷ 1 John 5:16.

¹⁸ James 5:16.

In our judgment, the matter can be composed thus: prayer made for others is infallibly efficacious in the sense that it obtains some effect of grace; but those for whom one prays are sometimes badly disposed and pertinaciously resist the grace offered to them. - Whatever may be the case, to pray for others is a most excellent work of charity.

884. Corollary: concerning the Lord's Prayer. Among the prayers which we are accustomed to recite, the Lord's Prayer stands forth, which Christ Himself taught the apostles as the norm of other prayers. In it indeed, as St. Thomas rightly says,¹⁹ "not only are all things asked which we can desire, but also in that order in which they ought to be desired; so that this prayer not only instructs us to ask, but is also formative of our whole affection."

¹⁹ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 83, a. 9; many Fathers explained this Lord's Prayer, such as Tertullian, St. Cyprian, and, after them, the Catechism of the Council of Trent, p. IV. Cf. Hurter, Patrum opuscula selecta, t. II.

In the preface, very brief indeed but full of mysteries, filial confidence is stirred by these words: Our Father, who art in heaven. If He is Father, in Him shine forth charity, indulgence, kindness, mercy; if He is in heaven, His power is great and infinite; and therefore He can and wills kindly to hear our prayers. By the word our, the faithful are taught that they are brothers to one another and ought to pray for one another.

Moreover the petitions are ordered according to the order of charity, so that we attend first to God, then to ourselves. In relation to God, we ask that the sanctity and glory of the divine name be increased: Hallowed be Thy name; then, moreover, that the kingdom of God be extended, or the preaching and practice of the Gospel: "Thy kingdom come"; and therefore that the will of God be fulfilled on earth, His laws diligently observed and commandments kept, so that He may be able to reign in the minds of men: "Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." - In relation to ourselves, we ask first "our daily bread," that is, not only the supports of material life, but also and especially spiritual food, namely the word of God, the eucharistic bread, and the other graces by which the soul is nourished; afterwards, that the impediments to eternal beatitude be removed, namely sins: "And forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors"; from which we are powerfully moved to forgiving others, since the remission of sins depends upon the condonation of injuries; and consequently that we may overcome the temptations by which we are allured to sin: "And lead us not into temptation." Finally, as in a brief compendium, we ask that we be delivered from evil, not indeed from all evils, but only from those which can bring no utility to the soul; and that the evils by which we are sometimes pressed, we may bear with a patient, indeed even willing, soul.

885. Note. Thus far concerning prayer which is directed to God Himself. And indeed God alone is to be prayed to as the first and principal author and giver of goods. Since Christ is the God-Man, our prayers can and ought also to be directed to Him; besides, as man, He is the most perfect mediator, "always living to make intercession for us";²⁰ and therefore our prayers, offered through Christ, obtain greater efficacy.

²⁰ Heb. 7:25.

Besides, from what has been said in the Treatise on the Incarnate Word, n. 300-306, it is good and useful to invoke the saints, and especially the Blessed Virgin; for Trent declares:²¹ "that the Saints reigning together with Christ offer their prayers to God for men; that it is good and useful suppliantly to invoke them: and, in order to obtain benefits from God through His Son Jesus Christ our Lord, who alone is our Redeemer and Savior, to have recourse to their prayers, assistance, and help." From these things it is clear: (a) that the invocation of the saints is indeed good and useful, but not necessary for salvation; (b) that graces are to be expected not from the saints themselves, but from God; (c) that the intercession of the saints rests upon the merits of Christ, who alone is our Savior and Mediator properly so called, while the saints are mediators only improperly and secondarily.

²¹ Trent, sess. XXV, apud Denzinger, n. 860.

886. 1. Genuine concept of devotion. In order that the other offices of religion may be more easily fulfilled, devotion is infused into our hearts and increased by repeated acts, or the will of promptly handing oneself over to God and to His worship. For devotion is so called from devoting, and among the Gentiles the devoted were those who devoted themselves to the gods unto death for the safety of the commonwealth. Therefore it is proper to devotion to hand oneself wholly over to the service of God promptly and cheerfully. It can indeed be considered as an act, but here it is taken for a habitual disposition.

¹ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 82; Suarez, op. cit., Tr. IV, lib. II, c. 6-8; St. Francis de Sales, Introduction a la Vie devote (Philothea), where devotion is excellently treated.

(a) This indeed presupposes the love of God and arises from it, but it is as it were a more intense degree of charity. The first degree of charity consists in this, that all the precepts of God be rightly observed; but when we arrive at that degree of perfection that we not only keep the commandments, but also solicitously, diligently, promptly, and cheerfully do good works, charity receives the name of devotion. Wherefore, according to St. Francis de Sales, if charity is compared to fire, devotion can be likened to flame.

887. (b) Devotion therefore ought to be distinguished from diverse devotions, or spiritual acts and services by which worship toward such a mystery or such a saint is exercised: these are diverse according to the disposition and inclination of each one, and according to various times, while the former is substantially the same in all minds and in various ages. Besides, devotions have their force from interior devotion, and profit insofar as they increase this; wherefore, if true devotion is diminished by their multiplication, they are carefully to be cut back, lest devotion itself perish.

888. (c) From true devotion differs that sweet and sensible affection, or delight, which we sometimes experience in the service of God. For there are those who enjoy these consolations and a little later hand themselves over to vices, while others are deprived of them, who serve God from their whole heart and from all their strength. Nor is this wonderful: for pious emotions of this kind often arise from the natural temperament itself, and sometimes are also divinely granted to beginners, so that these may gradually be drawn to true piety by sensible affections. Therefore they are not to be despised,² since they deter us from the vanities and pleasures of the world: for the least spiritual joy far surpasses all the consolations of the world. Yet one must not trust too much in these pious affections: for they are something transitory and accessory, and they have value insofar as they draw us to solid piety. If they render us arrogant, presumptuous, vain, curious, impatient, disobedient, they are very pernicious; if, on the contrary, they make us more humble, kinder, more fervent, more prone to obedience, mortification, and the fulfillment of the duties of our state, they are truly useful and proceed from God.

² Wherefore this proposition 27 of Molinos was condemned by Innocent XI, Nov. 20, 1687 (Denzinger, n. 1114): "He who desires and embraces sensible devotion does not desire nor seek God, but himself; and he acts badly when he desires it and strives to have it, who walks by the internal way, both in sacred places and on solemn days." St. Francis de Sales discusses splendidly the utility and dangers of sensible consolations, and also spiritual aridities, Introduction a la Vie devote, p. IV, ch. 13-15.

Therefore when spiritual consolations occur, they are to be used for fostering humility, self-denial, and the mortification of passions and vices. But it must be kept before the mind that true and solid devotion is not that which rests upon pious emotions and is situated in the sensible appetite, but that which is nourished by faith and charity, remains in the will, and induces one to do arduous things for the sake of God and the neighbor.

889. 2. Means of progressing in devotion. That true devotion is very useful is clear from the fact that it renders us prompt and cheerful for fulfilling the offices of religion, and therefore greatly promotes spiritual progress, and brings true peace and internal joy. Therefore it is of the greatest moment to progress assiduously in devotion.

(A) For this, first, certain impediments must be removed: (a) a proclivity toward earthly consolations and pleasures; for no one can serve two masters, the world and Christ, pleasure and devotion, the flesh and the spirit, but between these two one must necessarily choose. For nothing turns us more away from the service of God than disordered affection for earthly and carnal things, since the mind ensnared by these delights is not able to savor the things that are of God: "For they that are according to the flesh mind the things that are of the flesh; but they that are according to the spirit mind the things that are of the spirit... Because the wisdom of the flesh is an enemy to God; for it is not subject to the law of God, neither can it be. And they who are in the flesh cannot please God."³

³ Rom. 8:5-8.

(b) Immoderate solicitude for temporal things, and excessive occupation in external affairs. The duty is indeed incumbent upon Christians of sustaining themselves and their own, and therefore of laboring strenuously; but it is a vice to be so immersed in business, labors, and earthly solicitudes, that scarcely any thought is had of heavenly things, and the offices of religion are passed over, or are fulfilled only negligently.

On this matter let the Lord be heard:⁴ "Therefore I say to you, be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on. Is not the life more than the meat, and the body more than the raiment?... For your Father knoweth that you have need of all these things. Seek ye therefore first the kingdom of God, and His justice, and all these things shall be added unto you." Therefore, among the various solicitudes and occupations of the world, the mind should sometimes be raised to God; and fixed times for praying and thinking of salvation should be predetermined, lest the mind be plunged into the depth of earthly solicitude.

⁴ Matt. 6:25-33; let the whole passage be read with the comparisons there given.

890. (c) Excessive curiosity, and immoderate affection for studies, even theological ones; for these, unless they are tempered by pure intention and frequent elevation of the mind to God, easily drink up the sap of devotion and completely dry out the mind. On the contrary, however, if we devote ourselves to study with the intention of pleasing God and instructing the neighbor, if we use acquired knowledge for nourishing our own faith and charity and that of others, we certainly progress much in devotion.⁵

⁵ To the point St. Thomas says, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 82, a. 3, ad 3: "Knowledge and whatever else pertains to greatness is an occasion for man to trust in himself; and therefore not to hand himself over totally to God... Yet if man perfectly subjects knowledge and any other perfection to God, devotion is increased from this very thing."

Wherefore St. Bernard earnestly exhorts his disciple and friend Eugenius III, raised to the chair of Peter, that among the innumerable occupations by which he is pressed, he not neglect consideration:⁶ "And first indeed consideration purifies its own fountain, that is, the mind from which it arises. Then it rules the affections, directs acts, corrects excesses, composes morals, honors and orders life, finally confers knowledge both of divine and human things... This is what pre-orders things to be done, and reconsiders things done, so that nothing may reside in the mind either uncorrected or needing correction. This is what foresees adversities in prosperity, and in adversities as if does not feel them: of which the one belongs to fortitude, the other to prudence."

⁶ St. Bernard, De consideratione, lib. I, c. 7, P. L., CLXXXII, 737.

891. Moreover the positive means by which devotion is fostered are: (a) attentive and pious consideration of divine benefits and of one's own defects.

St. Thomas splendidly declares this:⁷ for since devotion is an act of the will, it is necessary that it proceed from some consideration of the intellect. "A twofold consideration induces one to this: one indeed which is on the part of the divine goodness and His benefits, according to that saying:⁸ It is good for me to adhere to God, and to put my hope in the Lord God; and this consideration excites love, which is the proximate cause of devotion. The other is on the part of the man considering his own defects, from which he needs to lean upon God, according to that saying:⁹ I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains, whence help shall come to me: my help is from the Lord who made heaven and earth; and this consideration excludes presumption, by which someone is impeded from subjecting himself to God, while he leans upon his own strength." Among the divine benefits, it especially helps to recall the Lord's passion: for while we recall Christ's anguish, torments, and ignominious death, we easily understand that our whole life, all labors, and all services are owed to Him who suffered such things for us.

⁷ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 82, a. 3.

⁸ Ps. 72:27.

⁹ Ps. 120:1.

892. (b) Nor is frequent thought of the divine presence less profitable, with brief ejaculatory prayers, and the often repeated offering of actions. For by these exercises our whole life is ordered to God; and certainly as often as we turn the eyes of the mind to God, especially if we recall that He dwells assiduously in the temple of our heart, and offer our actions to Him as spiritual victims, so often do we dedicate and devote ourselves and our goods to God, and thus devotion wondrously grows.

(c) Finally, prayer itself greatly helps devotion, just as it is rendered easier through devotion: for there is a mutual and constant influence of prayer upon devotion, and of devotion upon prayer. For since true devotion is a gift of God, we ought earnestly to ask it; on the other hand, since devotion renders us prompt for the service of God, it makes us pour forth more fervent prayers.

893. Corollary. From this it follows that genuine devotion is fitting not only for clerics and religious, but also for every kind of vocation and state of men: for all can and ought to love God and promptly and cheerfully order their life to Him. If devotion were situated in fasts and tears, in the assiduous reciting of prayers, or contemplation, in austerities or vigils, it would indeed be adapted to few. But true devotion, far from hindering the duties of any state from being fulfilled, greatly helps us to execute them more perfectly: thus a mother of a family who is truly devout will better love her husband and children, because she will strive to do good to them not only on account of natural motives, but also on account of God and Christ. Therefore let spiritual directors take care, adhering to the footsteps of St. Francis de Sales,¹⁰ to teach devotion in such a way that they may sweetly induce penitents to fulfill all the duties of their proper state more perfectly.

¹⁰ Cf. St. Francis de Sales, Introduction a la Vie devote, p. I, ch. 3; Hamon, Vie de S. Fr. de Sales, Paris, 1858, l. V, ch. 1.

Besides sins of omission, which can be understood rather easily from what has been said above, there are two genera of sins which are opposed to religion: superstition, by excess; and irreligiosity, by contempt.

² St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 92-100; Suarez, op. cit., Tr. III; Billuart, diss. VII, VIII; St. Alphonsus, lib. IV, De Praeceptis, n. 1-117; Lehmkuhl, n. 351-404; Ballerini-Palmieri, n. 325-531.

894. Superstition (from the word super-sto) etymologically designates that which is excessive (beyond that which is due); and as to the thing, a vice by which divine worship is exhibited to a creature to whom it is not due, or to God, yet in an undue manner.

We shall speak: 1. of idolatry; 2. of superstitious observances; 3. of modern facts of magnetism and spiritism, in which supernatural agents can intervene.

895. 1. Notion. Idolatry is situated in this, that divine worship is exhibited to some creature. When someone offers supreme worship to an idol, thinking that it is God, idolatry includes an error of the intellect, infidelity or heresy: such were the Gentiles and Manichaeans, such are modern pagans. But if someone, knowing that there is one God, exhibits divine honor to some creature, from hatred of God or cupidity of obtaining something from a demon, there is not indeed infidelity, but the greatest depravity of heart.

Under another respect, idolatry is true and internal, when someone has the intention of adoring a false deity; simulated or external, if someone, from fear or command, externally adores an idol, without internally wishing to offer this service: thus, in the time of persecutions, not a few, who were called the lapsed, sacrificed to idols.

896. 2. Malice. Idolatry is in itself a most grave sin. (a) It was most strictly prohibited by the first precept of the Decalogue, and indeed under most grave penalties; truly, from the whole history of the Jews it is clear that they were severely reproved and chastised with dreadful calamities whenever, having abandoned the Supreme Deity, they sacrificed to false gods. (b) In the first ages of the Church, idolatry was held as one of the most grave sins, on account of which public penance was imposed, often prolonged even to the end of life: hence reconciliation was not granted to the lapsed except a little before death, or when a new persecution arose.

(c) Truly, he who bestows divine honor upon a creature, "as much as is in him, makes another God in the world, diminishing the divine principality";² and, just as in the civil order, it is most grave to bestow royal honor upon another than the true king, because thus the whole order of the commonwealth is disturbed, so he who exhibits divine honors to a false deity overturns the authority of God.

² St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 94, a. 3.

897. But simulated idolatry is less grave than internal idolatry, although of itself it constitutes a mortal sin both because of the external denial of faith (above, n. 653), and because of the scandal given to others. Furthermore idolaters who ignorantly worship false deities sin less gravely than heretics who knowingly adulterate the faith which they have received.

898. Corollary. Those approach near to idolatry who so worship and invoke the saints, relics, and images, that they believe there is in them by their own powers the power of bestowing natural or supernatural gifts; for thus that which belongs to the Creator alone is attributed to creatures. Wherefore the faithful are carefully to be instructed, lest perhaps, while they indulge in these devotions, they gradually fall into superstition.

899. 1. General concept. Superstitious observances are called those modes of acting by which a vain and disproportionate means is applied so that some effect may be obtained. Therefore two things manifest a vain observance: the manifest insufficiency of the means for obtaining the effect, and the infallibility which is attributed to these means. For when these two concur, the intended effect can be expected only from a supernatural agent; and thus there is superstition, because such an effect is expected either from God or His angels, against the divinely instituted order, or from the demon, through a pact either explicit or implicit.

¹ Besides the authors already cited, cf. Del Rio, S.J.; Ami du Clerge, Le Spiritisme, t. XXII, 1900, pp. 328, 488, 758; Le Demonisme, t. XXIV, 1902, pp. 289, 625, 849, 897, 977, 1057. Yet it seems to us that there more is attributed to the devil than is necessary, if the facts are critically inspected.

Thus these or similar things savor of superstition: to will to hear Mass before sunrise, or with a certain number and order of candles, celebrated by a priest whose name is John, etc., if there is the persuasion that by these various circumstances special and extraordinary effects of grace are infallibly obtained: for there is no proportion, either of itself or from divine institution, between these ridiculous things and the intended effect. - Generally this kind of superstition does not exceed venial sin, on account of good faith and simplicity; yet it must carefully be reprehended and corrected, because otherwise men who are little strengthened in faith are kept away from true religion.

900. But more often an extraordinary effect is expected from the devil or an evil spirit. Sometimes there is as it were an explicit pact (real or imaginary) with the demon, or at least he is expressly invoked; sometimes there is only tacit invocation, insofar as the agent knows that the cause applied is unfit for obtaining the effect, unless an evil spirit intervenes.

But experiments which are made by experts, for detecting new laws of nature hitherto unknown, differ altogether from these superstitions. For there are many hidden things which can be detected only by patient and long observation; and not a few phenomena which formerly were ascribed to magic are today explained naturally.

901. 2. Specifically concerning divination. Among superstitions is enumerated divination, by which the demon is expressly or tacitly invoked for knowing hidden things by his help.

It can be manifold: evocation of spirits, when these appear in a sensible form; necromancy, when the apparition of the dead is sought; oneiromancy, if the manifestation of hidden things is made through a dream; pythonism, if, through men or women, spirits teach hidden things; haruspicy, if secrets are sought from the entrails of animals immolated to the gods; augury or auspice, if the manifestation of hidden things is expected from the cries of animals, the song or flight of birds; chiromancy or physiognomy, when someone tries to detect future things from the lines of the hands or countenance; sortilege, if knowledge of hidden things is sought from arbitrarily chosen signs, for example from the cast of dice, etc.

902. 3. Vain observance. This differs from divination, because it is ordered not so much to detecting hidden things as to producing some effect.

A threefold kind is usually distinguished: (a) the notorious art, or the art of acquiring knowledge without labor, by means altogether unfit, for example by uttering certain words; (b) the art of healings,⁴ or the art of curing diseases by unfit means, for example by amulets hung on the neck, by diverse signs or words which are thought to produce their effect ex opere operato; (c) malefice, by which someone, through similarly unfit means, tries to inflict some evil upon the neighbor; it is called amatory if it tends to excite a most vehement love or hatred, and venomous if it tends to bring harm upon a person, family, or goods.

⁴ This superstition indeed ought altogether to be distinguished from the gift, natural or supernatural, of curing certain diseases, which belongs to certain men. When these do nothing ridiculous, and otherwise are honest, and have not entered into any pact with the devil, they are not to be prohibited from exercising this gift, especially if they protest that they will to reject whatever would be diabolical. Cf. Noldin, n. 161.

903. 4. Concerning the malice of superstitious observances. (A) It must first be noted that many of the phenomena which are called superstitious must be ascribed to fraud or imagination. For since it is very well known that there is in men an innate propensity for detecting hidden things or seeing marvelous things, in all ages and regions clever men have been found, greedy for money, who, in order to favor curiosity, feigned that they had commerce with supernatural agents, and by skillful industry deceived them.⁵ Besides, those who are endowed with a vivid imagination often take phantasms for true phenomena,⁶ especially when a third person suggests it. - Moreover certain other facts which formerly were attributed to the devil, when the matter has been better weighed, can be ascribed to natural forces: for recent discoveries show that there are many forces, formerly unknown, by which marvelous effects are obtained. - Yet, since there truly are evil spirits, who solicit men to evil, as was said in De Deo Creante, n. 91-99, it is not wonderful that, by their help, preternatural and prodigious things are sometimes accomplished, so that the unwary may more easily be deceived and drawn to illicit things. Therefore in individual cases all circumstances ought carefully to be weighed, so that it can be discerned whether the alleged facts are diabolical or not, and whether penitents had a superstitious intention or not.

⁵ Thus the famous Home, who in great cities, and especially in Paris, had exercised the magic art and had obtained responses from rotating tables, when near death declared that he himself had given responses of this kind. Cf. P. Davis, La fin du monde des esprits, le spiritisme devant la raison et la science, Paris, 1887, p. 287; Surbled, Spirites et Mediums, Paris, 1901, p. 93-105.

⁶ Malefactors, who were thought to gather to celebrate a sabbath, used narcotic medicines, and for the most part dreamed that they saw the things which they afterward narrated. Surbled, La morale, t. IV, ch. 19.

904. (B) Whatever may be the case concerning the speculative question, the moral malice of superstitions ought to be judged especially from the intention itself of the agents, from the effects which they foresaw, and from the dangers of sinning to which they expose themselves.

(a) First, if there was an explicit pact with the demon, real or imaginary, or an express invocation of the same, it is certainly a most grave sin; for he inflicts a grave injury upon God who seriously enters, or wishes to enter, into society with the devil, the most bitter enemy of God: "Neither let there be found among you... any one that consulteth soothsayers, or observeth dreams and omens, neither let there be any wizard, nor charmer, nor any one that consulteth pythonic spirits, or fortune tellers, or that seeketh the truth from the dead; for the Lord abhorreth all these things."⁷

⁷ Deut. 18:10-11; cf. Lev. 19:31; 20:27.

(b) Even when there is no explicit pact, if, from superstition, a means is knowingly applied which is unfit for the intended effect, a grave sin is committed of itself, because diabolical intervention is implicitly desired. Yet, in this case, many are excused from mortal sin on account of simplicity or ignorance, or because they act from mere curiosity, especially if there is not a certain expectation of the event, but only a certain hope. Nevertheless penitents are to be turned away from superstitions of this kind, which gradually divert the mind from true religion.

(c) If someone uses malefice, he sins besides against charity and justice; and if harm is truly inflicted upon the neighbor, there is an obligation of repairing it.

(d) In doubt whether phenomena are natural or diabolical, the principles concerning cooperation are to be applied (above, n. 185): therefore it is licit to posit an action which of itself is not evidently evil, provided there is a proportionately grave reason for acting, and the good effect is intended, not however the evil one, or diabolical cooperation.

905. (C) There are certain extraordinary phenomena which today are quite commonly held, or at least can be held, as natural, and therefore are licit from what has already been said: (a) Thus the use of the divining rod for detecting waters or certain metals cannot be condemned: for the movement of this rod is rather easily explained from a certain influence of water or metals; in truth pious Christians and priests use it without any fear of diabolical intervention.⁸

⁸ Revue du monde invisible, Oct. 15, 1898; July 15, 1899; Surbled, Le secret des Sourciers, in Science Catholique, Sept. 1902.

(b) Sometimes certain hidden things are manifested to those dreaming, and sometimes to those awake, either by God,⁹ or in a natural way through a certain, as they say, telepathy;¹⁰ on the other hand, it is commonly admitted that the demon can excite some phantasms in the mind of those sleeping.¹¹ Therefore from the circumstances it must be discerned whether these dreams or presentiments are sent by God, or are diabolical, or natural. If they proceed from God, the thing manifested bears nothing ridiculous before it, impels to good, leaves the soul tranquil and also more cheerful for performing works of piety. - But it would be rash to direct one's actions from those things which appeared in sleep, since hallucination frequently occurs in this matter. - Sometimes, however, to posit or omit some indifferent action on account of a dream is not prohibited, since warnings received in sleep are sometimes true.

⁹ Num. 12:6; Acts 2:17.

¹⁰ Facts of telepathy, which occur not only through sleep but also in the state of wakefulness, you will find set forth in the work Phantasms of the Living, by Gurney, Myers, and Podmore, rendered in French by L. Marillier under this title Hallucinations telepathiques, Paris, Alcan; Surbled, Morale, t. IV, ch. 14; C. Flammarion, L'Inconnu et les Problemes psychiques, Paris, 1900; J. Maxwell, Les Phenomenes psychiques, 2nd ed., 1904, Paris, Alcan, p. 183-191; Civilta cattolica, Serie XVII, vol. VII, p. 144, 411, 673, etc.

¹¹ This is also inferred from Deut. 18:10.

906. 1. Historical overview. In our age, under the name of magnetism or spiritism, many phenomena have been made public, concerning which it can be inquired whether they are diabolical or not.

(a) The principal promoter of animal magnetism is recognized to be Anthony Mesmer, a Viennese physician, who around the end of the eighteenth century, seeking new modes of curing, thought that he had found a marvelous means in a certain most subtle fluid, which is similar to magnetic fluid, and is supposed to flow from the bodies of animals, indeed to pervade absolutely all bodies. His disciples developed his system, especially Puysegur and J. Braid.¹ There are especially three phenomena attributed to magnetism, which are produced either by gestures of the hands, or by magnetized substances, or even by the simple nod of the will expressed in words: convulsions, and various physiological effects which are diverse according to the diverse condition of the sick; a certain state of paralysis and catalepsy, in which the members become rigid and sensibility vanishes; magnetic sleep, in which the magnetized person, although deprived of the use of the senses, nevertheless sees, hears, and speaks, indeed knows marvelous things which before were unknown to him, and perceives actions which are done secretly or far away. - Hypnotism soon succeeded magnetism; its phenomena were described above, n. 134.

¹ Cf. Deleuze, Histoire critique du magnetisme animal, Paris, 1813; Puysegur, Memoire pour servir a l'histoire... du magnetisme, Paris, 1830; J. Braid, Neurypnology, or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep, London, 1843; A. Wood, What is Mesmerism, Edinburgh, 1851; Heidenhain, Animal Magnetism, London, 1880; Perrone, De Virtute Religionis, n. 400 sq.; Encyclopaedia Britannica, word "Magnetism animal"; Gasc-Desfosses, Magnetisme vital, Paris, 1897; Surbled, Morale, t. IV, ch. 6. - Concerning diabolical obsession and possession we spoke in De Deo Creante, n. 95-99. Sometimes, however, certain facts similar to obsession are mere hallucinations. Cf. Veronnet, La possession diabolique, in Revue du Clerge francais, t. XXXVII (1904), p. 570, and t. XXXIX, p. 423.

907. (b) Modern spiritism² had its origin in the Federated States of America. Already in the year 1832, three boys playing, with a hand placed upon a certain table, made it rotate, and practice of this kind immediately was diffused far and wide through America. But in the year 1848 a new phase of the same thing began in a little town of the State of New York, called Hydesville; namely, in the house which the Fox family, of the Methodist sect, inhabited, knocks and noises were heard: indeed amazed, but not terrified, two young girls who lived there, thinking that a spirit was present, asked from it that it would respond by distinct blows; and this indeed succeeded in such a way that a little afterward they became mediators between spirits and persons who wished to communicate with them. Sometimes also various utensils of the house were thrown here and there, whether in closed rooms, or in the presence of the Fox family. From this the matter became frequent not only in America but in all Europe, and in the years 1852-1854 became common. Everywhere it was noted that the principal phenomena occurred only when certain persons were present; these persons are called media or mediators, since the phenomena are produced only through their mediation. Nor do individual media have equal force or aptitude for accomplishing them, but some are more skilled than others; besides, the same media do not seem equally apt for producing the same effects in any session whatever, but succeed more or less according to various circumstances. - Moreover there were diverse forms of spiritism: for sometimes spirits gave responses through rotating tables, either by striking various blows, or by writing with the help of a pen or stylus, or by the hand of the medium; but sometimes there was a direct evocation and apparition of spirits. All these things indeed were accompanied by various mechanical phenomena, for example of levitation, by which the laws of nature concerning the gravity of bodies seemed to be suspended; luminous phenomena, with flashes and splendors suddenly appearing; or even by noises imitating the whistling of winds or the roar of waters; or by harmonious sounds imitating human voices; physiological phenomena, namely the vital functions being more or less disturbed, but especially the nervous system being more or less shaken and as it were exhausted. Yet it must by no means be doubted that very many frauds have intervened in all these things, and it is often difficult to distinguish the true from the false.³

² E. W. Capron, Modern Spiritualism, Boston, 1855; Edmonds and Dexter, Spiritualism, New York, 1854-57; Allan Kardec, Le livre des esprits, Le livre des mediums, Paris, 1864-1865; O. Brownson, The Spirit Rapper; Crookes, Researches on the Phenomena of Spiritualism; Encyclopaedia Britannica, word "Spiritualism"; E. Meric, Le Merveilleux et la Science, Paris, 1887; id., L'imagination et les prodiges, Paris, 1905; E. Dupouy, Sciences occultes et physiologie psychique, Paris, 1898; Surbled, Spiritualisme et spiritisme, Paris, 1898; Gibier, Le Spiritisme, Paris, Doin, 1904; Grasset, Le Spiritisme devant la Science, Paris, Masson, 1904; Maxwell, Les Phenomenes psychiques, where the phenomena observed by him are described methodically and accurately. - L. Denis sets forth modern theories of spiritism, Christianisme et spiritisme, Paris, Leymarie, 1903; id., Apres la mort.

³ For not a few of the persons who boast that they are media try to deceive not only the simple, but also the learned; others, who are truly media, use frauds to amplify the phenomena which they produce. Cf. Proceedings Soc. for Psych. Researches, VI, p. 253; XIII, p. 45; Maxwell, op. cit., p. 116 and 256-312. Thus, concerning the Fox sisters, certain American physicians said: "The double raps were produced by a rapid movement of dislocation and relocation of the knee" (Maxwell, op. cit., p. 258).

908. 2. Principal phenomena. Among the phenomena which have been scientifically weighed and are thought to be free from fraud, these especially can be enumerated:

(A) Physical phenomena: (a) the noise of a table, whose foot, raising itself and afterward descending, strikes the earth and thus gives responses; these motions and noises sometimes occur not only when the bystanders extend their palms over the table, but also when they have already withdrawn from it.⁴ Sometimes also a rotating table strikes one or another of the bystanders. (b) Objects fixed to the walls, or those which are in the room, fall or are moved confusedly, not without great noise; after some time, all return to their former state.⁵ (c) Sometimes a stool or table, where the medium sits, is raised into the air (which is called levitation), without any cause of motion appearing.⁶ (d) Not rarely flames or lights of diverse color appear in a dark room.⁷ (e) Sometimes human hands, feet, a head appear; indeed, although rarely, an entire human body, ordinarily clothed in long and broad garments, walking, speaking with those present, which leaves a photographic impression of itself, either in paper, or in wax or gypsum, and otherwise can be touched:⁸ these phenomena are called materializations of spirits, because they are thought to be the bodily apparition of some spirit or of the soul of one deceased. But many are persuaded that these spirits are nothing other than human persons who are called media, clothed with special garments and masks; that the matter is thus has been discovered in some cases.⁹

⁴ Maxwell, op. cit., p. 67-85.

⁵ Maxwell reports facts of this kind observed by trustworthy witnesses, op. cit., p. 232-255. To this belong the phenomena which are called haunting, haunted house, concerning which see E. Dupouy, op. cit., p. 273-309; Surbled, Hantise, in Science Catholique, 1899; Civilta cattolica, Serie XVIII, vol. III and IV.

⁶ Maxwell, p. 87-92.

⁷ Maxwell, p. 118-146.

⁸ Maxwell, p. 135-162 and 209-212. - Especially celebrated is the apparition, for three years, of the spirit who called herself Katie King; the very well-known W. Crookes described her various manifestations, who affirms that he observed not a few differences between the bodily form of this spirit and the medium, namely Miss Cook. Apud Dupouy, op. cit., p. 216-231. Yet certain persons think that the most learned Crookes was deceived: thus Davis, op. cit., p. 39-90; the same author explains, p. 224, how in New York those who wish to deceive the common people by apparitions of spirits are taught.

⁹ Cf. Davis, op. cit., p. 163 sq.

909. (B) Intellectual phenomena. By the blows of a rotating table, or by the writing of the medium, or even by conversation with the same, certain hidden or secret things can be known. (a) Sometimes facts are manifested which occur in a distant place, for example the illness or death of some person;¹⁰ at other times objects are detected which had been lost or placed in a hidden place. (b) Often indifferent things and things little connected among themselves are brought forth; not rarely false things are mixed with true.¹¹ (c) Generally the responses given are accommodated to the mind, disposition, and dispositions of those present; if they are Christians and devout, nothing is said against religion, but rather the doctrine of Christ and worship toward God are commended. But if impious or unbelieving persons are present, certain Catholic dogmas are denied, especially the eternity of punishments, the indissolubility of the matrimonial bond; the name of God is retained, but a little afterward pantheism is proposed.¹² Finally, when men of little honesty are present, shameful things are sometimes brought forth and commended. - But whether secrets of hearts and future events are revealed with certainty is not so certain; for the alleged facts seem to some to be nothing other than those things which probably can be detected or foreseen from things already known.

¹⁰ Dupouy, op. cit., p. 115-126 and 140-143, 151-173; Gurney, Myers, Podmore, op. cit.

¹¹ Maxwell, op. cit., p. 202-212; 242-255.

¹² This is clear, for example, from the works edited by Allan Kardec, Le livre des esprits, Le livre des mediums.

910. 3. Various opinions concerning the cause of these phenomena. Although certain persons still deny most of the facts hitherto described, today they are rather commonly recognized as true by many even unbelievers, except however apparitions of spirits, as is clear from the authors cited, not a few of whom admit no revelation. Nevertheless they are explained in diverse ways:

(a) Some say that all these things are merely natural, although the same cannot be scientifically explained because of the limits of modern science; but as science progresses, the natural reason for these things will at last one day be manifested.¹³ (b) Others, on the contrary, hold that at least the principal and almost all facts of this kind must be attributed to the devil;¹⁴ for, on the one hand, they not only go beyond the laws of nature, but also often contradict them; on the other, they cannot be ascribed either to God or to the good angels, since ridiculous, false things, contrary to faith and morals, are often found mixed with them; therefore they must be attributed to the devil alone.

¹³ Thus, among others: A. Maury, La magie et l'astrologie dans l'antiquite et le moyen-age, Paris, 1864; C. Richet, Preface to the already cited work of Maxwell; Gibier, op. cit.; M. de Rochas, Les etats profonds de l'hypnose.

¹⁴ Franco, L'hypnotisme remis a la mode, Paris, 1891; id., La nouvelle theorie de la suggestion, Paris, 1892; Ch. Helot, Nevroses et possession diaboliques, Paris, Bloud, 1897.

(c) Between these two extremes, not a few Catholics are found who ascribe many of these phenomena to the laws of nature, and only certain ones to a supernatural agent, whose nature, in any case whatever, ought to be judged from the circumstances, according to the laws of the discernment of spirits.¹⁵ And we assent to these. For since new laws of nature, or at least new applications of the same, are detected daily, and on the other hand supernatural agents usually intervene rarely, a fact often occurring can be held as natural, probably at least, as long as the contrary is not morally certain. Ferraris had already wisely observed this.¹⁶

¹⁵ Thus Meric, Le merveilleux et la Science, and in the periodical La Revue du monde invisible; Coconnier, L'hypnotisme franc; P. G. Moreau, L'hypnotisme, etude scientifique et religieuse, Paris, 1891; Guibert, Etude sur l'hypnotisme; Surbled, Spirites et Mediums; id., Les Frontieres du surnaturel; Lescoeur, La Science et les faits surnaturels contemporains, Paris, Roger, 1900; P. de la Barre, L'ordre de la nature et le miracle; P. Grasset, L'hypnotisme et la suggestion, Paris, 1903; id., Le spiritisme devant la Science, 1904.

¹⁶ Ferraris, Prompta Bibliotheca, word "superstitio."

911. 4. The more probable opinion is proposed. (A) Moreover the opinion which we defend seems clearly to be inferred from various responses of the Holy Office concerning magnetism.

Thus, on June 23, 1840, the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, to the question whether magnetism, taken generally and in itself, ought to be considered licit or illicit, responded: "Every error, sortilege, and explicit or implicit invocation of the demon being removed, the use of magnetism, namely the mere act of applying physical means otherwise licit, is not morally forbidden, provided it does not tend to an illicit end, or in any way depraved. But the application of principles and means purely physical to things and effects truly supernatural, so that they may be physically explained, is nothing but an altogether illicit and heretical deception."¹ From this it is clear that not every species of magnetism (say the same of hypnotism) is condemned, but only that by which effects truly supernatural are expected from merely physical means. Moreover what those supernatural effects are is declared in the Encyclical of the Holy Office, issued on Wednesday, July 30, 1856, and sent to all Bishops: "Although by this general decree the licitness or illicitness in the use or abuse of magnetism is sufficiently explained; yet the malice of men has so increased that, neglecting the licit pursuit of knowledge, and rather pursuing curious things, with great loss of souls and detriment to civil society itself, they boast that they have obtained a certain principle of soothsaying and divining. Hence, by the tricks of somnambulism and clear vision, as they call them, little women, carried away by gestures not always modest, babble that they see all invisible things, and undertake discourses about religion itself, evoke the souls of the dead, receive responses, detect unknown and distant things, and rashly presume to exercise other superstitious things of this kind, certain to obtain great gain for themselves and their masters by divining. In all these things, whatever art or illusion they may finally use, since physical means are ordered to non-natural effects, there is an altogether illicit and heretical deception, and scandal against the honesty of morals."²

¹ Collectanea S. C. de Prop. F., n. 1743.

² Acta Sanctae Sedis, t. I, p. 177; Collectanea, n. 1754.

912. (B) But if we descend to particulars, these things can be established:

(a) When there is question of merely physical phenomena, such as rotations of tables, blows, various motions even of levitation, they are not to be attributed to a preternatural agent, unless it is morally certain that these same things, from various circumstances, evidently contradict the laws of nature. For many today probably think that there is in the human body, especially of certain persons in whom the nervous system preemininently stands out, a certain fluid, analogous to the magnetic or electric fluid, which can be projected outwardly and influence surrounding objects, either by immediate contact, or by mediate contact transmitted through the ether;³ and thus, at least hypothetically, the blows and movements of rotating tables can be explained.

³ To the point S. Cox, apud Davis, op. cit., p. 293: "The theory of psychic force is simply to recognize a fact almost indisputable under some respects, but still imperfectly known under others. This fact establishes that at an indefinite distance from the body of certain persons, having a special nervous organization, there exists a force producing, without the aid of muscles, a particular action capable of giving motion or making solid substances move, and of producing sounds in these same bodies."

913. (b) The same can be said concerning intellectual phenomena which do not transcend the intellectual powers of those present and of the medium; for if, under the influence of the medium, responses are given, they certainly do not proceed from the table itself, nor necessarily from a supernatural agent, but only from the very mind of the person who, by force of the fluid emitted by him, directs the motion of the table. - On the contrary, however, if the phenomena denote knowledge of things which surpass the capacity either of the medium or of those present, they ought to be attributed to a supernatural agent; such are, according to the Roman Ritual, "to speak with many words in an unknown tongue, or to understand one speaking; to disclose distant and hidden things; to show powers above the nature of one's age or condition; and other things of this kind, which, when several concur, are greater indications." From this it follows that generally not one of these indications suffices for producing moral certainty, but several are desired. As to speech in an unknown tongue, it is not enough, in a state of feverish excitement, to recite certain words which were heard formerly, but it is necessary that someone indubitably show that he has suddenly learned or truly understands a language which he by no means knew. As to distant and hidden things, it is not enough to conjecture them, or even to see something about them in a certain state of hyperesthesia;⁴ but, if things which can be known only by revelation or inspiration are distinctly manifested, such as secrets of hearts, future events, and indeed not conjecturally, but with certainty, this must be ascribed to a supernatural agent. But what kind of agent this is cannot be defined except from all the adjuncts, from object, end, and circumstances, by investigating whether all these things tend to good or to evil.

⁴ For certain facts of telepathy or clear vision, which occur transiently in a state of hyperesthesia (that is, abnormal sensibility), are not wholly certain indications of supernatural intervention.

914. 5. Practical conclusions. Whatever may be the case concerning the nature and cause of these phenomena, these things seem to be established in practice:

(A) The faithful are carefully to be turned away from the use of magnetism, hypnotism, and spiritism for the sake of mere curiosity; for it usually disturbs the nervous system and prepares the way for neurasthenia and hysteria, concerning which above, n. 130-131; besides, it favors superstition, and turns the mind away from the practice of true religion, insofar namely as those who are addicted to these extraordinary things neglect the ordinary duties of Christian life as too common; not rarely it stirs up dissensions between persons and families, by spreading suspicions or defamations; sometimes it also harms good morals, insofar as young persons of different sex are present at these gatherings, and seek responses from the medium which are less honorable.

915. (a) Hence, on July 1, 1841, the use of magnetism was declared illicit, as it was being expounded by the Bishop of Lausanne; and among other things this was being expounded:⁵ the magnetized person, who is generally of the female sex, questioned about her own illness and the illness of persons absent and entirely unknown to her, although evidently unlearned, most accurately states anatomical matters; she points out the cause, seat, nature of internal diseases in the human body, which are most difficult for experts to know and define, and unfolds their progress, variations, and complications, and this by proper terms; often also she exactly pronounces the duration of the said diseases, and prescribes the simplest and most efficacious remedies. If the hair of an absent person is placed against the palm of the magnetized woman, she immediately declares whose hair it is, where the person to whom it belongs now is, what he is doing, and discusses his illness no otherwise than if, after the manner of physicians, she herself were looking within the body. With covered eyes she can read a book or manuscript, open or closed, placed upon the head or stomach. - Deservedly indeed the use of such magnetism was prohibited, since, from the things set forth, it is very dangerous and can be attributed either to fraud or to the devil; in either case the simple are deceived, are made prone to vain superstitions, and, while they intend to be cured, can contract graver diseases.

⁵ You have the complete petition apud Gury-Ballerini, n. 280.

916. (b) The indiscriminate use of hypnotism likewise is illicit, because, as physicians admit, unless it is cautiously applied by honorable and skilled men, it brings in almost the same dangers as magnetism in both the physical⁶ and moral order, insofar namely as the hypnotized person, losing the use of reason for some time, depends wholly, as to the exercise of his own activity, upon the nod of the hypnotizer and is subject to his dominion. But if it is applied within its own limits, without any intention of rashly knowing hidden and future things, by physicians or physiologists, both skilled and honorable, with due caution, and for a grave cause, it is not in itself illicit.⁷ For, according to Catholics who have investigated these things, hypnotic phenomena which are certain do not seem to go beyond the powers of the natural order; on the other hand, the temporary privation of the use of reason can be permitted for a grave cause, as indeed sleep induced by ether is permitted; moreover abuses which can arise from this can be forestalled by due caution; indeed some utility can arise from the prudent use of hypnotism, not only as to the cure of diseases, but also as to the correction of depraved habits: for experience shows that certain young men, given to drunkenness and lust, have been corrected somewhat by mental suggestion prudently applied.⁸ Therefore hypnotism is not illicit in itself, but, as dangerous, is to be applied only cautiously. - Besides, the good effects described above are produced more prudently, without disturbance of the nerves, by suggestion in the state of wakefulness.⁹

⁶ Grasset, L'hypnotisme, p. 352-369; Coconnier, op. cit., p. 155-158.

⁷ Lehmkuhl, n. 994, note 1; Ballerini-Palmieri, n. 365; Coconnier, p. 260 sq.

⁸ Coconnier, op. cit., p. 215 sq. - In truth, the Holy Office, July 26, 1899 (Collectanea, t. II, n. 2061), responded that new experiments can be tolerated, after a protestation that one wills to have no part in preternatural facts has been made, provided danger of scandal is absent, and there is not question of facts which certainly go beyond the forces of nature.

⁹ Cf. Grasset, La Psychotherapie, in Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15, 1905, p. 350.

917. (c) But spiritism, or the evocation of spirits, when it truly happens, is a superstition illicit under grave sin; for good spirits are not accustomed to appear to men, unless they are sent by God for promoting His glory; therefore, if sometimes spirits seem to favor human curiosity, they certainly are not good, but evil. Hence it is necessary to exhort the faithful that for no reason, not even from curiosity, should they assist at gatherings where the phenomena of spiritism are exhibited. And so the Holy Office, on April 24, 1917, declared that it is not licit, through a Medium or without a Medium, hypnotism being applied or not, to assist at spiritistic manifestations, even those bearing before themselves the appearance of honesty or piety, even with tacit or express protestation that one wills to have no part with malign spirits.

918. (B) But if there is question of expert men who wish scientifically to weigh psychic and biological phenomena, so that, insofar as can be done, the laws of nature may be better known, they certainly can carry out those experiments which are necessary for the scientific investigation of the matter, provided supernatural intervention is not sought, and provision is made for the modesty and health of the media.

Sins of irreligiosity are committed against God Himself, or against sacred things. To the first genus are referred blasphemy and the tempting of God; to the latter, sacrilege and simony: concerning these we must speak separately.

¹ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 13 and q. 97-100; Suarez, op. cit., Tr. III, l. I, III-IV; Billuart, diss. VIII, XXI; St. Alphonsus, lib. IV, n. 29-132; Ballerini-Palmieri, n. 369-531; Lehmkuhl, n. 364-404; Noldin, n. 171-208.

919. 1. Notion. Blasphemy in general is an insult inflicted upon God. Sometimes it is conceived only internally, and, if consent accedes, the malice of blasphemy is already truly incurred.² But often it is expressed by some sensible sign, by speech or deed, for example by shooting an arrow against heaven, or discharging a gun, or trampling upon a crucifix. Yet more properly blasphemy is called insulting speech against God; hence if ecclesiastical penalties are enacted against blasphemy, they touch this alone, unless the contrary is explicitly said.

² "If it consists only in the heart, it is blasphemy of the heart; but if it proceeds outwardly by speech, it is blasphemy of the mouth" (St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 13, a. 1).

And so he truly blasphemes who either denies something concerning God which belongs to Him, or asserts concerning Him what does not belong to Him; for in either case insult is inflicted upon Him, for example if God is said to be cruel, or if it is denied that He is omniscient, omnipotent. Consequently he is guilty of blasphemy who attributes to a creature what belongs to God alone, because indirectly the infinite perfection of God, which is incommunicable to creatures, is denied; for example, if someone were to say: I can do that equally as God; - or he who speaks only ironically, or with contempt, concerning God and His attributes, or concerning the Incarnate Word, for example: Thou hast conquered, Galilean; - he who brings forth something insulting against divine or sacred things, or against the Blessed Virgin or the saints, insofar as they are friends of God: for then the injury is ultimately referred to God.

920. Therefore blasphemy is distinguished from imprecations or maledictions, which are uttered against rational or irrational creatures, without relation to God, for example when Job cursed the day of his birth, David cursed the mountains of Gelboe, or when we curse ourselves or the neighbor. These can indeed be sins of anger, or opposed to fraternal charity, but they do not inflict insult upon God.

Thus much more probably these or similar expressions are imprecatory, but not blasphemous: May God damn me! May God damn you, may the devil snatch you, go to hell, etc.; but otherwise, if someone were to say or wish to signify: May God be damned; which however happens very rarely.³

³ E. Brahm explains this fully, Dissertatio de formula "G. V. D., Deus damnet me", Brussels, 1904.

Likewise from blasphemy are distinguished expressions by which the name of God is taken in vain, even if they are preceded by the word sacred (for example, the sacred name of God!); or words which in themselves are blasphemous, but, according to common estimation, are not held as such, but only as a manifestation of anger against persons or irrational creatures (for example, a thousand gods!). For those who assert such things generally by no means intend to bring forth something against God, but only to express their indignation.⁴

⁴ To the point Gousset, Theol. Morale, t. I, n. 459-460: "It is not a blasphemy, nor a mortal sin, to pronounce, whether in cold blood or in a movement of anger or impatience, the word sacred, which one most often uses with certain coarse expressions, more or less injurious to the neighbor... Nor is it properly so-called blasphemy to pronounce in vain the holy name of God, by saying for example: Name of God! sacred name of God! These words, which one most often brings forth in a movement of impatience, are not against God in the intention of him who permits them to himself, but against men, animals, or inanimate beings with regard to which one gives himself over to anger."

921. Hence, in all these things, the intention and affection of the one speaking ought especially to be attended to: if injury and dishonoring of God are truly intended, there is blasphemy; otherwise, there will be a certain imprecation, which is often excused from mortal sin, because it arises from a movement of indignation imperfectly deliberate. In doubt whether some expression is blasphemous or not, St. Alphonsus says (n. 130), it is by no means to be taken as blasphemy.

Yet expressions of this kind are carefully to be avoided, as unbecoming, unworthy of an honorable man, movements of disordered anger, and not rarely opposed to charity.

922. 2. Malice of blasphemy. (A) Every properly so-called blasphemy is a sin mortal from its whole genus. (a) In the old law, blasphemy was punished by death:⁵ "The man that curseth his God shall bear his sin; and he that blasphemeth the name of the Lord, dying let him die: all the multitude shall stone him, whether he be a citizen or a stranger." Under the new law, blasphemy is enumerated among the grave sins which are to be fled:⁶ "But now put you also all away: anger, indignation, malice, blasphemy, filthy speech out of your mouth." - Wherefore the Fathers reprove it as most grave; thus St. Jerome writes:⁷ "For nothing is more horrible than blasphemy, which sets my mouth on high... for every sin, compared with blasphemy, is lighter."

⁵ Lev. 24:15-16.

⁶ Col. 3:8.

⁷ St. Jerome, In Isaiam, l. VII, c. 19, P. L., XXIV, 247.

(b) Truly, blasphemy is directly opposed to religion, by which we are bound to render reverence and honor to God; and therefore, when it is fully deliberate and free, it does not admit smallness of matter.

923. (B) Heretical and imprecatory blasphemy add special malice to simple blasphemy. (a) Heretical blasphemy is called that which embraces heresy, and therefore is opposed not only to religion, but also to faith; for example if someone says: God is a cruel tyrant. (b) Imprecative blasphemy is that by which evil is wished to God, and consequently it is opposed both to religion and to charity; for example, if someone were to say: Let God perish, cursed be God! (c) Yet blasphemy, although most grave in itself, is not rarely a venial sin from defect of advertence or full consent, for example when blasphemous words are brought forth in the heat of passion without sufficient attention of the mind.

924. 3. Remedies against blasphemy. (a) If there is question of true blasphemy, which proceeds both from irreverence toward God and from anger, both these roots must be torn out: one must seriously think how foolish it is to inflict injury and insult upon Him who, on account of His infinite goodness, deserves supreme honor,⁸ and, before His omnipotence, can afflict blasphemers with dreadful punishments. But for conquering anger, let the remedies set forth above, n. 534-537, be applied.

⁸ M. d'Hulst lucidly explains why the name of God is to be revered and how carefully blasphemy is to be avoided, Careme 1903, p. 111-122.

(b) If there is question of blasphemies improperly so called, or of imprecations, they generally arise from anger or long custom. Wherefore irascibility is likewise to be restrained, - and custom conquered by custom, namely by using other words altogether innocent, until anger is at last put away. Besides, the custom should be seriously and sincerely retracted: for then words which suddenly proceed from vehement affection are not imputed as sin, at least grave sin.

925. 1. Notion. The tempting of God is a saying or deed by which, without a just cause, we rashly expect from God some unusual effect.

For to tempt is to take an experiment concerning someone; this is done by words, deeds, or the omission of some deed. By words we tempt God when we rashly ask something from Him with the intention of testing His knowledge, power, or goodness; by deeds, by doing something with the intention of testing the divine attributes, for example if someone casts himself from a high tower, wishing to try whether God wills to save him or not; by omission of some deed, namely by omitting those things which prudence demands for obtaining the intended effect, for example by rejecting all medicines in a grave illness, or by giving a sermon without any preparation, rashly expecting that thoughts and words are to be suggested to him divinely.

926. The tempting of God arises especially from a threefold cause: (a) from unbelief, when someone truly doubts concerning some perfection of God; for example when the Jews said to the Crucified:⁹ "If Thou be the Son of God, come down from the cross"; or when the impious say: if God exists, now is the time for Him to show His power by killing me; (b) from rashness or curiosity, if someone, not doubting concerning the power of God, wishes to test whether He wills to do it, for example if someone, firmly holding the real presence of Christ under the eucharistic species, nevertheless asks that the divine Infant appear in the consecrated host; (c) from presumption, if someone, although not wishing to test the power or goodness of God, indubitably expects from Him, without sufficient reason, some miracle, for example if one gravely sick rejects a physician, expecting healing from God, or if a priest, in order to convert sinners and unbelievers, promises to perform some miracle (the case of special inspiration being excluded).

⁹ Matt. 27:40.

But the tempting of God is not given in these or similar cases: if in a grave matter, after ordinary means for knowing the will of God have been applied, and doubt remaining, some sign is humbly sought by which the will of God may become known; or if, from a just and grave cause, a miracle is conditionally asked; if someone, in view of a great good, exposes himself to grave danger, hoping that God will be favorable to him: for then, on account of the grave reason, divine help is deservedly hoped for.

927. 2. Malice. (A) The tempting of God which involves unbelief is a mortal sin from its whole genus, since it calls some truth of faith into doubt, and otherwise imports contempt of God, by testing His power or goodness without reason.

(B) The tempting of God arising from rashness, curiosity, or presumption is a sin grave from its genus, because it supposes some contempt of God; but it often admits smallness of matter, on account of the smallness of the danger to which the agent exposes himself, for example if in a light illness someone rejects medicine; it is also often excused from mortal sin on account of ignorance, inconsideration, good faith, etc.

In practice, in order to avoid a sin of this kind, it must be inculcated upon the faithful that God helps those who strenuously and unceasingly exercise their own powers, and at the same time humbly and confidently implore divine help. Therefore let us act with all our strength, using means both natural and supernatural, and place our whole hope in God: He will provide.

928. 3. Corollary. From this it follows that, the case of divine inspiration being excluded, those trials which formerly were called judgments of God are by no means to be approved, as passage through fire for proving the innocence of someone: for then a miracle is asked without necessity. Formerly indeed they had been used in good faith; but afterward they were prohibited by canon law, and deservedly indeed, since there are other means of detecting truth.¹⁰

¹⁰ Vacandard, Etudes de critique, Paris, 1905, ch. 4.

929. 1. Notion. Sacrilege is properly called the violation, or unworthy treatment, of a sacred thing or person, insofar as it is sacred.

(a) A thing or person is called sacred which, by the authority of God or of the Church, has been deputed for divine worship: therefore a purpose or vow made privately does not suffice for this.

(b) For sacrilege it is required that the thing or person be violated insofar as sacred, that is, precisely under that respect under which it was consecrated to God. Thus a priest by fornicating commits sacrilege, because he has been consecrated that he might live continently; but he does not commit sacrilege by blaspheming, by being proud, by being angry, because he has not been specially deputed to avoiding these sins.

930. 2. Species. A threefold sacrilege is distinguished: personal, real, and local, according as a person, thing, or place is violated.

(A) Personal sacrilege is the violation of a sacred person. Moreover a person becomes sacred by reason of the clerical state, or by reason of the vow of chastity emitted in solemn religion.¹ He who has emitted a vow privately or in a simple congregation, and afterward violates chastity, indeed sins against religion by violating the faith given to God, and therefore ought to accuse the circumstance of the vow, but more probably he does not commit sacrilege properly so called, since he is not a sacred person by the authority of God or the Church.

¹ Certain persons add that even a private vow, and a fortiori a simple vow emitted in a Congregation, makes the person vowing sacred, and therefore its violation is sacrilegious. This indeed is probable, but the contrary is held by the more probable opinion, which Ballerini-Palmieri defends, n. 386-390, with the authors there cited.

Personal sacrilege can be committed in three ways: (a) by laying violent hands upon a cleric or religious, against the privilege of the canon; (b) by usurping jurisdiction over ecclesiastical persons, where ecclesiastical immunity still flourishes, for example by drawing clerics to a secular tribunal, against the privilege of the forum, or by enrolling the same into military service, against the privilege of immunity; (c) by a sin of lust committed either by a person consecrated to God by chastity, or with such a person; hence, if each is sacred, a double sacrilege is committed on each side. According to the common and true opinion, a sacred person commits sacrilege not only by external sins, but also by merely internal sins against chastity, provided true consent is given to them.

931. (B) Real sacrilege is that which is concerned with sacred things. Now things can be sacred in a fourfold way:

(a) From divine institution itself, such as the sacraments, which cannot be administered or received unworthily without sacrilege, as is more fully declared in the Treatise on the Sacraments. Under this head sacrilege is also incurred if knowingly and willingly the sacred species are not renewed at the opportune time, with danger of corruption; if the sacred Eucharist is touched or treated irreverently, etc. Likewise if the words of Sacred Scripture are mocked or applied to dishonorable uses.

(b) From consecration or blessing, those things are sacred which are sanctified by the prayers of the Church, as are sacred buildings, altars, sacred vessels, baptismal water, chrism and holy oils, liturgical vestments used in sacred functions, holy water and blessed things. Therefore those commit sacrilege who use these things for profane and indecent uses, or with contempt and mockery.²

² Those also commit sacrilege who pollute a church; concerning this see the Canonists, especially S. Many, Praelect. de Locis sacris, Paris, 1904, n. 30-40.

(c) From representation, images of Christ, of Blessed Mary and of the Saints, crosses, even not blessed, are called sacred. To this also belong sacred relics, which not only recall the saints to memory, but also once were informed by a holy soul. Therefore those are sacrilegious who use these things irreverently.

(d) From destination, ecclesiastical goods, both movable and immovable, are called sacred, which are deputed for sacred or pious uses, when they have already been accepted by the Church for this end, and therefore not only those things which serve divine worship, but also for the support of ministers, the fabric of the church, ecclesiastical hospitals and hospices, etc.; indeed those things which have been deposited in a church or handed over in pledge. Therefore those are sacrilegious who unjustly invade or usurp these goods. But if someone steals in a church a thing which belongs to a private person, but by no means to the church, more probably he does not commit sacrilege.³

³ Many, op. cit., n. 45.

932. (C) Local sacrilege is the violation of a sacred place; therefore it is equated with real sacrilege, since a sacred place is a thing; yet it is treated specifically on account of the special difficulties which occur in this matter.

A sacred place is properly called one which has been deputed to divine worship by episcopal authority, for example churches, cemeteries, public oratories, but not private ones. In a broader sense a place deputed to pious use by the authority of the Church is also called sacred, as the palace of the bishop, a parish house, a seminary, a monastery; but not a place destined for pious works by private authority. Against a place sacred in the broad sense, sacrilege was formerly committed by violating the right of asylum. But today, from can. 1179, the right of asylum belongs only to churches, in this sense, that those who have fled to them are not to be drawn out from there, unless necessity urges, without the assent of the Ordinary or at least the rector of the church.

933. A sacred place properly so called can be violated in four ways:

(a) By sins by which a church or cemetery is polluted, even if they remain hidden, and therefore the church is not polluted from them, namely voluntary and injurious homicide, gravely culpable shedding of human blood, impious or filthy uses, burial of an excommunicated person to be avoided or of an infidel.⁴

⁴ Concerning this see Many, op. cit., n. 47-61; n. 30-40 and n. 147.

(b) By profane actions which, from their nature, ecclesiastical law, or common estimation, dishonor the sanctity of the place, as markets, games, banquets, vain conversations, secular meetings, the clamor of judgments, etc., unless urgent necessity excuses. - Sometimes, however, literary or musical exercises are permitted, especially when they tend to fostering religion; likewise the sale of candles and other things pertaining to exciting devotion is tolerated, but, in all these things, care must be taken lest the house of God become a house of trade.

(c) By theft of a sacred thing, in the sense explained above; likewise by burning or breaking into a sacred place.

(d) By actions by which the right of asylum is violated, where it still flourishes.

Other sins committed in a sacred place do not contract the grave malice of sacrilege, necessarily to be explained in confession; but they bear before themselves some special indecency, on account of the circumstance of the sacred place, and thus put on the venial malice of sacrilege.

934. 3. Malice of sacrilege. (A) Sacrilege is a mortal sin from its genus against religion. For he who treats a sacred thing unworthily, insofar as it is sacred, by that very fact offends God Himself, to whom the thing is dedicated. - The sin is grave from its genus, because the precept of religion obliges under grave sin. Yet smallness of matter can be given, from the fact that the sacred thing serves divine worship more remotely, or the irreverence committed, all things considered, is judged light.

Hence, for judging concerning the gravity of the sin, three things especially ought to be attended to: (a) the sanctity of the person, thing, or place: the fault is graver insofar as the person or thing was more proximately dedicated to God; (b) the sacrilegious action, which is graver if greater irreverence is committed, according to the common estimation of the pious; (c) the intention of the agent, who can intend irreverence more or less directly, more or less distinctly.

935. 1. Notion. Simony (so called from Simon Magus, who wished to purchase spiritual graces with money) is a certain species of real sacrilege, since it imports irreverence toward a sacred thing. It is commonly defined, after St. Thomas,⁵ as the studious (or deliberate) will of buying or selling something spiritual or annexed to the spiritual.

⁵ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 100, a. 1.

Therefore three things are required for simony: (a) a spiritual thing, concerning which an agreement is made or intended to be made, or at least a temporal thing annexed to a spiritual thing. Now by the name of a spiritual thing here is understood a supernatural thing ordered to salvation: such are grace and the gifts of the Holy Spirit, - or the cause of a supernatural thing, as the sacraments, sacramentals, prayers, sermons, - or the effect or use of a supernatural power, for example dispensation from vows, consecration, blessing, health restored by the help of a miracle. - But a temporal thing annexed to a spiritual thing is that which is ordered to something spiritual, or depends upon it, or is intimately connected with it, whether from its nature or from the institution of the Church. Thus chalices, altars which are consecrated antecedently for the sacrifice of the Mass; labor and time, which are concomitantly annexed to sacred functions; the revenues of a benefice, which are consequently received on account of some spiritual office.

(b) A price paid for a spiritual thing; this can be threefold: a gift from the hand, that is, not only money, but a movable or immovable thing estimable by price, for example remission of a debt, concession of a right, a loan, etc.; - a gift from the tongue, that is, any patronage, any favor conceded or promised, as for example the promise of a vote in an election; - a gift from service, or any temporal service, servitude, administration of affairs, etc., with the intention of obtaining something spiritual.

(c) The deliberate will of making a pact concerning a spiritual thing for a temporal thing. Hence it is not required that the pact be completed by mutual consent, nor a fortiori that it be committed to execution, but it suffices that one truly intend to make a pact with another.

He does not commit simony who gives a spiritual thing for a spiritual thing, for example, you will say Mass for me and I will recite the rosary for you; nor he who exchanges an annexed spiritual thing for an annexed spiritual thing, for example a chalice for a ciborium.

But it is simoniacal to hand over a spiritual thing for something annexed to the spiritual, for example to hand over relics for a chalice or for a certain number of Masses, because the chalice and Mass stipends have a certain temporal value.

936. 2. Species of simony. (A) By reason of the law by which it is prohibited, simony is of divine or ecclesiastical law:

(a) Of divine law, when for a temporal thing a spiritual thing or a thing annexed to the spiritual is given, so that truly and intrinsically the malice of simony is had. Thus, for example, to give or accept something temporal as a price or just compensation for sacraments, relics, sermons, indulgences, etc. But if, on the occasion of sacred functions, some stipend or honorarium is offered or accepted, not as the price of the sacred thing, but as a means of support, simony is not incurred: "Know you not that they who work in the holy place eat the things that are of the holy place; and they that serve the altar partake with the altar? So also the Lord ordained for them that preach the Gospel to live by the Gospel."⁶ Likewise some special stipend can be exacted for extrinsic and undue labor, for example, for celebrating in a chapel three miles distant.⁷

⁶ 1 Cor. 9:13.

⁷ Cf. Treatise on the Eucharist, n. 185.

(b) Of ecclesiastical law only, when a pact, although not simoniacal of itself, has the appearance of simony or induces danger, and therefore is prohibited by the Church from a motive of religion; for example, the sale of holy oils, of a rosary enriched with indulgences, the resignation of a benefice in favor of another, etc.; for although to sell holy oils and blessed rosaries for as much as they are worth, the matter alone being considered, is not of itself simoniacal, yet there is danger lest they be sold more dearly on account of the consecration or indulgences.¹

¹ Hence if rosaries or medals enriched with indulgences are sold, by that very fact they lose the indulgences, as is explained in the Treatise on Penance, n. 582.

937. (B) By reason of the pact, simony is mental, conventional, real, and confidential:

(a) Mental, when it is done internally, without any pact outwardly manifested. It is twofold: purely mental, restricted to the internal forum and content with intention alone: this is simony improperly so called and therefore is not subject to ecclesiastical penalties; not purely mental, which indeed excludes every pact, but is manifested by some external act: thus, for example, if a cleric serves a bishop with the intention that, as wages, he may obtain some benefice, - or if a bishop confers a benefice gratuitously with the intention that thus he may induce the beneficed man to manage the bishop's affairs.

(b) Conventional, which is made by a pact of giving or receiving something spiritual for something temporal, without however the agreement being fulfilled on each side; it is called purely conventional if it has been committed to execution on neither side, semi-real, or mixed, if it has been committed to execution on either side, at least partially.

(c) Real, when the agreement has been fulfilled on each side at least inchoately, for example if, the benefice having been handed over, part of the money has been paid, or at least a written obligation has been given by which someone obliges himself to paying the money.

(d) Confidential, which obtains only in ecclesiastical benefices, consists in this, that someone procures a benefice for another under a certain confidence, that is, with the obligation that he resign it to himself or to a third person, or from it pay a pension or part of the fruits. The Canonists discuss this fully.

938. 3. Malice of simony. (A) Simony of divine law is a mortal sin from its whole genus. (a) It is most strictly reproved by Scripture; for when Simon Magus wished to purchase from the apostles with money the power of giving the Holy Spirit, Peter said to him:² "Keep thy money to thyself to perish with thee, because thou hast thought that the gift of God may be purchased with money!" For Christ wills that graces and spiritual gifts be conferred gratuitously: "Freely have you received, freely give."³ (b) And indeed religion is gravely violated when a spiritual and sacred thing is not esteemed more highly than a temporal and profane thing.

² Acts 8:20.

³ Matt. 10:8.

To buy or sell temporal things intrinsically annexed to a spiritual thing, whether concomitantly, as labor in the celebration of Mass, or consequently, as the revenues of a benefice, is simony of divine law, according to the common opinion; but not if it is connected to it antecedently, as a chalice.

939. (B) Simony of ecclesiastical law is a sin grave from its genus, because it is prohibited by the Church from a motive of religion, in order to remove the grave danger of simony; but it admits smallness of matter, because the Church accommodates its prohibitions to the matter forbidden, and does not prohibit under grave sin what, whether in itself or by reason of the danger which it induces, is only light. But what matter is grave, and what light, ought to be judged from the common estimation of prudent men.

The Church strikes the guilty of simony with various penalties, which the Canonists describe. Specifically, in the Bull Apostolicae Sedis, II, n. 8-10, it enacted excommunication latae sententiae, reserved to the Roman Pontiff, against: "Those guilty of real simony in any benefices whatsoever and their accomplices: those guilty of confidential simony in any benefices whatsoever, of whatever dignity they may be:⁴ those guilty of real simony on account of entrance into religion."⁵

⁴ When simony is confidential, only those are excommunicated who receive and retain an ecclesiastical benefice from that pact, but not the accomplices, nor the one himself conferring or resigning the benefice in confidence, because the matter was so in the old Bulls. Cf. Thesaurus, De poenis ecclesiasticis, Rome, 1770, word "Simonia," c. 3, p. 396.

⁵ This penalty is incurred when something temporal is given for this end, that someone be received into religion, and indeed by those making the pact, and by him who thus admits or is received. But simony is not committed when something is accepted under the title of mere alms, or under the title of support for the time of novitiate in monasteries of men, or when nuns make a pact concerning the dowry which sometimes is required by the rule.

940. 4. Concerning the obligation of restoring what was simoniacally received. Before completed simony, whatever was accepted ought to be restored, since a contract entered into concerning an illicit thing is null, as is proved in the Treatise on Justice, n. 644. After the completed contract, the question can be weighed as to the spiritual thing or the price.

(A) As to the spiritual thing: (a) if the thing accepted is an ecclesiastical benefice, it must be dismissed with the fruits unjustly perceived, excepting only those which correspond to one's own labor; restitution of the benefice is to be made to the legitimate collator, restitution of the fruits to the successor in the benefice, or to the poor, unless a composition is obtained from the Supreme Pontiff, with a just cause acceding.

(b) But if there is question of a spiritual thing distinct from a benefice, it is not to be restored, unless restitution, when possible, is enjoined as a penalty of the crime; thus the sacraments cannot be restored, but relics ought not to be restored unless a sentence of a judge intervenes.

941. (B) As to the accepted price, if commutative justice has not been injured, it is not to be restored except after the sentence of a judge: because this is prescribed by no law. But restitution is imposed when simony was committed in a beneficiary matter, in the conferral of orders, and in entrance into religion.

But if commutative justice has been injured, because, for example, the price was extorted by fear or deceit, or because it exceeds the advantage of the thing annexed to the spiritual, according to the common estimation of the pious, restitution ought to be made to him who was injured, before the sentence of a judge, because it is required by natural law.

942. To be noted for practice. Not rarely cases occur in which it is doubted whether some action should be called simoniacal or not. Then attention must be paid to the general practice of the Church, the customs of places not reproved, and the estimation of prudent men.

Thus if someone is unjustly troubled in possession of a benefice, he can free himself by paying money; likewise a faithful person, to whom the sacraments are unjustly denied unless money is furnished, can pay it. Likewise, if you have a right to obtaining some office, and are unjustly troubled by someone, you can give him money that he may abstain from harming you; but you ought not pay an elector anything, lest perhaps he cast a vote against you. He does not act simoniacally who by money impedes the election of an unworthy person; but you cannot buy votes, nor impede another from competing, who has a right of competing.

To avoid the danger of simony, clerics and priests should often meditate upon these words of the Apostle: "Having food and wherewith to be covered, with these we are content."⁶ Otherwise they are mercenaries, they feed themselves and not the sheep: "Their turpitude and wickedness not only pours great darkness upon the priestly order, so that now almost nothing can be held more contemptible and abject by the faithful people; but also brings it about that they themselves obtain nothing more from the priesthood than Judas obtained from the office of apostle, which brought eternal destruction upon him."⁷

⁶ 1 Tim. 6:8.

⁷ Catechism of the Council of Trent, De Ordinis sacramento, n. 5.