Question I: Concerning Pride and Vain-Glory

I. Pride is the inordinate appetite of one's own excellence. It is called:

1. an appetite, because pride resides in the appetite, namely principally in the will, if it seeks excellence in spiritual things; secondarily in the irascible appetite, which tends toward a sensible good that is arduous and excellent;

2. inordinate: to desire excellence according to itself is not evil, but it is contrary to the order of reason that someone should desire greater excellence than he has, and should tend above that which he is, as the proud man does: "for right reason has this, that the will of each one be borne toward that which is proportioned to himself";¹

¹ St. Thomas, II-II, q. 162, a. 1.

3. of excellence, both relative, by which someone wishes to surpass others, at least implicitly by contemning them, and absolute, by which someone simply wishes to excel above that which he is, even while not thinking of others;

4. one's own: the special object, or proper appetible thing, from which pride receives its species is the loftiness of one's own person; for not in this or that matter, but commonly and in all things, the proud man bears himself as lofty. Pride therefore desires a certain universal excellence, and by this it is distinguished from presumption, ambition, and vain-glory, which inordinately desire some particular excellence, whether in works, or in honors and dignities, or in fame and glory.

II. The gravity and species of pride. - Pride of itself is contrary to the law of subjection toward God and to charity, and therefore is a mortal sin; for the proud man lifts himself above that which he is, that is, above that which has been fixed for him by God. Whence at least implicitly there is included in pride contempt of God, insofar as man is unwilling to be subject to God and to His rule. But "this very thing, not to be subject to God, has the account of mortal sin; for this is to be turned away from God," which is proper to mortal sin and is contrary to charity, by which we are turned toward God. Whence it follows that pride according to its genus is mortal sin.² This contempt, if it is explicit, formal, and perfect, from the intention of contemning God because one disdains to be subject to God and His law and it seems injurious to one's own excellence, is always mortal. But if it is only implicit, without the intention of contemning God, it can indeed be mortal, namely in a grave matter; but often it is venial, not only from lack of deliberation, but also from lightness of matter.

² St. Thomas, ibid., a. 5.

Now, according to St. Gregory, Morals, book 23, c. 6 (or 4), pride is committed in four ways, diverse in species on the part of the object: 1. by judging that the goods which someone has he has from himself, not from God, or at least by acting as if he had them from himself; 2. by judging that he has received them from God, but on account of his own merits, or by acting as if it were thus; 3. by attributing to himself goods which he does not have; 4. in the goods which he has, by wishing, with the rest despised, to be preferred by them more than is fitting. The first two modes, since they include formal contempt of God, are mortal sin; the last two often are only venial, because to magnify oneself in affection and to raise oneself above what is just, while one does not refuse to be subject to God, is not a grave disorder, unless it be done with grave irreverence toward God, or renders one prepared to sin mortally, or there is present grave contempt of one's neighbor or notable detriment.

III. The general influence of pride upon other sins. - It is said in Sirach 10:15: The beginning of every sin is pride.

These words are to be understood of pride properly so called, as it is a special sin.³ It can truly be called the beginning of every sin, not only in the historical order, because the angels and the first man were guilty of that thing, but also from the nature of the thing; and not only:

³ Certain persons have interpreted this of pride improperly so called, and indeed a) of aversion or actual contempt of God, by which someone does not wish to be subject to His rule, which is found implicitly in all sins because they tend toward some created good opposed to the law of God. This is the general condition of every sin and the cause of sin or beginning on the part of aversion; for from this sin has that it is evil, and therefore on the part of aversion the account of evil begins. Also b) of the inclination of fallen nature toward contempt of this kind, from which all sins come. These things are true, but they do not hand down the sense of Scripture, which manifestly from the context speaks of pride properly so called, which is a special sin, namely the appetite of one's own excellence. I-II, q. 84, a. 2.

1. indirectly and per accidens, by removing what prohibits, insofar as, namely, through pride man contemns the divine law by which he is prohibited from sinning; but also:

2. directly and per se, insofar as other sins are ordered to the end of pride, which is one's own excellence, to which everything that someone inordinately desires can be ordered. Whence all sins can arise from it as from a final cause. For the temporal goods which man seeks in other sins he can will so that through them he may have a certain singular perfection and his own excellence, which is the end of pride. Pride is therefore the final cause of all sins, not indeed in this sense, that any sin whatsoever singularly arises from it, but insofar as any genus of sin is naturally apt to be ordered to the end of pride and thus to arise from it.

And since the end is first in the order of intention, and intention precedes execution, pride is rightly called the beginning of all sins.⁴

⁴ St. Thomas, I-II, q. 84, a. 2; Quaestiones disputatae de Malo, 8, a. 2.

And because it is the final cause of all sins, in the strict sense it is not a capital sin from which only several genera of sins arise according to the account of an end, but rather the cause of all the capital sins and the queen of all vices. Nevertheless there are certain sins which immediately and more frequently arise from it according to the account of an end and immediately serve it, because they seek a certain special excellence and have an object very close to the object of pride; and therefore those alone are customarily called its daughters. For "those vices which of themselves are naturally apt to be ordered to the end of some capital vice are called its daughters."⁵

⁵ St. Thomas, II-II, q. 132, a. 5.

IV. Pride has three daughters: presumption, ambition, and vain-glory. - Those are daughters of pride which inordinately seek a certain special excellence; but this can be sought either in works, or in dignity and honor, or in fame and glory. Whence there are three daughters of pride: 1. presumption, which is the inordinate appetite of excellence in works, namely of undertaking something above one's powers; 2. ambition, which inordinately desires the excellence of dignity and honor not owed, or greater than is owed; 3. vain-glory, which inordinately tends toward fame and glory, that is, toward a vain manifestation of excellence.

Of themselves they are venial sins, because they are not against charity, but are an excessive appetite for a thing good or indifferent according to itself; and they are not mortal except per accidens, whether by reason of the cause, as if they proceed from an affection toward mortal sin, or by reason of the effect, if they are done with grave harm to oneself or to another.

On account of its importance, something must be said specially concerning vain-glory.

V. Vain-glory is the inordinate appetite of glory and fame, that is, the appetite of vain glory, or of a vain manifestation, and of a good estimation by others concerning one's own excellence, whether true or fictitious. It is called:

1. an appetite: the word glory is taken here not for the object of the evil act, that is, for the glory itself which is sought, but for the sin which is a movement and tendency toward vain glory, an excessive desire for esteem and praise;

2. of glory and fame: glory signifies a certain clarity; but clarity and comeliness have a certain manifestation, because what is clear can be seen by many and from afar, and therefore the name glory properly imports the manifestation of someone concerning that which seems comely among men.⁶ Hence it is customarily defined: clear knowledge with praise, or fame, that is, distinguished knowledge and the good estimation of others concerning one's own excellence; if this is expressed in words, it is properly praise; but praise conveys that knowledge to others, and this is fame. This glory and fame is the special object of this sin, by which it is distinguished from all others, especially a) from pride, which desires every and universal excellence; and b) from ambition, which inordinately seeks honor and reverence. Glory is the effect and end of honor, since through it someone is rendered clear in the knowledge of others; for from the fact that testimonies of honor are exhibited to someone, his excellence becomes clear among men;

⁶ "Nevertheless, if the name of glory is taken more broadly, it consists not only in the knowledge of a multitude, but also of a few or of one, or of oneself alone, when namely someone considers his own good as worthy of praise." St. Thomas, II-II, q. 132, a. 1.

3. inordinate: to desire glory according to itself is not something evil but indifferent. For it is not a sin that someone know and approve his own good, while he considers it as worthy of praise, nor that he wish a good work to be approved, for it is said, Matt. 5:16: Let your light shine before men. But it is a sin that he seek vain glory.⁷

⁷ St. Thomas, ibid., and Quaestiones disputatae de Malo, 9, a. 1.

Now it is vain in three ways: a) when it is sought concerning a thing which is not worthy of glory, or not worthy of so much glory, as concerning an evil, false, fictitious, fragile thing, concerning wealth, trifles, etc.; b) when it is sought from those who are unable to discern what is worthy of glory, for example from him whose judgment is not certain; c) when it is sought and is not referred to its due end, that is, to the honor of God or the utility of one's neighbor. For glory of itself is an indifferent thing, and consequently to rest in it as in an end and to seek it for its own sake is illicit; for to desire an indifferent thing is not good unless it be done for a good end extrinsic to the thing, as to desire glory insofar as it is useful for something; otherwise it would be an idle and vain act, and consequently sinful.⁸ Hence St. Thomas:

⁸ Ibid.

"It belongs to the perfection of man that he know himself; but that he be known by others does not belong to his perfection, and therefore it is not to be desired per se. Nevertheless it can be desired insofar as it is useful for something, either for this, that God be glorified by men, or for this, that men profit from the good which they know in another, or from this, that the man himself, from the goods which he knows in himself through the testimony of another's praise, strive to persevere in them and to advance to better things. And according to this it is praiseworthy that someone have care for a good name and provide good things before God and men; not, however, that he be vainly delighted in the praise of men."⁹

⁹ St. Thomas, II-II, q. 132, a. 1 ad 3.

VI. Vain-glory is of itself a venial sin, but per accidens can be mortal. - Of itself it does not import something against charity or the love of God or of neighbor, but is only a disorder of the appetite for a thing indifferent according to itself. Per accidens, however, that is, by reason of another thing or an adjunct, it becomes mortal:

1. On the part of the one glorying himself:

a) by reason of the effect, for example if someone is prepared to sin mortally in order to acquire glory, or establishes his last end in glory, or grave damage to the neighbor follows from it, as if on account of it a physician refuses to have a colleague, with grave danger to the health of the sick person, or a teacher refuses to retract a great error which he taught;

b) by reason of the end, as if he seeks glory from an affection toward a mortal sin.

2. Also on the part of the matter concerning which someone glories:¹⁰

¹⁰ Matter here is not understood as the object itself of the sin: this is glory itself; but as the objective cause from which glory proceeds.

a) if someone glories concerning a good, but falsely, which is against reverence for God, or concerning goods as if they were not from God, or concerning a temporal good loved more than God, or concerning the testimony of men which he prefers to divine testimony;

b) if he glories concerning evil, namely concerning a mortal sin committed.¹¹

¹¹ St. Thomas, II-II, q. 132, a. 3; Quaestiones disputatae de Malo, 9, a. 2.

VII. Vain-glory is a capital sin, because it has a most appetible end, near to the end of pride. For pride desires one's own excellence; "but among the goods through which man obtains excellence, glory seems especially to operate toward this, insofar as it imports the manifestation of someone's goodness; for good is naturally loved and honored by all... for through the glory of men a man obtains excellence in human things. And therefore, on account of its nearness to excellence, which men most desire, it follows that it is very appetible. And because from its inordinate appetite many vices arise, therefore vain-glory is a capital vice."¹²

¹² St. Thomas, II-II, q. 132, a. 4.

VIII. There are seven daughters of vain-glory. - According to St. Gregory, Morals, book 31, c. 45 (or 17), there are seven vices which more commonly arise from vain-glory, and therefore are called its daughters. For by vain-glory the manifestation of one's own excellence is sought, which can be done:

a) Directly: 1. either by words, through boasting, by which someone glories concerning a work committed; or by deeds: 2. through presumption of novelties, by which someone devises novelties which excite the admiration of others; and 3. through hypocrisy, by which someone does good so that he may seem good, although he is not.

b) Indirectly someone seeks the manifestation of his excellence by showing that he is not less than others, and this is done: 4. as to the intellect, through pertinacity, by which someone adheres too much to his own opinion; 5. as to the will, through discord, by which he does not wish to recede from his own will so that he may agree with others; 6. as to speech, through contention, by which he litigates noisily; 7. as to deed, through disobedience, by which he does not wish to execute the precept of a superior.¹³

¹³ Ibid., a. 5, and Quaestiones disputatae de Malo, 9, a. 3.

IX. The origin and progress of pride. - The matter is described thus by Lehmkuhl, Theologia Moralis, I, n. 884, 2:

"Man begins to consider the good which he has in himself, but beyond measure; he considers his own perfections and at the same time considers neither imperfections nor dependence on God; then he apprehends in himself a greater excellence than he has in reality; then he loves or is complacent in that apprehended excellence; finally he judges himself above that which he is, which estimation does not consist in judgment alone, but at the same time in affection, by which man is affected toward himself as toward something great.

1. This excessive estimation of self is the first complete act of pride (I do not say 'of completed pride'); the other acts are the way and beginning.

2. The proud man, progressing further, judges himself worthy of great things, exceeding himself, his condition, and his powers in reality (to which presumption pertains).

3. He inordinately desires honors and other things as congruent to himself: ambition.

4. He wishes to be considered great, honored, esteemed by others: ambition and vain-glory.

5. If he sees that he does not obtain this, he grieves, is angry, is indignant.

6. Comparing himself with others, he esteems himself more highly; he thinks little of others and their acts, and contemns them.

7. He refuses to subject himself to superiors, as if this were unworthy of him, persuading himself that he is more prudent, better, etc.

8. He refuses to be subject to God Himself, apprehending this as contrary to his dignity, wishing to live by his own judgment, as if he had no need of God: this act is of completed pride."

In this progress St. Bernard posits twelve degrees of pride, in opposition to the twelve degrees of humility which St. Benedict posited. For:

The first degree of humility is always to show humility in heart and body, with eyes fixed on the ground; to this is opposed curiosity, through which someone curiously and inordinately looks about everywhere.

The second degree of humility is that someone speak few and reasonable words, not with a clamorous voice; against this is opposed levity of mind, by which, namely, man bears himself proudly in speech.

The third degree of humility is that one not be easy or prompt to laughter; to this is opposed foolish joy.

The fourth degree of humility is silence until interrogation; to this is opposed boasting.

The fifth degree of humility is to hold what the common rule of the monastery (or society) has; to this is opposed singularity, by which, namely, someone wishes to appear holier (or better).

The sixth degree of humility is to believe and pronounce oneself lower than all; to this is opposed arrogance, by which, namely, man prefers himself to others.

The seventh degree of humility is to confess and believe oneself useless and unworthy for all things; to this is opposed presumption, by which, namely, someone judges himself sufficient for greater things.

The eighth degree of humility is confession of sins; to this is opposed defense of sins.

The ninth degree of humility is to embrace patience in hard and rough things; to this is opposed simulated confession, by which, namely, someone does not wish to undergo punishment for sins which he confesses in simulation.

The tenth degree of humility is obedience, to which rebellion is opposed.

The eleventh degree is that man not be delighted to do his own will; to this is opposed liberty, by which, namely, man is delighted freely to do what he wills.

The twelfth or last degree of humility is fear of God, to which is opposed the custom of sinning, which implies contempt of God.

Thus St. Thomas, in II-II, q. 162, a. 4 ad 4, who adds: "in these twelve degrees there are touched not only the species of pride, but also certain antecedents and consequents," just as is also verified concerning the degrees of humility.

X. Remedies against pride and vain-glory. - A twofold kind of remedy can be indicated: one on the part of the mind, another on the part of work.

A. On the part of the mind:

1. The intimate and sincere knowledge of oneself and consideration of one's own nothingness, and of one's own infirmity, absolute and relative: absolute indeed from past sins, present defects of the moral order, and uncertainty of the future; but relative, both comparatively to God, without whose help we can do absolutely nothing, and comparatively to others whom we see better than ourselves.

2. Consideration of the vanity and transitoriness of the goods in which we are wont to glory: bodily vigor and beauty; knowledge, exposed to ignorances, doubts, and errors; human honor, praise, and glory; and a fortiori riches or earthly power, birth from a noble family.

3. Contemplation of the perfect humility of Christ, "who, when He was in the form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal to God, but emptied Himself, taking the form of a servant, being made in the likeness of men, and... humbled Himself, becoming obedient unto death, even the death of the cross" (Phil. 2:6-8; printed citation: Phil. II, 7).

4. The baseness, dangers, and damages of pride, which is "the beginning of every sin" (Sir. 10:15); wherefore the Scriptures warn: "God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace to the humble" (1 Pet. 5:5).

B. On the part of work:

1. Assiduous prayer.

2. The external exercise of humility, or acts exercised before others by which we hold ourselves of little account.

3. Especially, interior acts of humility by which before God we sincerely judge ourselves vile, desire lowly things for ourselves, and wish all glory exclusively to God alone.

The Scriptures suggest such affections: "Why is earth and ashes proud?" (Sir. 10:9); "What hast thou that thou hast not received? And if thou hast received, why dost thou glory as if thou hadst not received?" (1 Cor. 4:7); "Not to us, O Lord, not to us, but to Thy name give glory" (Ps. 113:9); "Unless you be converted and become as little children, you shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven" (Matt. 18:3).