Question V: Concerning Those in Occasions of Sin

I. An occasion of sin is an external circumstance of a thing or person furnishing facility for sinning and thus inviting to sin, which constitutes one in danger of sinning.¹ Hence it is distinguished a) from internal principles which incline to sin, such as bodily constitution, passions, concupiscence, and evil habits; b) from the danger of sinning, which can be both internal and external and extends more broadly: namely, it is an impulse to sinning which, if it proceeds from a person or an external thing, is called an occasion; if it is from within, it is called simple danger; so that every occasion is a danger, but not every danger is an occasion. Therefore this is constituted at once from two things: 1) on the part of the external object, from the impulse and opportunity alluring to sin; 2) on the part of the subject, from the propensity or internal inclination to sinning.

¹ Concerning those in occasions of sin, St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., l. VI, nn. 452-458; and Praxis conf., nn. 63-69; Billuart, de Poen., diss. 6, a. 10, § 5; Reuter, o. c., nn. 168-174; Berardi, opusc. de Recidivis et Occasionariis; Marc, o. c., nn. 1819-1831; Aertnijs, Th. M., II, nn. 299-309; Theol. Mechl., de Poen. (4), nn. 81-84; Ballerini, de Poen., nn. 167-203; Lehmkuhl, Th. M., II, nn. 617-628; Tanquerey, o. c., nn. 524-536; Noldin, Th. M., III, nn. 401-409; Genicot, Th. M., II, nn. 369-374; Prummer, Th. M., III, nn. 449-451; Ter Haar, de Occasionariis et Recidivis, can be compared.

II. The occasion is divided:

A. By reason of influence, it is remote or proximate, according as it has only some power of alluring to sin, or also a great power; or according as it constitutes a light danger of sinning, or a grave one, so that one who exposes himself, if not more often, at least frequently or several times, is going to sin. The gravity of the danger can be discerned by the confessor in a threefold way:

1. from the experience of the penitent, or frequency of relapse, if someone previously placed in the same circumstances has usually or at least frequently sinned, e.g., if he has sinned ten times in a month with a maidservant, or even if he rarely visits a person and each time sins with that person;

2. from things commonly occurring, namely when experience is lacking and other special indications from the person of that penitent cannot be had; for then the rule is to be applied: what commonly is an occasion of sin to others in the same circumstances is presumed also to be such for this person until the contrary is proved; e.g., if a young man prone to lust enters a brothel, if a younger girl, light in soul and infirm in will, for a long time lives alone with a master who vividly solicits her;

3. from the circumstances and disposition of the penitent, especially from his known fragility, although he himself has rarely been in the occasion, or has once been in it and has not sinned.

But since the danger can be more or less grave and certain, the rules will have to be applied more strictly or more mildly according to the diverse case.

B. By reason of the person, it is absolute and according to itself, or relative and by accident, according as, human fragility being considered, it constitutes danger for all, or only for a determinate person by reason of his own fragility and particular disposition. Proximate per se is that in which men commonly for the most part sin; proximate by accident is that which, although generally it is not proximate with respect to others, nevertheless is proximate with respect to some person because he has frequently fallen in it, or because his fall is prudently feared.

An absolutely proximate occasion is the reading of a very obscene book, concubinage, lying in bed with a person of the other sex, fixed looking at a very obscene thing, a very shameful theatre or cinematograph, assiduous reading of a very anti-religious newspaper or periodical, a book professedly attacking the faith, enrollment in a Masonic sect. On the contrary, entry into a tavern is relative for a drunkard, trade for the unjust man, conversation with a woman for the lustful man, prolonged conversation with a beautiful girl for an impure young man, dances for a fragile young man, the office of surgeon or confessor by reason of special weakness, etc. Hence not only can an absolutely light occasion be relatively grave, but also an absolutely grave occasion can be relatively light for someone, if he is little moved by reason of a special circumstance, coldness, habituation, piety, or if he has specially fortified himself with cautions and an efficacious protection.

C. By reason of duration, it is continuous or in being, which is present and always or habitually accompanies a man (continuously present without being sought), e.g., detention of another's goods or of a benefice accepted simoniacally, retention of a depraved book or obscene pictures or of an instrument for sinning, a daily anti-religious newspaper, a concubine or dwelling with a maidservant with whom you are accustomed to sin, assiduous frequenting of a person at your home, an office or business which is often the cause of sinning, etc.; and interrupted or in becoming (not in being), which is absent, and occurs or is sought only at intervals, e.g., entry into a brothel, into a tavern for the drunkard, access to a banquet, depraved association, conversation with a mistress who does not live under the same roof, games for one who is accustomed to blaspheme when playing, frequenting a girl, eating-houses, dances, etc.

D. On the part of the cause, the occasion is either voluntary or necessary, according as it can easily be avoided without grave inconvenience, or cannot be removed either physically or morally. Physically, if in no way it can be left behind, as if someone is in prison or on a ship with an occasion of sinning, or is at the point of death and does not have time to cast it out. Morally, if the occasion cannot be left behind without sin, or grave scandal, or grave danger of falling into an equal or worse evil (as if an irascible servant quarrels with peaceful companions such as he would scarcely find in another service), or great detriment of the goods of life, reputation, or fortune (even for a rich person), such as the loss of office (e.g., of physician, advocate), function, state, or fortune. Thus, for example, a husband with respect to his wife; a son or daughter of the family who has the occasion at home; parents to whom offspring furnish an occasion of anger; a pupil who cannot leave school or college; the office of physician, merchant, soldier; conversation with a girl for entering marriage, etc.

III. The principal occasions of sin can be enumerated as the following, with Tanquerey, de Poen., n. 527:

a) Against faith: the reading of non-Catholic newspapers, periodicals, or books; more intimate and frequent association with non-Catholics; frequenting schools and colleges in which no religion, or a false religion, is taught; service under heretical or irreligious masters; attendance at non-Catholic sermons; mixed marriages, etc.

b) Against chastity: concubinage; cohabitation of persons of different sex who are not joined in legitimate marriage; conversations with depraved companions; certain dances which, because of the persons, the kind of dancing, and the circumstances of place and time, are more dangerous; frequenting theatres, especially those which, both by the things exhibited and by stage dances (ballets), inflame lust; reading obscene or erotic books; retention of statues, images, and photographs which today easily corrupt morals among young people; certain less honorable games among persons of different sex; more frequent and protracted visits of lovers, especially when one alone with one alone remains for long hours, as more often happens in certain regions, with great detriment of souls; domestic dangers, which arise either from members of the family, or from servants or masters; certain arts which are dangerous because of depraved conversations or more intimate relations between persons of different sex (poseuse, actrice), etc.

c) Against temperance: taverns and eating-houses; frequenting those who indulge drunkenness, especially on Saturday or other days on which workers are accustomed to receive wages; certain festivities, whether religious or civil; sometimes wedding banquets, and in certain regions vigils by the bodies of the dead; drinking in equal draughts, etc.

d) Against justice: certain public and political offices, which easily furnish a means of becoming unjustly rich; certain trades and stock-exchange speculations, which are not immune from fraud, etc.

IV. Principle: By its nature there is a grave obligation for each one, as far as lies in him, of removing the proximate occasion of sin.

It is proved: He who knowingly and willingly, without sufficient reason, remains in a proximate occasion freely wills the occasion in which he will likely sin, and by that very fact implicitly wills sin (and thus sins and is unworthy of absolution); for he does not have an efficacious will or purpose of not sinning any more, but because he does not avoid grave danger, when he can, he is convicted of loving the sin whose danger he loves. Or, on the contrary: he who must absolutely will the end must also will the means morally necessary for it, not indeed doubtful but certain or more certain means. Therefore man, who must absolutely will to avoid sin, is also bound to avoid its grave danger, or to remove the proximate occasion, which is a means morally necessary and more certain for this.

Hence a) Scripture admonishes, Ecclus. III, 27: "He who loves danger will perish in it," that is, he who knowingly and without necessity exposes himself to the danger of sinning cannot hope that he is not going to sin. And Mt. V, 29: "If your right eye scandalizes you, pluck it out and cast it from you... and if your right hand scandalizes you, cut it off and cast it from you: for it is expedient for you that one of your members perish, rather than that your whole body go into Gehenna."

b) The Church condemned the opposite doctrine, which was reprobated by Innocent XI, prop. 61, 62, and 63, and by Alexander VII, prop. 41.

Hence one who is in a proximate occasion of sinning is bound under grave obligation to remove either physically the external object alluring to mortal sin, or, if this cannot be done, at least morally, namely by opportune remedies by which the proclivity to evil is healed. Otherwise he is incapable of absolution, because he does not wish to fulfill a grave obligation and lacks the purpose of not sinning hereafter. And he commits a sin of the same species as that to which he knows he exposes himself, and so much graver as that sin is graver and its danger more proximate.

V. Opinion not to be approved. - A few authors have said that the proximate occasion to be deserted is only that which constitutes a more probable or morally certain danger of sinning, or in which men more frequently or almost certainly sin. This is evidently demonstrated, they say, by the argument brought above. But it does not appear, they say, why at least he sins gravely who has even a solid reason for estimating that in this occasion which he approaches he is not going to sin gravely: for he does not choose a thing which by moral necessity carries sin with it. Thus, for example, Genicot² (Th. M., II, n. 372), after Ballerini (de Pecc., n. 343 sq.) and Noldin (Th. M., III, n. 413).

² These seem to confuse the definition, and to apply what is commonly handed down concerning an absolutely proximate occasion to a relatively proximate occasion. In the newest edition of Genicot's work, this has already been changed by the editor.

Falsely, however. For 1) when it is a question not only of the liceity and illicitness of acting, but of an end absolutely to be obtained, we cannot choose a merely probable part, indeed not even a more probable but less safe one, but that which is safer must be done. Now to avoid formal sin is an end to be attained absolutely. Therefore we cannot expose ourselves to grave danger, even merely probable, of sinning mortally, but we must do what is safer and leave behind an occasion which includes probable danger. The danger of formal sin must absolutely be fled before all things.

2. He who exposes himself to the probable danger of sinning, even if perhaps only in individual acts, nevertheless sometime likely, indeed certainly, will fall, which must by absolute necessity be avoided; and therefore as often as he exposes himself to that probable danger, so often he fails against the end to be obtained, because each time he rashly exposes himself to grave danger of sinning. But this is a sin grave from its genus; whence he sins mortally.

3. He who without reason exposes himself to a merely probable danger of bodily death sins gravely; so also he who exposes himself to a merely probable danger of the death of the soul, or mortal sin. Nor can he expect the special help of grace which he would need for overcoming the danger to which he rashly exposes himself.

Hence for a proximate occasion there is not required an absolute frequency of falls, or a number notable in itself, but a relative frequency suffices for the number of times in which someone has been exposed to the occasion, e.g., if in 12 visits someone is accustomed to sin six or five times; likewise if someone visiting a girl daily sins ten times in a month; or if they meet each Sunday and fall twelve times in a year or somewhat more; likewise if for two years someone visited a woman only three or four times in a year and almost always sinned with her; indeed if for three years he visited only once in a year and sinned each time.

VI. Practical rules. - From the foregoing three practical rules can be established:

A. One who remains in a voluntary and continuous proximate occasion regularly cannot be absolved unless he first proposes to remove the occasion and also removes it.

For since removal of the occasion ordinarily is arduous, there is proximate danger of breaking the purpose, and therefore if the occasion is not taken away before absolution, the penitent will easily deceive himself (falsely persuading himself that he is going to resist temptations), so that the purpose is rendered inefficacious and he does not remove the occasion. Hence the penitent who, adverting to this, exposed himself to this danger would be at least suspect concerning disposition, concerning which therefore moral certitude often could not be had: for why does this man make confession if he does not remove the occasion? And then the confessor who exposed him to such danger would sin against his office of physician.

Exception is made if, public scandal being lacking, 1) the penitent from ignorance or lightness of soul is not conscious that he remains in a proximate occasion or that the obligation of removing it is grave, and the confessor foresees that admonition will be useless or harmful: then provisionally he is to be left in good faith, and little by little instructed concerning the occasion to be fled, which he will better understand if by experience of his own fragility he has known that he frequently sins because of it;

2. or the occasion can easily be left behind, e.g., a depraved book, a thing of another detained while restitution is spontaneously promised;

3. or the penitent manifests extraordinary signs of sorrow and purpose, e.g., he has already sent notice to the maidservant concerning leaving the house, or has hired a new maidservant;

4. or a grave cause urges, so that previous removal of the occasion harms more, e.g., imminent danger of death, great difficulty of returning for a long time and of approaching another confessor, as easily happens if the penitent comes from a remote place, danger of infamy or scandal as easily happens if the sacrament must be received, danger of spiritual harm, e.g., alienation from the sacrament.

In these latter cases the penitent is to be admonished that he will not obtain absolution any more unless he has stood by his promises; but if he has been admonished uselessly, he is to be held as a recidivist.

B. One who remains in a voluntary and interrupted proximate occasion, e.g., by frequenting games, eating-houses, depraved societies, can be absolved several times, provided that he firmly proposes to beware of it; but if he has promised several times, and no amendment appears, he is to be held and treated as a recidivist, and generally, unless perhaps he furnishes extraordinary signs of disposition, absolution is to be deferred until he has actually left behind the occasion.

For he is judged disposed, and therefore is to be absolved, unless signs of the contrary are present, as easily happens if he has promised several times and is now habituated, or unless it is better to send him back, with his consent, so that he may remove the occasion more promptly and firmly.

C. One who remains in a necessary proximate occasion regularly can be absolved, provided that he is truly disposed to render the occasion remote by opportune and efficacious remedies.

For on the one hand the occasion is not a sin nor does it induce necessity of sinning, but can be overcome, although with difficulty, especially with the grace of God; on the other hand no one is bound to the impossible, and therefore one who is in a necessary occasion rather unwillingly undergoes the danger than loves and seeks it and exposes himself to the occasion. Hence, if he uses opportune means and humbly asks the grace of victory, he can hope for it from God, "who will not permit you to be tempted above that which you can bear" (1 Cor. X, 13).

Hence: 1) He can be absolved provided that a) the occasion is not evil in itself; b) a just cause is present, such as physical impotence, or a sin otherwise to be committed, or danger of an equal or greater sin, or the spiritual good of himself or of the neighbor, or great loss of temporal goods (life, reputation, fortune); c) there is hope of a good outcome, namely of overcoming the temptation; and d) the penitent is prepared to use sufficient means.

2. On the contrary, he who after several admonitions always relapses in the same way, even means having been used, so that there is no amendment nor probable hope of amendment, is to be treated as a recidivist and cannot be absolved; unless perhaps he furnishes extraordinary signs, or is prepared to use new special means, or, if the occasion can physically be removed, first leaves it behind, according to Mt. V, 29 and XVI, 26 and XVIII, 9: for otherwise he is morally certainly going to sin. For as often as someone in some occasion is morally certainly going to sin, he is bound to flee it even with danger of life.

And although Ballerini denies the supposition, saying that amendment necessarily follows from the means used, and that from the absence of amendment it can only be concluded that the means were insufficient or neglected, nevertheless this, although it rarely happens, is not impossible; indeed sometimes there are those who do not seriously use the means unless absolution is deferred until they furnish greater extraordinary signs or leave behind the occasion. Such a one, namely, either must return amended or remove the occasion before he is absolved.

VII. Means to be used against proximate occasions. - The principal means by which a necessary occasion can from proximate become morally remote³ are of three kinds:

³ Cf. Aertnijs, Th. M., II, n. 308; Tanquerey, o. c., n. 535.

1. Some lessen the force of the occasion, such as words said seriously and firmly to the accomplice to express horror for the sin committed; opening the mouth to shout; relation of the matter made to someone who can apply a remedy (e.g., to a superior, parents, master), or threat of this relation; avoidance of all familiarity or solitary conversation with the accomplice; indeed, to flee that person's sight, to speak and think nothing of that person insofar as can be done. If some circumstances generate the occasion, e.g., evening conversation with a maidservant, conversation in secret with a person cohabiting, they are to be diligently taken away. Likewise if the danger arises from the fact that the accomplice enters the bedroom, let the door be closed and barred; if the danger is from drinking in a tavern, let it be altogether established that nothing is to be drunk there, etc.

2. Others lessen the force of concupiscence, by furnishing it no fuel through idleness, liberty of the senses, depraved thoughts, readings, intemperance, etc.; e.g., assiduous labor, so that thus the evils which idleness teaches may be avoided; modesty of the senses, especially of the eyes; mortification of curiosity and of other passions, by which one accustomed to resist licit inclinations may more easily resist illicit ones; diligent avoidance of depraved thought, especially concerning the loved person; flight from dangerous reading; abstinence from excessive drinking; moderate bodily exercise for restraining concupiscence, etc.

3. Others increase spiritual strength: to pray fervently every morning and evening and when temptation presses; daily before an image of the Crucified to renew the purpose of sinning no more; to have frequent recourse to the Blessed Virgin; often to think of the last things, or before sleep to say to oneself: if I continue to live thus, I shall be devoted to eternal punishments; to read pious books; to recite pious aspirations and to walk in the sight of God; to give alms, receive the sacraments assiduously, and immediately after a fall approach the confessor, etc.

These means are not all to be used at once, but now these, now those, according to the disposition of the person, the nature of the occasion, and other circumstances.

VIII. Applications. - From what has been said Marc deduces the following conclusions (Th. M., II, n. 1825):

1. A woman must prefer to perish in want rather than frequent a house where she is given gifts which have already passed, or probably soon are going to pass, into the wages of prostitution.

2. A penitent must leave a confessor, although useful, if from conversation with him he is accustomed to consent to impure delight.

3. A man, thievish for a long time, must leave an office which impels him to steal.

4. The glutton must avoid banquets; the drunkard taverns; the lustful man familiar and private conversations with women, etc., even if he seems to himself to have a just cause for conversing thus.

5. An adolescent and a girl, frequenting one another with a view to marriage, are not to be absolved unless the occasion from proximate becomes, or can become, remote through means to be prescribed by the confessor.

6. A son of the family sinning with a maidservant who dwells with him in the paternal house is not to be absolved (at least more often) unless he diligently uses the remedies prescribed by the confessor, and thus truly removes the occasion.