Virtues and Vices › Charity › The Vices Against It

Opposed to Charity

The Vices Against Charity

Each vice in the authors' own words, with its kinds and gravity. The arrangement is ours; every reference opens the passage.

Sloth and envy, which also oppose charity, are capital vices and have pages of their own: sloth and envy.

A vice with no remedies here has none named for it in the works read. Remedies against sin in general are on the map, and the means of gaining each virtue are on its page.

Hatred

How the Authors Compare

All the manuals draw the same two kinds, hatred of abomination and hatred of enmity (p. on hatred, I, n. 944, n. 63, n. 520).
St. Thomas says that in hatred of God the aversion from God is “directly implied” (II-II, q. 34, a. 2). Noldin calls it “the gravest of all sins” (n. 64). So Concina: the peculiar hatred of God “is the gravest of all crimes, since it is opposed to the most excellent virtue of charity according to its primary act” (III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. I), and Billuart, because in it the aversion from God “is intended directly and per se, but in other sins indirectly only and through another thing” (On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 2).
Hatred of a neighbor's sin is not itself a sin: St. Thomas, “it is lawful to hate the sin in one's brother” (II-II, q. 34, a. 3), and the manuals agree (I, n. 946, n. 100, n. 542).
Abomination of the person. Noldin holds that hatred of abomination “which is referred to the very person of the neighbor, is from its genus a mortal sin” (n. 100), and Wouters that it “excludes one's neighbor from common charity” (n. 542). Merkelbach makes abomination of a person a hatred of the person's quality: “when there is question of a person it is called hatred of a quality” (I, n. 944); in a footnote he answers those who call the turning from a person as unworthy of all love a hatred of abomination, saying that this is already hatred of enmity (I, n. 946). Vermeersch likewise: “Hatred of abomination does not affect the person himself but his malice” (n. 88). Bontempi defines abomination as that “by which we abominate someone as unworthy of our friendship” (What the object of hatred is, and, n. 2). Billuart counts both kinds “ex genere suo mortal sin”, yet adds that “Hatred of abomination is rarely mortal; because simple displeasure at a created person subject to many defects and without imprecation of evil on account of them does not seem so great a disorder” (On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 3, On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 4).
Whether the evils wished must be named in confession. Merkelbach holds that hatreds wishing diverse evils by an inefficacious desire “are probably of the same species” (I, n. 947), and Wouters and Vermeersch agree that the species of evil need not be told. McHugh-Callan says that “he who out of hatred wishes the death of his neighbor, adds the guilt of murder to hatred” (n. 1317), and counts the evil wished among the circumstances that “may add a new sin” (n. 1319); he does not draw Merkelbach's line between an inefficacious wish and an efficacious purpose.
Refusing satisfaction and going to law. Merkelbach's Pastoral Questions counts among those who sin from hatred those who “do not accept a fitting satisfaction” (Pastoral, Q. V), and Marc says such persons sin “of themselves gravely” (n. 500). Vermeersch: “strictly speaking, we are not forbidden not to accept an offered satisfaction and to pursue a juridical action for injuries. Yet this is dangerous” (n. 88). Prümmer reports that St. Alphonsus never dared absolve those who left their enemy to the judge, and calls this “rather strict” (n. 574).
Denying the common signs of love. Prümmer measures the sin by the hatred and the scandal (n. 575), as do Marc and Merkelbach's Pastoral Questions. Vermeersch warns that the older authors' answers “cannot prudently be inculcated today without a new examination” (n. 88), and that “the mere omission of the signification of love will rarely today be able to be condemned as grave” (n. 95).
Hatred of God as the gravest sin. Prümmer gives the title to hatred of enmity “from its genus” and adds that “on account of special circumstances sometimes some other sin can be graver than hatred of God” (n. 564). Merkelbach and Noldin hold enmity toward God graver than abomination (I, n. 945); Marc says the two “do not differ in species” (n. 475). Concina gives the title to the hatred “by which the will detests God insofar as he prohibits sins and inflicts punishments” (III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. I), the hatred St. Thomas sets in God's effects, His forbidding of sin and inflicting of punishment.

What It Is

Hatred in general: “Hatred is a motion of the appetite by which we are ill-affected toward something.”	Merkelbach I, n. 944In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 1; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Wouters n. 520; Noldin n. 63; Prümmer n. 564; Vermeersch n. 88; Bontempi What the object of hatred is, and, n. 1; Billuart On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 1
Hatred of enmity, which properly is the sin of hatred: “hatred of enmity or malevolence, or hatred of the person himself according to himself, by which, from displeasure at some person, we will evil to him, because it is evil to him, that is, stopping in his evil, so that, namely, it may go ill with him”	Merkelbach I, n. 944In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 564; Noldin n. 63; Wouters n. 520; Marc n. 498; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Vermeersch n. 88; Bontempi What the object of hatred is, and, n. 2; St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 6, ad 3; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. II; Billuart On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 1
Joy at his evil, sorrow at his good: “Sadness over another's good belongs to hatred of enmity; likewise joy over his evil.”	Wouters n. 520In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 946; Noldin n. 100; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
Hatred of God, as forbidding sin and punishing: “Some of God's effects, however, are contrary to an inordinate will, such as the infliction of punishment, and the prohibition of sin by the Divine Law.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 945; McHugh-Callan n. 1297; Prümmer n. 564; Noldin n. 63; Bontempi What the object of hatred is, and, n. 1; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. I

What It Is Not

Not hatred of the sin: “Consequently it is lawful to hate the sin in one's brother, and whatever pertains to the defect of Divine justice, but we cannot hate our brother's nature and grace without sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 946; Prümmer n. 564; Noldin n. 100; Marc n. 499; Vermeersch n. 88; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; McHugh-Callan n. 1304; Bontempi What sin hatred is, and what kind, n. 1; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. III
So long as it keeps measure: “unless the hatred is greater than the cause deserves”	Merkelbach I, n. 946In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 100; Prümmer n. 564; McHugh-Callan n. 1304; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
Not willing an evil for the sake of a good: “To will evil to someone insofar as it is a good for him or for others is not hatred; indeed, it is licit, if the order of charity is preserved”	Merkelbach I, n. 948In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 100; Wouters n. 542; Prümmer n. 573; McHugh-Callan n. 1308; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Marc n. 500; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. IV
Yet never his sin: “Spiritual evil of iniquity may never be desired”	McHugh-Callan n. 1311In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 573
Nor against the order of charity: “thus a son cannot will the death of his father on account of the inheritance”	Merkelbach I, n. 948In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1309; Wouters n. 542
Not natural antipathy: “Antipathy is one thing, hatred another; voluntary hatred is one thing, horror and anger which some experience when the offender is seen or remembered is another”	Vermeersch n. 89In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 100; Merkelbach I, n. 948; Wouters n. 542; Marc n. 503; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; McHugh-Callan n. 1318
Not the feeling that the injury stirs: “Nor ought a feeling of indignation or the memory of injury be confused with hatred”	Marc n. 500In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 948; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII; Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “An
Yet dangerous: “But these are dangerous, because they can easily pass into abomination and ill will against the person.”	Noldin n. 100In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Merkelbach I, n. 946
Not demanding reparation: “for he can demand suitable satisfaction and restitution for damage”	Prümmer n. 577In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Marc n. 500; Vermeersch n. 88
Not hatred of one's punishment: “Not everyone who hates his punishment, hates God the author of punishments.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 564; McHugh-Callan n. 1298; Noldin n. 64
Not murmuring: “Indeed murmuring against divine providence is not always hatred of God, unless nevertheless blasphemy against God is added.”	Prümmer n. 564In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1298; McHugh-Callan n. 1318
Not in those who see Him: “Hence it is impossible for one who sees God in His Essence, to hate Him.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 945; McHugh-Callan n. 1297
Not envy: “hatred differs in this from envy, since it tends toward evil as evil, while envy tends toward the good of the neighbor as diminishing our own excellence”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1313
Not a capital vice: “Wherefore hatred, which is opposed to this love, is not the first but the last thing in the downfall of virtue resulting from vice: and therefore it is not a capital vice.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 5In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1314

Its Kinds

Abomination and enmity: “A twofold hatred is distinguished: hatred of abomination and hatred of enmity; the former is opposed to love of concupiscence, the latter to love of benevolence and friendship.”	Noldin n. 63In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 944; Wouters n. 520; Prümmer n. 564; Marc n. 475; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Vermeersch n. 95; Bontempi What the object of hatred is, and, n. 2; McHugh-Callan n. 1312
Abomination: “hatred of abomination or aversion, by which we turn away from something (a thing or a person) as evil or harmful to us; when there is question of a person it is called hatred of a quality”	Merkelbach I, n. 944In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 564; Noldin n. 63; Marc n. 498; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
Noldin and Wouters, of the person or of a quality: “A twofold hatred of abomination is distinguished: hatred of abomination of a person, by which we turn away from the person himself as evil to us; and hatred of abomination of a quality, by which we turn away from a quality of the person as evil to us.”	Noldin n. 63In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 520
Of God, of self, of neighbor: “Hence the sin of hatred of God is distinguished in species from the sin of hatred of self and of neighbor.”	Prümmer n. 564In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1317
Enmity toward God: “He sins by hatred of enmity a) who wills God not to be, or not to be omnipotent, omniscient, just, etc.”	Merkelbach I, n. 945In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 63; Vermeersch n. 76; Prümmer n. 564; McHugh-Callan n. 1299
Abomination of God: “Hatred of abomination toward God is to turn away from some perfection of His, e.g. justice, omnipotence, as harmful to us.”	Prümmer n. 564In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 63; McHugh-Callan n. 1299; Marc n. 475
Formal, or contained in every mortal sin: “As regards the intention, it is either interpretative or formal.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1299In nearly the same words: Marc n. 475; Bontempi What sin hatred is, and what kind, n. 7
Species by motive and person: “Hatreds of a quality of neighbor differ in species according to specifically diverse motives, for example, to hate neighbor because he is pious or because he has brought about a just damage.”	Merkelbach I, n. 947In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1317; Prümmer n. 564
Diverse evils wished, one species: “Hatreds of neighbor by which we wish (with inefficacious desire) that diverse evils befall him are probably of the same species”	Merkelbach I, n. 947In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 542; Vermeersch n. 90; McHugh-Callan n. 1317
Evils one means to inflict, diverse species: “On the contrary, hatreds by which we desire (with true efficacious desire) to inflict diverse evils on neighbor are certainly of diverse species”	Merkelbach I, n. 947In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 542
Spoken, malediction: “Malediction is a vocal imprecation of evil; therefore malediction is an external sin which proceeds from hatred or anger.”	Noldin n. 101In nearly the same words: Marc n. 504; Prümmer n. 573
Acted, vengeance: “Illicit vindication. This principally intends the evil of the offender and rests in that evil.”	Vermeersch n. 88In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 574; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V

Its Gravity

Hatred of God, the gravest of sins: “Wherefore hatred of God is more grievous than other sins.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 945; Noldin n. 64; Wouters n. 520; Marc n. 475; Vermeersch n. 76; McHugh-Callan n. 1301; Bontempi What sin hatred is, and what kind, n. 3; Prümmer n. 564; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. I; Billuart On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 2
Because the turning from God is direct: “Now this voluntary aversion from God is directly implied in the hatred of God, but in other sins, by participation and indirectly.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 945; Marc n. 475; McHugh-Callan n. 1301
Enmity graver than abomination: “But hatred of enmity toward God is graver than hatred of abomination: the former is opposed to the infinite intrinsic goodness of God, the latter to his external manifestation and glory.”	Merkelbach I, n. 945In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 64
No light matter: “Hatred of God does not admit smallness of matter”	Noldin n. 64In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 564; McHugh-Callan n. 1301; Merkelbach I, n. 945; Wouters n. 520; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. I
Prümmer, by circumstances another may be graver: “Yet on account of special circumstances sometimes some other sin can be graver than hatred of God”	Prümmer n. 564
A sin against the Holy Ghost, though not of the six: “This implies that to hate God, the giver of all good things, is to sin deliberately, and this is a sin against the Holy Ghost.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 2, ad 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1300
Hatred of the neighbor, mortal of its kind: “The sin of hatred toward neighbor is mortal from its genus because it is against charity”	Merkelbach I, n. 946In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 573; Noldin n. 100; Wouters n. 542; Marc n. 499; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Vermeersch n. 88; McHugh-Callan n. 1312; Bontempi What sin hatred is, and what kind, n. 10; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. II; Billuart On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 3
Venial by light matter or want of deliberation: “Nevertheless it can be venial, not only from indeliberation, as if it is done from a sudden motion of anger, but also from lightness of matter, for example, if we wish a slight evil to neighbor”	Merkelbach I, n. 946In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 573; Noldin n. 100; Wouters n. 542; Marc n. 499; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; McHugh-Callan n. 1312; Bontempi What sin hatred is, and what kind, n. 10; Concina III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. II; Billuart On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 4
To hate the good in him: “On the contrary, it is a sin if he is had in hatred according to something which is good in him, for example, insofar as he is pious, just, prudent, etc.”	Merkelbach I, n. 946In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 100; Marc n. 499; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; McHugh-Callan n. 1304
Noldin and Wouters, abomination of the person: “Hatred of abomination, which is referred to the very person of the neighbor, is from its genus a mortal sin, as contrary to the precept of charity by which we are bound to love the neighbor; nevertheless from lightness of matter it can be venial.”	Noldin n. 100In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 542
Mere displeasure, usually venial: “Simple displeasure with or aversion from a person, if evil is not wished to him, is for the most part a venial sin”	Noldin n. 100In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 946; McHugh-Callan n. 1312; Vermeersch n. 88; Billuart On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 4
Shunning him to grieve him: “A private person who, being averse from another, flees him, if he does this so that he may deprive him of his conversation and consolation, and thus sadden him, and it may go ill with him, it is hatred of enmity and a sin.”	Merkelbach I, n. 948In nearly the same words: Marc n. 500; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Vermeersch n. 89
Shunning him as troublesome, a sin only without reason: “But if, wishing no evil, you only flee because he is contrary to your nature, or is accustomed to be troublesome to you, it is hatred of aversion and a sin, if it is without reason”	Merkelbach I, n. 948In nearly the same words: Marc n. 500; Vermeersch n. 89; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
The gravest against the neighbor, by the disorder of the will: “On the first count, hatred is a more grievous sin than external actions that hurt our neighbor, because hatred is a disorder of man's will”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 946; McHugh-Callan n. 1313; Bontempi What sin hatred is, and what kind, n. 11
Not by the harm done: “On the other hand, as regards the hurt inflicted on his neighbor, a man's outward sins are worse than his inward hatred.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 946; McHugh-Callan n. 1313
Graver than envy and anger: “Hatred is a graver sin than other internal sins against the neighbor, such as envy, anger”	McHugh-Callan n. 1313
Denying the common signs of love: “At least common signs of dilection are to be shown to an enemy.”	Prümmer n. 575In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Marc n. 501; Vermeersch n. 91
Its gravity: “Otherwise sin arises, whose gravity is to be measured: a) from the gravity of the hatred of the one denying this sign of charity; b) from the gravity of the scandal arising.”	Prümmer n. 575In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 88; Marc n. 501
Refusing pardon: “Those sin, of themselves gravely, who refuse pardon to an enemy”	Marc n. 500In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Vermeersch n. 92
Unworthy of absolution: “A penitent who refuses to put away grave hatred of neighbor is not worthy of absolution.”	Prümmer n. 578In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V

Its Remedies

The first two headings follow Merkelbach's Pastoral Questions, which sets the reasons by which a penitent “is to be induced” to forgive (Pastoral, Q. V) apart from “the means for putting away hatred” (Pastoral, Q. V); Prümmer likewise brings forward “motives of forgiveness” first (n. 578). The rules of reconciliation are Prümmer's, Merkelbach's, Marc's and Vermeersch's.

Motives for forgiving
We are forgiven as we forgive: “a) the necessity of forgiving and of satisfying charity, according to what we ask in the Lord's Prayer: forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 571; Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “An; Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII; Bontempi What sin hatred is, and what kind, n. 10
The glory of it: “b) how glorious it is to forgive, for it is the greatest victory and a sacrifice most pleasing to God”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
The best alms: “To forgive one’s enemy is a work of mercy and the greatest of all almsgiving (St. Augustine).”	Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMYIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “An
Its fruit: “c) the utility of forgiveness and the consequent delightfulness”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
Hatred punishes the one who keeps it: “he will admonish how the first victim of hatred is the very one who fosters hatred: for that affection indeed nourishes pride, but takes peace and happiness from the heart”	Vermeersch n. 94In nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
The example of God and of Christ: “d) the example of God forgiving our sins and desiring that we forgive our enemies, likewise of Christ praying for His adversaries on the cross”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 578; Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
It makes us children of God: “Let them also insist on this certain truth, that one of the surest signs that men are children of God is their willingness to forgive injuries and sincerely love their enemies”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “AnIn nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY; Vermeersch n. 94
Providence uses the enemy for our good: “the consideration of human frailty and of the disposition of divine providence which permits such things to happen for our good”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY; Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
He bears God's image: “Another reason why we ought to love our enemy is because he also is made after God’s image”	Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
Christ asks it: “forgiveness to be made to Christ asking this, who took all sins upon Himself”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
The purest charity: “We love relatives, benefactors, and friends even on account of our own advantage or solace; we love enemies only on account of God.”	Vermeersch n. 94In nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
Means of putting hatred away
Prayer and services of charity: “Let the confessor indicate the means for putting away hatred, namely prayer for the enemy and for grace for himself, and services of charity.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “An; Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII; Prümmer n. 576
At the memory of the injury, one's own offences against God: “Let it be insinuated to him who is held by hatred that daily he pray for him whom he hates, and at the memory of the injury let him recall the insults by which he himself has affected God.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Ar. II
Grace asked in the Lord's Prayer: “it is necessary for us to forgive those who have inflicted on us any loss or injury, when we ask pardon of God we beg of Him at the same time to grant us grace to be reconciled to those against whom we harbor hatred.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “AnIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “An
An offering of one's enmities: “Whoever, therefore, desires to experience in a special manner the mercy of God, should make an offering to God Himself of all his enmities, remit every offence, and pray for his enemies with the greatest good will, seizing every opportunity of doing them good.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Petition of the Lord’s Prayer: “An
Good for evil: “The saints have taken revenge by loving, praising, and doing good to all that have done them evil.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY; Vermeersch n. 94; Prümmer n. 576
Where there is only aversion: “Nevertheless the penitent is to be warned that he pray for the other, seek speech with him, speak well of him among others, excuse his defects, etc.; for thus the aversion or displeasure, which, if secretly preserved, is fostered and remains, will soon be dissipated.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Against the wish for vengeance: “and propose to him that he be willing to ponder the matter as if it were not his own case but that of some third person”	Vermeersch n. 88
In reconciliation
The offender first: “regularly the one who offended another, or, if there are offenses on each side (as commonly happens), he who offended first or more gravely, is bound first to seek reconciliation”	Prümmer n. 577In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Marc n. 502; Vermeersch n. 93; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Where the injuries are equal: “If injuries from both sides were morally equal and simultaneous, each is bound, when occasion is given, to begin reconciliation by greeting, conversation, benefit, etc.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Marc n. 502
In practice, each: “But in practice, since not rarely each person is persuaded that he was first or more gravely harmed, the confessor ought to persuade each one to begin the reconciliation.”	Prümmer n. 577In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 93
At the right time: “An opportune time is to be sought”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Marc n. 502; Vermeersch n. 93; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Marc, through friends: “the matter does not succeed except through the mediation of friends and prudent men”	Marc n. 502
Vermeersch, pardon asked by a gift: “Yet often an implicit, virtual petition supplies, which is contained in a gift, an undue service.”	Vermeersch n. 93
By humbling oneself: “Selfhumiliation is the most efficacious means of repairing the violation of charity.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Receiving the one who asks pardon: “When a sister who has offended you comes to ask pardon, be careful not to receive her with a stern countenance”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 92; Marc n. 501
Former friendship need not return: “If before the offense there existed a special friendship between the offender and the offended person, it is not required that even this friendship be restored through reconciliation”	Prümmer n. 577In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 92
In confession
Gentleness: “Therefore first of all let the confessor beware of every austerity of words; rather let him strive kindly to sympathize with the penitent on account of the injury received”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
Judging by deeds: “For judging hatred itself, the confessor should believe the deeds rather than the words of the penitent”	Marc n. 503In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
What must be required: “In these cases it suffices that the confessor require a) interior and sincere forgiveness, b) removal of every scandal.”	Prümmer n. 578

A daughter of Envy and of Lust, whose remedies are given on their pages: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

St. Thomas, on hatred and envy.

From envy and anger: “Wherefore it is evident that hatred is caused by envy formally as regards the aspect of the object, but dispositively by anger.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 6, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 948; McHugh-Callan n. 1316; Prümmer n. 570
The last step: “As stated above (Article 5), hatred of his neighbor is a man's last step in the path of sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 6In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1314
From an offence: “Hatred ordinarily arises from offense, and manifests itself externally by denial of signs of love.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIn nearly the same words: Marc n. 498
Aversion grows into enmity: “so conversely hatred of abomination is accustomed to beget hatred of enmity”	Prümmer n. 564In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 944; Marc n. 499; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Noldin n. 100
Hatred of God by way of the neighbor: “Therefore, since envy of our neighbor is the mother of hatred of our neighbor, it becomes, in consequence, the cause of hatred towards God.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 34, a. 6, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1316
Marc, from disordered love of a creature: “Such love is the cause of all sins, even of hatred of God itself.”	Marc n. 474
Marc, abomination of God from despair: “because although hatred of abomination of itself arises from desperation”	Marc n. 475
What it breeds, toward God: “From hatred of God can proceed blasphemies, execrations, curses, sacrileges, persecutions against the Church, etc.”	Marc n. 475In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 64; McHugh-Callan n. 1303
Toward the neighbor: “Seven sins kindred to hatred are numbered: envy, malediction, schism, discord, contention, brawl, and sedition.”	Marc n. 504In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
It blinds the mind: “It is remarkable in what destructive manner hatred blinds the mind, so that an equitable judgment is almost impossible.”	Prümmer n. 573

Sins Against Charity Toward Oneself

How the Authors Compare

Noldin and Merkelbach both set egoism on the side of excess (n. 70, I, n. 888). On the side of defect Noldin names hatred of self (n. 70), and Merkelbach the neglect of what is owed to oneself (I, n. 888). Prümmer gathers the sins under hatred of self, “in a broad sense” (n. 568), and Merkelbach adds that “Formal hatred of oneself is not given” (I, n. 948).
Vermeersch treats these sins under piety toward oneself rather than charity (n. 320).
Whether this charity binds gravely of itself. Noldin: “there is no precept which from charity of self alone obliges under grave matter” (n. 70). McHugh-Callan: “The obligation is grave” (n. 1562). Prümmer says that one who rashly exposes himself to the danger of sinning “gravely wounds charity toward himself” (n. 388).
Confession. Merkelbach, Noldin and Prümmer hold that the malice against charity toward oneself need not be confessed as such, since “these sins always injure another precept or virtue” (I, n. 888). McHugh-Callan agrees, but adds: “It is necessary to declare a want of charity to self, if one has expressly intended such a sin” (n. 1578).
Defaming oneself. Noldin says it is not against charity, but “a vice of prodigality against liberality” that “does not exceed venial sin” (n. 66). McHugh-Callan treats the sacrifice of one's own reputation under charity to self: it “is not lawful, however, unless there is a proportionately grave reason” (n. 1576).
Giving one's life for a neighbor. Bontempi reports that Hurtado held “that it is a sin to die for the life of a neighbor” (Whether a man ought to love himsel, n. 9), and that others hold it licit (Whether a man ought to love himsel, n. 10). Wouters and Vermeersch count it no sin to yield a plank in shipwreck (n. 525).

What It Is

In general, every sin: “Any sin whatever is opposed in general to charity of self, because by any sin whatever we bring evil upon ourselves”	Noldin n. 70In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 568; Merkelbach I, n. 888; Vermeersch n. 320
Enemies of their own soul: “those who do sin and iniquity are enemies of their own soul”	Noldin n. 70In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 568
The wicked love themselves amiss: “Wherefore, since they know not themselves aright, they do not love themselves aright, but love what they think themselves to be.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 25, a. 7In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 887; St. Thomas II-II, q. 25, a. 4, ad 3
Called hatred of self: “The sins opposed to charity toward oneself are all comprehended in hatred of self.”	Prümmer n. 568In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 70
Two self-loves: “There are two sorts of self-love: the one good, the other pernicious.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VIIIn nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether a man ought to love himsel, n. 22

What It Is Not

Not formal hatred of oneself: “Formally speaking, man indeed cannot have hatred toward himself, because in all his acts he necessarily seeks his own happiness and not his own evil.”	Prümmer n. 568In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 948; McHugh-Callan n. 1307; Bontempi Whether a man ought to love himsel, n. 4
Not the self-contempt of humility: “Yet this esteem of self does not impede contempt and despising of self (Selbstverachtung), which the Christian religion commends to us as an exercise of humility”	Noldin n. 65
Not mortification for a spiritual good: “for on account of sufficient reasons, and especially on account of spiritual good, it is licit to undergo bodily austerities and to expose bodily health to danger”	Prümmer n. 568In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 1573; Vermeersch n. 324; Wouters n. 525
Yet not from hatred of the body: “nevertheless, we must not afflict the body out of hatred of the body considered according to its nature (thus it is good), nor seek mortification on account of mortification itself”	Merkelbach I, n. 887In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 25, a. 5; Bontempi Whether a man ought to love his ow, n. 8
Not refusing extraordinary means: “But a man is not bound to use extraordinary means, even if he can”	Prümmer n. 567In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 522; Merkelbach II, n. 353
Not giving health or life for a greater good: “unless nevertheless the common good or even a contrary spiritual good requires otherwise”	Prümmer n. 567In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1573; Wouters n. 525; Vermeersch n. 321
Not wishing death for God's sake: “if death is wished from desire of possessing God or of no longer offending Him”	Wouters n. 524In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1310
But not from anger or weariness: “Negatively, if someone wishes death for himself from anger or for a slight reason, for example on account of small troubles.”	Wouters n. 524In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1310

Its Kinds

By excess, egoism: “by excess, through the sin of egoism, by which someone seeks his own advantage in his actions in such a way that he prefers it even to the divine good, the glory of God, and to the public good”	Noldin n. 70In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 888; Prümmer n. 568; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
Too much care of the body: “Persons who give exaggerated attention to their health cannot justify themselves by the commandment of charity to self”	McHugh-Callan n. 1573In nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
By defect, the body before the soul: “those who so love exterior or bodily goods that spiritual goods are contemned, namely, by preferring the good of the body to the good of the soul”	Merkelbach I, n. 888In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 25, a. 7, ad 1
Neglect of salvation or of life: “those who neglect the means necessary for salvation or the ordinary means of conserving their own life, integrity of the body, or health”	Merkelbach I, n. 888In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 70; Wouters n. 525; Merkelbach II, n. 353
Needless danger to soul or body: “Next, he sins against charity toward himself who without sufficient reason exposes himself to danger of soul or body.”	Prümmer n. 568In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 888; Prümmer n. 388; Wouters n. 525; Vermeersch n. 322
Delaying conversion: “Likewise he who after a fall into mortal sin delays penance for a long time.”	Prümmer n. 568In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 70; McHugh-Callan n. 1563; Merkelbach I, n. 888
Harming oneself: “those who wish evil to themselves and, a fortiori, inflict it on themselves, for example, by directly harming the health of the body, by injuring themselves in the integrity of members, or by taking bodily life from themselves”	Merkelbach I, n. 888In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 70; Prümmer n. 568; Wouters n. 523; Vermeersch n. 320
Neglect of the mind: “It is a sin, therefore, greater or less according to circumstances, to neglect the care of the mind or of the mental culture one should possess.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1564In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 67
Casting away one's good name: “Without a reasonable cause it is not permitted to defame oneself”	Noldin n. 66In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1576
Vermeersch, lust, a sin against one's own body: “Thus the lustful abuse of one's own body is called by the Apostle a sin against one's own body”	Vermeersch n. 320

Its Gravity

The gravest harm, mortal sin: “The gravest harm which man inflicts upon himself is mortal sin itself, by which he kills his soul and destroys true supernatural charity in himself”	Prümmer n. 568
Confessed under another species: “Nevertheless, one need not attend specially in confession to that malice by which these sins are opposed to charity toward oneself, because it is included in every sin; besides, these sins always injure another precept or virtue, and therefore they must be declared according to another species.”	Merkelbach I, n. 888In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 70; Prümmer n. 568; McHugh-Callan n. 1578
McHugh-Callan, unless expressly intended: “It is necessary to declare a want of charity to self, if one has expressly intended such a sin.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1578
Noldin, no precept of this charity alone binds gravely: “because there is no precept which from charity of self alone obliges under grave matter”	Noldin n. 70
McHugh-Callan, the obligation is grave: “Charity obliges each one capable of precept to an elicited supernatural love of self. The obligation is grave”	McHugh-Callan n. 1562
Grave when health is gravely harmed: “b) who gravely harm health or notably hasten death for themselves by gluttony, drunkenness, immoderate passion of lust, by abuse of morphine, cocaine, opium, or by immoderate penances”	Merkelbach II, n. 353In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 525
Not grave against this charity when the harm is slight: “Excesses in food and drink by which health is indeed injured, but not proximately and notably, even if they are grave against temperance, are not gravely opposed to piety or charity toward oneself.”	Vermeersch n. 324
Self-killing: “Direct killing of oneself is always prohibited under grave sin.”	Wouters n. 523In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 327

Its Remedies

Against disordered self-love
Prayer above all: “To conquer self-love, and to shake off the tyranny of passion, we must above all things pray without ceasing, and continually ask of God the assistance of his grace.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
The ruling passion: “The first means is, to discover the passion which predominates in our heart, and which most frequently leads us into sin; and then to endeavor to conquer it.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
Resisting them early: “The second means to obtain the spirit of interior mortification is, to resist the passions, and to beat them down before they acquire strength.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
Changing their object: “The third means is, as Cassian says, to endeavor to change the object of our passions, that thus the pernicious and vicious desires of the heart may become salutary and holy.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
Loving oneself rightly
The soul first: “Hence we are bound a) to prefer the salvation of the soul and sanctification before all things”	Merkelbach I, n. 887In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 566
In the imitation of Christ: “Therefore true and most perfect love of self consists in the imitation of Christ.”	Prümmer n. 566
The inward man: “On this way the good love themselves, as to the inward man, because they wish the preservation thereof in its integrity, they desire good things for him, namely spiritual goods, indeed they do their best to obtain them”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 25, a. 7
Care of the body for God's service: “a discreet attention to the preservation of health, with a view to be better able to serve God, is not a defect, but an act of virtue”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VIIIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 887
Against the drug habits: “By diffusing, also and especially among adolescents and youths, the contrary spirit of mortification, these sensualities will best be forestalled.”	Vermeersch n. 324

Where It Comes From

Disordered self-love, the root of sin: “The love of self which is the principle of sin is that which is proper to the wicked, and reaches "to the contempt of God,"”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 25, a. 7, ad 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 566; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
Delay breeds more sin: “because a state of sin protracted for a long time induces almost a certain necessity of increasing sins”	Noldin n. 66In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 568

Discord

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas, Prümmer and Merkelbach distinguish discord of wills from mere difference of opinion. Prümmer: “not a disagreement of opinions, which sometimes is licit” (n. 604); St. Thomas and Merkelbach call the second accidental (II-II, q. 37, a. 1, I, n. 954). Concina: “there is no discord when one, in good faith, judges that this pertains to the honor of God and the utility of the Neighbor, and another judges otherwise. For this frequently happens even among the holier men themselves” (III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. VI). Billuart limits the sin to dissent where charity binds: “if we be bound to consent not out of charity, but out of another virtue, it will not be against charity, but against that other virtue” (On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 11).

What It Is

A disagreement of wills: “which is directly contrary to concord or union of wills, and is a dissension of wills (not only of intellects) concerning the good of God or neighbor which from charity we ought to will”	Merkelbach I, n. 954In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 604; Wouters n. 568; McHugh-Callan n. 1348; Marc n. 504; Bontempi What discord is, and what kind of, n. 1; St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 2
Against concord: “Discord is opposed to concord.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 604
In the heart: “discord, which is in the heart, contention, which is in the mouth”	Wouters n. 566In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1347; Bontempi What sedition is, n. 7

What It Is Not

Not a difference of opinion: “Such like discord is neither sinful nor against charity, unless it be accompanied by an error about things necessary to salvation, or by undue obstinacy, since it has also been stated above (29, 1,3, ad 2) that the concord which is an effect of charity, is union of wills not of opinions.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1351; Prümmer n. 604; Marc n. 504
Paul and Barnabas: “The discord between Paul and Barnabas was accidental and not direct: because each intended some good, yet the one thought one thing good, while the other thought something else, which was owing to human deficiency”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Marc n. 504; McHugh-Callan n. 1351
Not in what is left free: “Thus, discord differs from disagreement about matters of supererogation.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1348In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954
Not disobedience or injustice: “If it be some other virtue that demands unanimity (e.g., justice), the disagreement is not discord in the special sense now employed”	McHugh-Callan n. 1348
Not breaking an evil concord: “On the other hand, to arouse a discord whereby an evil concord (i.e. concord in an evil will) is destroyed, is praiseworthy.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1353; Spirago PEACEABLENESS

Its Kinds

Direct and accidental: “But it must be observed that this concord is destroyed by discord in two ways: first, directly; secondly, accidentally.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1349
Direct: “Wherefore a man directly disaccords with his neighbor, when he knowingly and intentionally dissents from the Divine good and his neighbor's good, to which he ought to consent.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1349
In one party or in both: “It follows from this that discord is sometimes the sin of one party only, for instance, when one wills a good which the other knowingly resists; while sometimes it implies sin in both parties”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1352
Sowing discord: “Hence to cause a discord, whereby a good concord resulting from charity is destroyed, is a grave sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1353; Prümmer n. 604; Bontempi What discord is, and what kind of, n. 2; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Schism and sedition, discord among the many: “Sedition, like schism, is contained under discord, since each is a kind of discord, not between individuals, but between the parts of a multitude.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1440

Its Gravity

Direct discord, mortal of its kind: “This is a mortal sin in respect of its genus, because it is contrary to charity, although the first movements of such discord are venial sins by reason of their being imperfect acts.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; Wouters n. 568; McHugh-Callan n. 1350; Bontempi What discord is, and what kind of, n. 2; McHugh-Callan n. 1350
Wouters and Marc, by the matter: “that is, grave or light according as it concerns a good necessarily or not necessarily to be pursued”	Wouters n. 568In nearly the same words: Marc n. 504
A difference of opinion held obstinately: “From its circumstances, this kind of discord may be sinful, as when it is caused by culpable ignorance in matters of faith, or is carried on with obstinacy.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1351In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954

Its Remedies

Yielding for peace: “Hence every one ought to be willing to make concessions for the sake of peace, and as far as lies in his power, to avoid all that may engender strife.”	Spirago PEACEABLENESSIn nearly the same words: Spirago PEACEABLENESS
Caring little for vain honor: “But the faithful also will be skillful in avoiding dissensions, little solicitous about vain honor”	Vermeersch n. 94
No tale-bearing: “Be careful never to mention to any sister that another has spoken ill of her; for tale-bearing of this kind sometimes occasions disputes and aversions which last for a long time.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
The reward: “Peacemakers enjoy the special protection of God, and receive a hundredfold as the reward of all that they give up for the sake of peace.”	Spirago PEACEABLENESS
But never against God's command: “However, one must not for the sake of peace omit or give up anything which God commands”	Spirago PEACEABLENESS

A daughter of Vainglory, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Discord is a daughter of vainglory.

From vainglory: “Therefore discord, whereby a man holds to his own way of thinking, and departs from that of others, is reckoned to be a daughter of vainglory.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; Prümmer n. 604; McHugh-Callan n. 1354; Bontempi What discord is, and what kind of, n. 3
And from envy: “discord is accounted a daughter of vainglory rather than of envy, though it may arise from both for different reasons”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 2, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1354; Bontempi What discord is, and what kind of, n. 3
What it does: “The reason why concord makes small things thrive, while discord brings the greatest to ruin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 37, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Bontempi What discord is, and what kind of, n. 3

Contention

How the Authors Compare

Merkelbach and Wouters agree that attacking the truth is grave of its kind and defending it badly is venial of itself (I, n. 954, n. 569). Billuart: contention, as “Assault upon truth with confidence of clamor”, is “ex genere suo mortal sin”, of truth one knows “or can and ought to know”, and not “for exercise or examination's sake” (On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 12, On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 13).
Prümmer defines the sin with Cicero's words, contention is “sharp speech fitted for confirming and refuting” (n. 604); St. Thomas cites the same words of Tully for contention “in keeping with the persons and the matter”, which is “praiseworthy” (II-II, q. 38, a. 1). Bontempi defines contention only as an altercation “against the truth, aimed at attacking it” (What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 1), and so leaves no praiseworthy kind. Concina gives St. Thomas's praiseworthy contention its rule: “Acrimony must never be poured out upon persons, but only, with due sparingness, upon errors”, and holds that refuting errors in writing carries less danger, since “often the authors of the errors are either dead or absent” (III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. VII).

What It Is

Discord in words: “just as discord denotes a contrariety of wills, so contention signifies contrariety of speech”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; Prümmer n. 604; Wouters n. 569; McHugh-Callan n. 1355; Marc n. 504
St. Ambrose's definition: “Contention is a disclaimer of the truth with clamorous confidence.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1In nearly the same words: Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 1

What It Is Not

Not the refuting of error: “If, however, contention denote a disavowal of what is false, with the proper measure of acrimony, it is praiseworthy”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1361
Not honest debate: “Contention whose aim is the discovery of the truth is lawful”	McHugh-Callan n. 1356In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1, ad 4
Not the defense of the faith: “On this sense Catholics do not contend against heretics, but the reverse.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1, ad 3

Its Kinds

By intention and by manner: “Now contrariety of speech may be looked at in two ways: first with regard to the intention of the contentious party, secondly, with regard to the manner of contending.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1355
Attacking the truth, or defending it badly: “either by attacking the truth, or by defending it in an undue mode, for example, with too much acrimony”	Merkelbach I, n. 954In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 569; Marc n. 504
Formally against the truth: “when one contends formally against the truth, that is, when one knows the truth and intends to overcome it or suppress it”	McHugh-Callan n. 1360In nearly the same words: Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 3
Not caring whether it is true: “when one contends virtually against the truth, that is, when one is so bent on carrying one’s point that one does not care whether it is true or false”	McHugh-Callan n. 1360In nearly the same words: Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 3
Bontempi, against a truth one ought to know: “Third, one who can and ought to know that the proposed matter which he attacks is true”	Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 3
The truth used against the truth: “it is defended out of contention when one makes use of it as a means for the propagation of error”	McHugh-Callan n. 1359In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1, ad 2

Its Gravity

Against the truth, mortal of its kind: “Accordingly if we take contention as denoting a disclaimer of the truth and an inordinate manner, it is a mortal sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; Wouters n. 569; McHugh-Callan n. 1357; Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 2; Marc n. 504
Light when the truth is slight: “Mortal sin is not committed by contention, therefore, unless the truths against which one contends are of a serious kind.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1358In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 569; McHugh-Callan n. 1357
Defending the truth badly, venial: “whereas, if it denote a disavowal of falsehood, together with an inordinate manner, it can be a venial sin, unless the contention be conducted so inordinately, as to give scandal to others”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; Wouters n. 569; McHugh-Callan n. 1361
In court or disputation: “Contention is complete and is a mortal sin when, in contending before a judge, a man gainsays the truth of justice, or in a disputation, intends to impugn the true doctrine.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1358
Bontempi, by its root: “Contention is to be judged by its root; for if it arises from grave hatred, or grave anger, or a will to oppress or confound holy truth, it is mortal.”	Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 8
The one who begins: “Those who begin contentions are usually more culpable than those who answer”	Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 4

Its Remedies

Avoiding disputes: “Endeavor also to avoid as much as possible all disputes.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: Spirago PEACEABLENESS; Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 5; Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 9
Not contradicting without cause: “One should never contradict any one without a good reason.”	Spirago PEACEABLENESSIn nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Not over trifles: “St. Teresa bids us never to enter upon a strife of words about matters of no importance, especially at one’s own fireside.”	Spirago PEACEABLENESSIn nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
From Cardinal Bellarmine: “That an ounce of charity is more valuable than a hundred carloads of reason.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
St. Augustine, healing harsh words: “Refrain from harsher words; and if they have issued from your mouth, do not be ashamed to bring forth from that same mouth the remedies from which the wounds were made.”	Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 5

A daughter of Vainglory, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Contention is a daughter of vainglory.

From vainglory: “Consequently contention is reckoned a daughter of vainglory for the same reason as discord.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 38, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; Prümmer n. 604; McHugh-Callan n. 1362
From discord: “From discord often is born contention”	Merkelbach I, n. 954
Its loudness, from anger: “The cause of that which is secondary in contention—namely, the wrangling or bawling manner and the shouts or screams of the contenders—is anger.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1362
Love of one's own: “Yet contention is a sign of the love of one's own private good.”	Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 8
What it breeds: “Contention kindles the torches of hatred; contention extinguishes the peace of the heart; contention breaks concord.”	Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 6In nearly the same words: Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 5

Strife (quarrels)

What It Is

A private war: “Hence strife is a kind of private war, because it takes place between private persons, being declared not by public authority, but rather by an inordinate will.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 604; Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1428; Marc n. 504; Bontempi What quarreling is, and what kind, n. 1
In deeds: “While contention implies a contradiction of words, strife denotes a certain contradiction of deeds.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 604; McHugh-Callan n. 1428
In anger: “strifes are when persons strike one another through anger”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954

What It Is Not

Not just defense: “For if his sole intention be to withstand the injury done to him, and he defend himself with due moderation, it is no sin, and one cannot say properly that there is strife on his part.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1430; Prümmer n. 604; Marc n. 504
Not public force: “For if the servants of a sovereign or judge, in virtue of their public authority, attack certain men and these defend themselves, it is not the former who are said to be guilty of strife”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1428
Not sport: “Hence, wrestling and boxing matches, football games, fencing and similar athletic contests, in which fair play and a sportsmanlike spirit prevail, are not fighting as here understood.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1428

Its Kinds

The aggressor and the defender: “As to its origin, fighting is provoked or unprovoked, according as one who fights is attacking another or defending himself against attack.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1429In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1
The duel: “As to its manner, it is an ordinary fight or a duel, according as it takes place without or with previous arrangement and stipulated conditions.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1429In nearly the same words: Bontempi What quarreling is, and what kind, n. 10
The quarrelsome man, ready to fight, delighting in it, provoking it: “there are three things in the passage quoted from Isidore, which express the inordinate nature of strife”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1, ad 1

Its Gravity

In the aggressor: “it is a mortal sin in the man who attacks another unjustly, for it is not without mortal sin that one inflicts harm on another even if the deed be done by the hands”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1430; Bontempi What quarreling is, and what kind, n. 2; Marc n. 504
Venial when slight: “yet if it does not exceed measure, as also a very light fight, it is venial”	Merkelbach I, n. 954In nearly the same words: Marc n. 504; McHugh-Callan n. 1430
In the defender who goes too far: “It is a venial sin, if a slight movement of hatred or vengeance obtrude itself, or if he does not much exceed moderation in defending himself: but it is a mortal sin if he makes for his assailant with the fixed intention of killing him, or inflicting grievous harm on him.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; McHugh-Callan n. 1430; Bontempi What quarreling is, and what kind, n. 2

Its Remedies

McHugh-Callan puts the remedy in removing the causes, which he divides into the proximate, anger, and the remote, an inordinate desire of temporal things, and then the occasions (n. 1431); they are set out under Its Origin.

Removing its causes: “The remedy of sinful fighting is the removal of its causes.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1431
A mild answer: “Should any one ever address you in the language of passion, or even of insult and reproach, answer with sweetness, and her anger will be instantly appeased.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Yielding for peace: “Hence every one ought to be willing to make concessions for the sake of peace, and as far as lies in his power, to avoid all that may engender strife.”	Spirago PEACEABLENESS

A daughter of Anger, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Strife is among the daughters of anger.

From anger: “Therefore, properly speaking, strife arises from anger.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 954; Prümmer n. 604; McHugh-Callan n. 1431; Bontempi What quarreling is, and what kind, n. 1
From discord and contention: “From discord and contention sometimes is born strife”	Merkelbach I, n. 954
Remotely, desire of temporal things: “The remote cause of fighting is an inordinate desire of temporal things, such as wealth, power, ease”	McHugh-Callan n. 1431In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 2, ad 1
Sometimes from hatred: “Although strife sometimes arises from hatred, it is not the proper effect thereof”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 2, ad 4In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1432
Occasioned by boasting: “Boasting about self or depreciation of others in the presence of persons who will take offense occasions fights”	McHugh-Callan n. 1433In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 2, ad 2
And by drink: “Drunkenness occasions fights”	McHugh-Callan n. 1433
What it breeds: “Strifes give rise to hatred and discord in the hearts of those who are guilty of strife”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 41, a. 2, ad 5In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1434

Schism

How the Authors Compare

Prümmer, Noldin and Wouters agree that schism is not of itself a sin against faith, yet is scarcely found without heresy (n. 509, n. 32*, n. 570). Concina: “every heretic is a schismatic, but not conversely”, though “in practice these two crimes, schism and heresy, are scarcely separated” (III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. VIII).
St. Thomas's two ways of breaking unity recur in Merkelbach and Wouters: refusing subjection to the Pontiff, and refusing communion with the members (II-II, q. 39, a. 1, I, n. 955, n. 570). So Concina, “who refuses either to communicate with her members, or to render due obedience to the Roman Pontiff” (III, diss. IV, ch. II, n. VIII); Billuart counts three ways, “separating himself from the head”, “from the members”, and “from head and members at once” (On hatred of God and of the neighbor;…, n. 15).
Jurisdiction. St. Thomas holds that the power of jurisdiction “does not remain in heretics and schismatics”, so that whatever they do of that kind “is invalid” (II-II, q. 39, a. 3). Bontempi reports this as the second of three opinions (What punishments are owed to schis, n. 12), and a middle one that “the manifest Schismatic and heretic loses the power of jurisdiction ipso facto; but not the occult one” (What punishments are owed to schis, n. 13). McHugh-Callan says only that jurisdiction “may be lost through schism” (n. 1374), and that the Roman Church “has allowed ecclesiastical jurisdiction to remain in the schismatic Oriental Churches for the conferring of the Sacraments” (n. 1375).
What makes a schismatic. Prümmer's definition names only “pertinacious withdrawal from the obedience due to the Supreme Pontiff” (n. 509); St. Thomas and the others add the refusal “to hold communion with those members of the Church who acknowledge his supremacy” (II-II, q. 39, a. 1). Marc calls schismatics “properly so called” those “who boldly establish or follow new Churches” (n. 1317); McHugh-Callan says schism “does not necessarily include affiliation with some schismatical body or the setting up of such a body” (n. 1364).

What It Is

A willed separation from the Church's unity: “Accordingly schismatics properly so called are those who, wilfully and intentionally separate themselves from the unity of the Church”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 955; McHugh-Callan n. 1364; Wouters n. 570; Noldin n. 32; Marc n. 504; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 1
Prümmer, withdrawal from obedience to the Pontiff: “pertinacious withdrawal from the obedience due to the Supreme Pontiff”	Prümmer n. 509
Against the unity charity makes: “Hence the sin of schism is, properly speaking, a special sin, for the reason that the schismatic intends to sever himself from that unity which is the effect of charity”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 32; Wouters n. 570; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 8; McHugh-Callan n. 1371
Rebellious: “The essence of schism consists in rebelliously disobeying the commandments”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 955; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 13
The name: “schism takes its name "from being a scission of minds,"”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1In nearly the same words: Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 1; McHugh-Callan n. 1364

What It Is Not

Not heresy: “For heresy is essentially opposed to faith, while schism is essentially opposed to the unity of ecclesiastical charity.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 509; McHugh-Callan n. 1370; Noldin n. 32; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 11
Every heretic a schismatic, not the reverse: “whoever is a heretic is also a schismatic, but not conversely”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 956; Wouters n. 570; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 11
Not every sin: “The division between man and God that results from sin is not intended by the sinner: it happens beside his intention as a result of his turning inordinately to a mutable good, and so it is not schism properly so called.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1364
Not disobedience to a command: “In this case the person is guilty of disobedience, but not of schism, even though he persists in his refusal; for he rejects a commandment of the Church, not the head of the Church.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1369In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1317; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 13
Not rebellion against one's bishop alone: “He who separates himself from his own bishop alone is not by that very fact yet a schismatic”	Wouters n. 570In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1368; Marc n. 1317
McHugh-Callan, not shunning a Pope's personal disfavor: “Hence, if we suppose that it is reasonably certain that a Pope is unfavorable to an individual, and that the latter accordingly is unwilling to have a case in which he is concerned fall under the immediate decision of that Pope, neither schism nor any other sin is committed”	McHugh-Callan n. 1369
Marc, not refusing a doubtful Pontiff: “him who should refuse to be subject to the Pontiff insofar as he is suspect to him, or doubtfully legitimate”	Marc n. 1317
Not in good faith: “Material schism is that in which one is in fact separated from the unity of the Church, but is in good faith.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1373
Not sedition: “Sedition differs from schism in two respects. First, because schism is opposed to the spiritual unity of the multitude, viz. ecclesiastical unity, whereas sedition is contrary to the temporal or secular unity of the multitude”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: Bontempi What sedition is, n. 8; McHugh-Callan n. 1441; McHugh-Callan n. 1364

Its Kinds

Two unities broken: “Now the unity of the Church consists in two things; namely, in the mutual connection or communion of the members of the Church, and again in the subordination of all the members of the Church to the one head”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 955; Wouters n. 570; McHugh-Callan n. 1368
Refusing the Pope, or refusing communion: “Wherefore schismatics are those who refuse to submit to the Sovereign Pontiff, and to hold communion with those members of the Church who acknowledge his supremacy.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 955; Wouters n. 570; Noldin n. 32; Sabetti-Barrett n. 161; Marc n. 504; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 14
Marc, schismatics properly so called: “SCHISMATICS properly so called, namely those who boldly establish or follow new Churches”	Marc n. 1317
And imperfect: “Imperfect schismatics, namely those who, led by true malice, do not wish to obey the Roman Pontiff existing for the time being, holding themselves as freed from his power.”	Marc n. 1317
McHugh-Callan, direct and indirect: “Schism is voluntary in two ways: (a) directly, when one intends schism itself, wishing to separate oneself from the head or members of the Church; (b) indirectly, when one intends to do that from which schism follows.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1366
Formal: “Formal schism is that described above, in which one wishes to separate oneself from the unity of the Church, and is in culpable revolt.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1373

Its Gravity

The greatest sin against the neighbor: “Nevertheless of all sins committed by man against his neighbor, the sin of schism would seem to be the greatest, because it is opposed to the spiritual good of the multitude.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1372; Bontempi How great a sin schism is, n. 2
Mortal in its whole kind: “From this it is clear that it is a most grave and mortal sin from its whole genus.”	Merkelbach I, n. 955In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 570; Bontempi How great a sin schism is, n. 1; McHugh-Callan n. 1373; Marc n. 504
Less than unbelief by its kind: “Wherefore it is manifest that the sin of unbelief is generically more grievous than the sin of schism”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 955; Wouters n. 570; McHugh-Callan n. 1372; Bontempi How great a sin schism is, n. 3
Yet sometimes worse in the person: “although it may happen that a particular schismatic sins more grievously than a particular unbeliever, either because his contempt is greater, or because his sin is a source of greater danger”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1372; Bontempi How great a sin schism is, n. 3
Excommunicated: “Now a schismatic, as shown above (Article 1), commits a twofold sin: first by separating himself from communion with the members of the Church, and in this respect the fitting punishment for schismatics is that they be excommunicated.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 4In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1375; Merkelbach I, n. 956; Bontempi What punishments are owed to schis, n. 5; Marc n. 1317; Wouters n. 502
Orders kept, their lawful use lost: “it follows that such persons lose the use of their power, so that it is not lawful for them to use it. Yet if they use it, this power has its effect in sacramental acts”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1374; Bontempi What punishments are owed to schis, n. 2

Its Remedies

Admonition: “Excommunication does not forbid the intercourse whereby a person by salutary admonitions leads back to the unity of the Church those who are separated from her.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 4, ad 2
The penalty as a medicine: “Indeed this very separation brings them back somewhat, because through confusion at their separation, they are sometimes led to do penance.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 4, ad 2In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 4, ad 3

Where It Comes From

From pride, hatred, ambition: “A person who really believes that the Church is one in its head and its body, may nevertheless out of pride, hatred, ambition, interest, self-sufficiency, etc., decide not to recognize the authority of the head, or not to communicate with the body.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1370
From rebellion against one's bishop: “But such rebellion is often the first step towards schism.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1368In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 570
It leads to heresy: “Nevertheless, just as the loss of charity is the road to the loss of faith, according to 1 Timothy 1:6: "From which things," i.e. charity and the like, "some going astray, are turned aside into vain babbling," so too, schism is the road to heresy.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 39, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 509; Noldin n. 32; McHugh-Callan n. 1370; Merkelbach I, n. 956; Bontempi What kind of sin schism is, n. 13

War and Sedition

How the Authors Compare

War is not a sin of itself for any of them: each sets out when it is licit, with St. Thomas's three conditions (II-II, q. 40, a. 1, II, n. 130, n. 353). The sin is unjust war, which is why Merkelbach says such sins “are better considered in the treatise on Justice” (I, n. 955).
The three conditions. St. Thomas's are authority, a just cause and a right intention (II-II, q. 40, a. 1), and Prümmer, Merkelbach, McHugh-Callan, Marc and Bontempi give the same three. Noldin's third is instead “A morally certain right” (n. 353); Sabetti-Barrett's third is “the due mode of waging war” (n. 277). Marc and Bontempi add that where right intention alone is lacking, no obligation of restitution follows (n. 750, What conditions are required for a, n. 22). Billuart gives St. Thomas's three: “legitimate authority of declaring war, just cause and right intention” (On war, n. 5).
Certainty for offensive war. Noldin requires a morally certain right, and reports that some say a probable or more probable right suffices, naming St. Alphonsus among the latter (n. 353); Wouters quotes St. Alphonsus that a war “can scarcely ever seem just if it is inferred from things merely probable and not certain” (n. 751). Marc: “they are not to be heard who think that for offensive war either greater probability or equal doubt suffices” (n. 750). McHugh-Callan reports that “Some moralists believe that a high degree of probability” suffices, and prefers the opinion that none does (n. 1395). Billuart, a probabiliorist, forbids a doubtful prince to declare war for reparation of injury, “because in doubt, especially of such moment, the safer part must be chosen”; subjects ordered to fight may fight in doubt, but not volunteers or foreigners, though “several weighty authors judge” a merely negative doubt enough for them, and “those who are ready to make war whether the war be just or unjust, are certainly in the state of damnation” (On war, n. 15, On war, n. 18, On war, n. 20, On war, n. 21).
Fighting on feast days. St. Thomas: “as soon as the need ceases, it is no longer lawful to fight on a holy day” (II-II, q. 40, a. 4); Merkelbach likewise (II, n. 276). Bontempi: “It is nevertheless not a mortal sin, outside necessity, to fight on a feast day, provided Mass is heard” (By whom war may be waged, n. 12).

What It Is

War: “It can be defined: a conflict by force and arms between two or more nations; or the fight of a multitude or commonwealth with a foreign multitude or commonwealth, undertaken by public authority for the common good.”	Merkelbach II, n. 272In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 1; Prümmer II, n. 129; Noldin n. 351; Wouters n. 751; McHugh-Callan n. 1376; Marc n. 749; Sabetti-Barrett n. 276
Sedition: “while sedition, in its proper sense, is between mutually dissentient parts of one people, as when one part of the state rises in tumult against another part”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 955; Prümmer II, n. 129; Noldin n. 351; Marc n. 749; Sabetti-Barrett n. 276; McHugh-Callan n. 1440; Bontempi What sedition is, n. 1
Against the prince, rebellion: “or against the legitimate prince, in which latter case it is called rebellion”	Merkelbach I, n. 955In nearly the same words: Marc n. 504; McHugh-Callan n. 1440
Sedition even before blows: “whereas sedition may be said to denote either actual aggression, or the preparation for such aggression”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1440

What It Is Not

Not a just war: “War can be undertaken justly; for this a threefold condition is required: the authority of the supreme civil power, a just cause, and right intention.”	Merkelbach II, n. 273In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 1; Prümmer II, n. 129; McHugh-Callan n. 1384; Marc n. 750; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 2; Wouters n. 751; Noldin n. 352; Sabetti-Barrett n. 277
Its first condition, supreme authority: “First, the authority of the sovereign by whose command the war is to be waged.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Noldin n. 353; Wouters n. 751; Sabetti-Barrett n. 277; Marc n. 750; McHugh-Callan n. 1384; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 3
The second, a just and grave cause: “Secondly, a just cause is required, namely that those who are attacked, should be attacked because they deserve it on account of some fault.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Prümmer II, n. 130; Noldin n. 353; Wouters n. 751; Sabetti-Barrett n. 277; Marc n. 750; McHugh-Callan n. 1384; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 4
An injury, the only cause: “There is one and only just cause of making war: an injury received.”	Prümmer II, n. 130In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Noldin n. 353; McHugh-Callan n. 1386; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 13
The third, a right intention: “Thirdly, it is necessary that the belligerents should have a rightful intention, so that they intend the advancement of good, or the avoidance of evil.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Prümmer II, n. 130; McHugh-Callan n. 1384; Marc n. 750; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 2
Satisfaction asked first: “Hence, that war can justly be begun, it is required that satisfaction be demanded from the opposing party; and if it is offered, it must be accepted from justice.”	Noldin n. 353In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Sabetti-Barrett n. 277; Marc n. 751; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 20; McHugh-Callan n. 1386
A just war seeks peace: “Those who wage war justly aim at peace, and so they are not opposed to peace, except to the evil peace”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Prümmer II, n. 130
Not stratagem: “Such like concealment is what is meant by an ambush which may be lawfully employed in a just war.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 3In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 352; Merkelbach II, n. 274; Wouters n. 751; Marc n. 751; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 18; McHugh-Callan n. 1416
Not the subject who serves in doubt: “In doubt concerning the justice of the war, a soldier who is a subject or hired before the war is bound to obey”	Noldin n. 354In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 275; Sabetti-Barrett n. 278; Wouters n. 751; McHugh-Callan n. 1394; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 33; Prümmer II, n. 130
Not resisting sedition: “Those, however, who defend the common good, and withstand the seditious party, are not themselves seditious”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 2In nearly the same words: Bontempi What sedition is, n. 5
Not resisting a tyrant, if it does more good than harm: “Consequently there is no sedition in disturbing a government of this kind, unless indeed the tyrant's rule be disturbed so inordinately, that his subjects suffer greater harm from the consequent disturbance than from the tyrant's government.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1443
Not the rivalry of parties: “Difference of opinion in the political parties of a country is not sedition”	McHugh-Callan n. 1440

Its Kinds

Offensive and defensive: “War is either offensive, when it is undertaken to avenge or obtain reparation for an injury inflicted by another nation; or defensive, when it is sustained for repelling unjust force by force”	Merkelbach II, n. 272In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 129; Noldin n. 351; Wouters n. 751; Marc n. 749; McHugh-Callan n. 1378
Unjust war, for conquest, glory, or to convert: “For beginning offensive war there is not sufficient a) the desire of converting infidels to the true faith, nor b) the enlargement of one's own empire, nor c) one's own glory, etc.”	Prümmer II, n. 130In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Noldin n. 353; Marc n. 750; McHugh-Callan n. 1393; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 14
But just, to defend the preaching of the faith: “religion or the right of preaching the Gospel, to be protected from aggressors against unbelievers”	Merkelbach II, n. 273In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 353; Marc n. 750; McHugh-Callan n. 1391
Sedition, rebellion, civil war: “But, if fighting has begun, it is insurrection or rebellion, when the people seek to overthrow the government; it is civil war, if one part of the nation seeks to secede from or overcome the other.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1440In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 272

Its Gravity

War without just cause, grave against charity and justice: “He who declares war without a just cause sins gravely: first and formally against charity, because he disturbs peace, which is an effect of charity; at the same time, however, against justice, on account of the unjust damages which war is apt to inflict.”	Merkelbach II, n. 275In nearly the same words: Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 20
Unjust if begun in doubt: “b) morally certain, both because otherwise a doubt of fact would expose one to the danger of inflicting unjust damage”	Merkelbach II, n. 273In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 353; McHugh-Callan n. 1394; Marc n. 750; Wouters n. 751
Yet the possessor may defend: “In doubt, however, about the just cause, the condition of the possessor is the better one, as is commonly taught”	Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 19In nearly the same words: Marc n. 750
Unjust means in a just war: “It is not true that all is fair in war, for even a just cause cannot sanction unjust means.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1402In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 274
Lies and broken faith: “First, through being told something false, or through the breaking of a promise, and this is always unlawful.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 274; Noldin n. 352; Marc n. 751
Poison: “but it is not licit to infect wells or fountains with poison”	Noldin n. 352In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 274; Marc n. 751
Killing the innocent: “but it is not licit directly to kill the innocent”	Noldin n. 352In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 274; Wouters n. 751; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 24; McHugh-Callan n. 1410
Killing captives: “Captured enemies cannot be killed by today's law of war”	Noldin n. 352In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 274; Wouters n. 751; Marc n. 751
Looting: “but to give a captured city as booty to the army is not lawful today”	Prümmer II, n. 130In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 274; McHugh-Callan n. 1415; Marc n. 751
A harsh peace: “Therefore it is unjust to impose harsh or excessively burdensome conditions, or to bring on the ruin or destruction of the adverse nation.”	Merkelbach II, n. 274In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 130; McHugh-Callan n. 1418; Noldin n. 352; Marc n. 751
Fighting in a war plainly unjust: “In a certainly unjust war it is not licit to serve as a soldier”	Noldin n. 354In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 275; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 32; McHugh-Callan n. 1394
The volunteer in doubt: “But a soldier who is not a subject, or who is hired after the war has been declared, cannot serve as a soldier unless he is certain of the justice of the war”	Noldin n. 354In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 275; Sabetti-Barrett n. 278; McHugh-Callan n. 1394; Wouters n. 751; Bontempi What conditions are required for a, n. 33
Deserting in a just war: “Soldiers sin gravely if in a just war they desert military service or flee over to the enemy.”	Prümmer II, n. 130In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 275; Vermeersch n. 570
Clerics who fight: “Wherefore it is altogether unlawful for clerics to fight, because war is directed to the shedding of blood.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 276; Bontempi By whom war may be waged, n. 1; McHugh-Callan n. 1407
On feast days, without need: “However, as soon as the need ceases, it is no longer lawful to fight on a holy day”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 276; McHugh-Callan n. 1405
Sedition, mortal of its kind: “Therefore by reason of its genus it is a mortal sin, and its gravity will be all the greater according as the common good which it assails surpasses the private good which is assailed by strife.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 955; McHugh-Callan n. 1442; Bontempi What sedition is, n. 2
Against charity and justice: “whence it follows manifestly that sedition is opposed to justice and the common good”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1442; Bontempi What sedition is, n. 2; Merkelbach I, n. 955
Chiefly in its authors: “Accordingly the sin of sedition is first and chiefly in its authors, who sin most grievously; and secondly it is in those who are led by them to disturb the common good.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1442

Its Remedies

The two headings are McHugh-Callan's, who divides the preparation for peace into “will for peace” and “work for peace” (n. 1427).

The will for peace
Teaching the brotherhood of man: “The will for peace is promoted when the nations educate their people to a realization of the brotherhood of man, of the wrongfulness and folly of a narrow nationalism, of the sinfulness of war which has not all the conditions of a just war in its favor.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1427
Striving that war be averted: “Therefore before war is begun, one must strive with all strength that peace be preserved and the causes provoking war be eliminated.”	Prümmer II, n. 130In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 751
Better to suffer some loss: “because it is almost always better to suffer some material damage than to prepare the scourge of war for oneself or others”	Prümmer II, n. 130In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1387
Peace the end: “We do not seek peace in order to be at war, but we go to war that we may have peace.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273
Work for peace
Arbitration and tribunals: “Among these plans are agreements among nations to substitute moral right for material force, to abolish conscription and armaments, to establish international tribunals, associations and world courts, to make arbitration of disputes among themselves compulsory, to codify international law.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1427In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 130; Merkelbach II, n. 275; Wouters n. 751
The Pope as arbiter: “History bears witness to the many and great services to humanity which the Popes have rendered by acting as arbiters between nations that were on the point of war.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1427In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 353; Marc n. 750
Fewer arms: “or also that military expenses and the number of soldiers be notably diminished, since these have been increased and multiplied beyond every proportion of necessities”	Merkelbach II, n. 276In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1426
Prayer: “With the Church we should pray: “From pestilence, famine and war, deliver us, O Lord.””	McHugh-Callan n. 1427In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 130

Where It Comes From

From lust of power, vengeance, cruelty: “The passion for inflicting harm, the cruel thirst for vengeance, an unpacific and relentless spirit, the fever of revolt, the lust of power, and such like things, all these are rightly condemned in war.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 40, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 273; Prümmer II, n. 130; McHugh-Callan n. 1393
From the desires that war in our members: “Hence James 4: From whence are wars and contentions among you? Are they not from your concupiscences, which war in your members?”	Bontempi What sin contention is, and how gr, n. 8In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1431
Sedition from the tyrant: “Indeed it is the tyrant rather that is guilty of sedition, since he encourages discord and sedition among his subjects, that he may lord over them more securely”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1443
Sedition, discord breaking out: “Sedition, like schism, is contained under discord, since each is a kind of discord, not between individuals, but between the parts of a multitude.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 42, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Bontempi What sedition is, n. 7

Scandal

How the Authors Compare

The one real dispute: whether indirect scandal sins against the virtue it leads another to break as well as against charity. Prümmer says no: “against charity, but not against that virtue which is injured by the scandalized person” (II, n. 608). Noldin agrees: “through indirect scandal one sins only against charity” (n. 104), and Merkelbach holds it “probably against charity alone” (I, n. 960). Both Prümmer and Noldin record St. Alphonsus on the other side, and Wouters follows, saying “against many” that the same seems to hold of occasional scandal as of causal (n. 548).
The divisions are the same under other names. Merkelbach's “direct” by efficacy is Wouters's “causal” (I, n. 960, n. 547), and the “diabolical” scandal, intended as sin, is in Prümmer, Merkelbach, Noldin (n. 103) and Wouters alike.
Noldin treats induction to sin in a section of its own (n. 110). Prümmer and Merkelbach include command, counsel and seduction under direct scandal (n. 606, I, n. 960).
Bontempi, writing in 1676, says that every scandal “is mortal of its own nature” (Question II: Whether scandal is a specia, n. 1), where Noldin says it “will ordinarily be grave or light according as it furnishes an occasion of sinning gravely or lightly” (n. 104).
What “scandal of the little ones” names. For Prümmer, Merkelbach and Noldin it is scandal taken from a good action through ignorance or weakness (n. 606). Bontempi calls it the scandal given, “that which arises from the Active Scandal of another” (What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 8), and Vermeersch likewise: “If it is connected with active scandal, it is called scandal of the little ones or of the weak” (n. 120). Noldin warns: “Since this division is not taken in the same way by all, attention must be paid to the sense which individual authors put under these terms” (n. 103). Concina holds it rare: “the scandal of the little ones — of those who sin either from ignorance or from mere weakness — rarely occurs. For men commonly sin from malice, and so the scandal is pharisaical” (III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XX).
Sinning before the hardened or the holy. Marc, with St. Alphonsus, says there is no scandal before those so wicked or so upright “that no one is moved to sin” (n. 506), and Merkelbach, Noldin and Vermeersch agree. McHugh-Callan allows it only “If he is certain that the witnesses will not be weakened morally on his account” (n. 1462), and adds two cases “when even the very good may become bad” (n. 1463). Bontempi: “many do not excuse doing works in the face of the perfect which inflame; for even these fall, as David” (Whether scandal is a special sin, n. 28).
Wouters defines scandal as any work giving an occasion of ruin “and is placed without sufficient cause” (n. 546), and counts among such works one “altogether right, as if you pray before impious persons who for that reason are about to break forth into blasphemies”. St. Thomas and the others keep active scandal to what is less right; Noldin says an action good or indifferent without appearance of evil “is not properly scandal given” (n. 105).
On indirect scandal, besides those named above: Marc prefers, “with St. Alphonsus”, that every scandal sins against charity and against the virtue (n. 507); Vermeersch (n. 121), Sabetti-Barrett (n. 185) and Merkelbach's Pastoral Questions (Pastoral, Q. II) hold it against charity alone. Concina, of scandal in general: “in confession this twofold malice must be expressed — one against charity, the other against the virtue to which is opposed the depraved deed or word that generates the scandal” (III, diss. IV, ch. III, n. V).
Counselling the lesser evil. Prümmer: “Negatively, unless that lesser evil is virtually included” in the greater (n. 611); Bontempi: “the first opinion”, the negative, “is the more probable” (Whether it is lawful to persuade o, n. 4). Noldin allows it only for an evil of the same species (n. 113). Marc allows it “whether this lesser evil which is advised is of the same species or of a diverse species” (n. 509); Sabetti-Barrett, with St. Alphonsus, holds the limitation to the same species “does not seem necessary” (n. 185). Vermeersch takes a middle view: lawful when the lesser evil is contained in the greater or falls on the same person (n. 128). Concina: “The more probable opinion, and the true one to me, denies it: since it is never licit to counsel an evil, however small”, so that one may not persuade a thief to rob a rich man rather than a poor one, “whatever Molina and Sanchez say to the contrary” (III, diss. IV, ch. III, n. XVII).
Dancing: an innocent pastime, or to be shunned. Sabetti-Barrett: to attend and dance decently at honorable dances “can easily also be free of every sin” (n. 191), and a promise to give up dancing would be demanded “altogether imprudently” (n. 191); McHugh-Callan: in standard dances many find “innocent pastime”, with physical and social goods (n. 1457); Spirago: “In the art of dancing there is nothing evil or reprehensible” (VII. OCCASIONS OF SIN). Vermeersch: from worldly dances, as far as his condition allows, “a true Christian should abstain” (n. 132); Wouters would keep even respectable dances away, for the levity they breed (n. 470); Prümmer would have the young attend “more rarely” (n. 615). St. Alphonsus bids the nun “never on any account to dance” (True Spouse, ch. XXIV).
The new close dances. Prümmer: the tango, jazz and shimmy “are wont greatly to incite to lust and therefore are illicit” (II, n. 697); Merkelbach's Pastoral finds in such dances an amorous meaning “from which signification or indecency they can scarcely be freed” (Pastoral, Q. VI), though the older close dances are “not necessarily dishonorable” (Pastoral, Q. VI); Wouters: dances of close embrace are a proximate occasion “for many, especially young men”, not commonly for girls (n. 470). Sabetti-Barrett reports the round dances “reckoned by some” gravely illicit (n. 190), but holds their malice “consists only in danger”, to be judged case by case (n. 190), and refuses confessors leave to deny absolution to all who dance them (n. 191); the Pastoral likewise allows refusal only for a proximate occasion (Pastoral, Q. VI).
Introducing a new fashion of partial uncovering. Marc: women who bring in a dress baring the arms or part of the breast where it does not prevail “are not excused from mortal sin”, though those who follow it once introduced are not of themselves condemned (n. 516); Noldin: “authors teach by common consent” that one can sin gravely by introducing what elsewhere custom has made harmless (n. 107). Merkelbach's Pastoral counts it mortal to introduce the baring of the upper breast against custom (Pastoral, Q. VI), but only venial to bare the arms or the breast moderately, “or introduce such a custom” (Pastoral, Q. VI). McHugh-Callan: the obscenity of dress “is largely dependent on its novelty” (n. 1457). Concina allows no appeal to custom at all. Of the bared breast: “Several more recent writers defend this nakedness of the bosom as innocent of grave fault, if it be according to the custom of the country. Hence I judge this opinion false, improbable, and lax”, and “Let Confessors, then, refuse absolution” to such women (III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XVII, III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XVIII); against Diana, who excused excessive adornment “provided it be according to the custom of the country”, he asks, “Can the custom of the country, then, derogate from the holy Scriptures”? (III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. IX).

What It Is

Scandal: “something less rightly done or said, that occasions another's spiritual downfall”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 958; Prümmer n. 605; Noldin n. 102; Sabetti-Barrett n. 182; Marc n. 505; Vermeersch n. 120; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; McHugh-Callan n. 1447; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 3
Wouters, any work placed without sufficient cause: “Scandal is a work which gives one's neighbor an occasion of spiritual ruin, and is placed without sufficient cause.”	Wouters n. 546
By command, inducement or example: “as one man by his injunction, inducement or example, moves another to sin; and this is scandal properly so called”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 960
Less right, evil or seeming evil: “so as to comprise both whatever is sinful in itself, and all that has an appearance of evil”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 958; Prümmer n. 605; Noldin n. 102; Sabetti-Barrett n. 182; Marc n. 505; Vermeersch n. 120; McHugh-Callan n. 1447; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 4
An occasion, not the cause: “For this reason scandal is said to afford not a cause, but an occasion”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 958; Prümmer n. 605; Noldin n. 102; Sabetti-Barrett n. 182; Vermeersch n. 112
Omissions too: “under the name of word or deed there also comes omission”	Merkelbach I, n. 958In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 605; Noldin n. 102; Sabetti-Barrett n. 182; Marc n. 505; McHugh-Callan n. 1448; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 4
Even if no one falls: “nor is it required that the ruin of neighbor in fact follow, but that an occasion be furnished to him”	Merkelbach I, n. 958In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 102

What It Is Not

Not hidden sins: “The thought or desire of evil lies hidden in the heart, wherefore it does not suggest itself to another man as an obstacle conducing to his spiritual downfall: hence it cannot come under the head of scandal.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 958; McHugh-Callan n. 1449
Not mere astonishment or talk: “by this is frequently signified astonishment or rumor stirred up among the people because of an unusual action, though no one is incited to sin”	Noldin n. 102In nearly the same words: Marc n. 505; Vermeersch n. 120; Wouters n. 546
Not before those it cannot move: “He is not judged to give scandal who, although he sins publicly, nevertheless does it before those who are either so vile, or infamous or wicked, or who are so upright, that no one is moved to sin”	Marc n. 506In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 102; Vermeersch n. 120; McHugh-Callan n. 1462; St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 5
Not the one who acts rightly: “Wherefore this is "passive," without "active scandal," since he that acts rightly does not, for his own part, afford the occasion of the other's downfall.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 1, ad 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 103; Prümmer n. 606; Marc n. 506; Sabetti-Barrett n. 183; Vermeersch n. 120
Not the scandal of the Pharisees: “Our Lord teaches (Matthew 15:14) that we ought to treat such like scandal with contempt”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 610; Sabetti-Barrett n. 184; Marc n. 511; Vermeersch n. 122; Noldin n. 105; Merkelbach I, n. 966; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 8
Not keeping what is necessary to salvation: “Therefore one ought not to forego that which is necessary for salvation, in order to avoid giving scandal.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 610; Noldin n. 106; Merkelbach I, n. 966; Marc n. 512; Bontempi What is to be done, and what omitt, n. 3; Vermeersch n. 122
Not yielding one's goods to the malicious: “and we ought not to forego temporal goods for the sake of those who stir up scandals of this kind”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 8In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 967; Prümmer n. 610; Noldin n. 106; Sabetti-Barrett n. 185
Not permitting an occasion for a just cause: “It is not a sin of scandal, from a just cause, to permit an occasion of sin or even to place it by some honorable action.”	Prümmer n. 610In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 552; Sabetti-Barrett n. 185; Noldin n. 114
Not asking a lawful thing of one who will sin in giving it: “Affirmatively, if the sin proceeds from the malice alone of the other; negatively, if the work asked is intrinsically evil.”	Prümmer n. 611In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 552; Marc n. 509; Noldin n. 112
Not hindering what is only counselled: “One who by his example gives others an occasion of omitting a thing indeed good but not prescribed, for example prayer before or after table, likewise does not commit the sin of scandal, because he does not entice to sinning.”	Noldin n. 102In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 546; Wouters n. 567
Counselling the lesser of two evils, to one set on the greater: “if someone is already prepared to commit a grave evil, and cannot be drawn away from the proposal (for otherwise the persuasion would not be good), it is licit to furnish to him the occasion of a lesser evil and to permit this, indeed probably also to persuade him, but precisely as lesser”	Merkelbach I, n. 968In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 113; Marc n. 509; Sabetti-Barrett n. 185; Vermeersch n. 128
Prümmer and Bontempi, not lawful: “Negatively, unless that lesser evil is virtually included in the other greater evil already determinately willed.”	Prümmer n. 611In nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether it is lawful to persuade o, n. 4

Its Kinds

Active and passive: “scandal is of two kinds, passive scandal in the person scandalized, and active scandal in the person who gives scandal”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 605; Noldin n. 103; Marc n. 505; Sabetti-Barrett n. 182; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 5; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
Direct and indirect: “Active scandal is subdivided into direct scandal and indirect scandal.”	Prümmer n. 606In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 3; Noldin n. 103; Wouters n. 547; Vermeersch n. 120; Sabetti-Barrett n. 182; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; Merkelbach I, n. 961; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 6
Diabolical: “The former is when someone from hatred of God or neighbor by his action principally intends the perversion of neighbor.”	Prümmer n. 606In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 961; Noldin n. 103; Wouters n. 547; Vermeersch n. 120; Sabetti-Barrett n. 183; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 7
By efficacy, causal or occasional: “into direct, when someone is the true moral cause of the sin of neighbor”	Merkelbach I, n. 960In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 547
Given and taken: “Passive scandal is subdivided into scandal given and into scandal accepted or taken.”	Prümmer n. 606In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 964; Noldin n. 103; McHugh-Callan n. 1464; Bontempi What scandal is, and of how many k, n. 8
Of the little ones, and of the Pharisees: “Sometimes scandal proceeds from weakness or ignorance, and such is the "scandal of little ones."”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 606; Merkelbach I, n. 964; Noldin n. 103; Wouters n. 547; Sabetti-Barrett n. 183; Vermeersch n. 120; McHugh-Callan n. 1464
Induction: “Induction, or seduction or solicitation to sin, is an external action by which another is explicitly and directly provoked to sinning.”	Noldin n. 110In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1460; Marc n. 505
The common occasions: “Now these things are: 1. the adornment of women, 2. obscene images and statues, 3. dances and spectacles, 4. bad books and evil newspapers.”	Prümmer n. 612In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 551; Merkelbach I, n. 969; Marc n. 515
Adornment, lawful for an honorable end: “It is licit for women to adorn themselves, provided, however, that this is done in a right manner and for an honorable end.”	Prümmer n. 613In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 107; Marc n. 516; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VI
Immodest dress, grave scandal: “Immodest and gravely sinful adornment is always grave scandal, because it gravely and proximately provokes others to lust.”	Noldin n. 107In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 613; Marc n. 516; McHugh-Callan n. 1456; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VI
Judged by the custom of the place: “But for discerning what adornment of women is immodest, attention must first of all be given to the customs of the country in which the women live”	Prümmer n. 613In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 107; McHugh-Callan n. 1457; Marc n. 516
Direct or indirect, by the intention: “Thus, a woman who dresses fashionably in order to excite impure love is guilty of direct scandal; if she dresses immodestly, not to excite impure love, but to follow a fashion, she is guilty of indirect scandal.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1455In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 613; Noldin n. 107
Dances, indifferent of themselves, often occasions: “Dances and spectacles, although in themselves they are something indifferent, are nevertheless very frequently accustomed to produce grave scandals”	Prümmer n. 615In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 470; Sabetti-Barrett n. 190; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VI; McHugh-Callan n. 1456; Spirago VII. OCCASIONS OF SIN
Spectacles, the same: “Concerning spectacles nearly the same thing is to be held as concerning dances, namely that they are not illicit of themselves, but can become evil because of circumstances.”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 192In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 615; Wouters n. 471; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VI; McHugh-Callan n. 1456
Those who write, stage, arrange and play: “Authors and actors of plays in which virtue or good morals or religion is not spared sin gravely”	Merkelbach I, n. 970In nearly the same words: Marc n. 515; Noldin n. 128; McHugh-Callan n. 1531
First among them, habitual blasphemy before the young: “Those who retain the custom of blaspheming, especially before the younger, most of all before children.”	Merkelbach I, n. 969In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 551; Marc n. 515

Its Gravity

Always a sin: “On like manner active scandal is always a sin in the person who gives scandal, since either what he does is a sin, or if it only have the appearance of sin, it should always be left undone out of that love for our neighbor which binds each one to be solicitous for his neighbor's spiritual welfare”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1465
Mortal of its kind: “Active scandal is a mortal sin.”	Merkelbach I, n. 959In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 104; Prümmer n. 607; Marc n. 508; Sabetti-Barrett n. 184; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; McHugh-Callan n. 1472; Bontempi Whether scandal is a special sin, n. 1
Venial by light matter: “because it can be venial not only on account of imperfection of the act, but also on account of smallness of matter, if the other is induced only to venial sin, even if this is formally intended”	Merkelbach I, n. 959In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 607; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; McHugh-Callan n. 1472
Direct, by the sin intended: “But in the case of active direct scandal, as when a person intends to lead another into sin, if he intends to lead him into mortal sin, his own sin will be mortal”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 607
Indirect, mortal by contempt of his welfare: “On the other hand, it is sometimes a mortal sin, either because a person commits a mortal sin, or because he has such contempt for his neighbor's spiritual welfare that he declines, for the sake of procuring it, to forego doing what he wishes to do.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 4In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1473
By the sin occasioned, not the act: “the gravity of scandal must ordinarily be taken from the gravity of the sin to which another is incited, not from the gravity of the action by which another is incited to sin”	Noldin n. 104In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 963; Marc n. 508; McHugh-Callan n. 1473
Graver as: “Moreover the sin of scandal is so much graver as the ruin of neighbor is greater, and as it is more intended, and as it follows more from our action (for example, given before an adolescent or by a priest), and as the persons who are moved to sin are more numerous.”	Merkelbach I, n. 959In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 607; Marc n. 508; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; McHugh-Callan n. 1474
Graver in those of authority: “One who excels in dignity and esteem, for example, easily furnishes grave scandal”	Noldin n. 104In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 963; McHugh-Callan n. 1463; Bontempi Whether scandal is a special sin, n. 7; Marc n. 508
Direct, against charity and the virtue: “Direct scandal is a sin not only against charity but also against the virtue to the violating of which it induces neighbor”	Merkelbach I, n. 960In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 607; Noldin n. 104; Sabetti-Barrett n. 185; Vermeersch n. 121; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; Marc n. 507
Indirect, against charity alone: “Indirect scandal is indeed a sin against charity, but not against that virtue which is injured by the scandalized person.”	Prümmer n. 608In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 104; Merkelbach I, n. 960; Vermeersch n. 121; Sabetti-Barrett n. 185; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
Marc and Wouters, with St. Alphonsus, against the virtue too: “Yet the opinion affirming that by each scandal one sins both against charity and against the virtue is to be preferred, with St. Alphonsus.”	Marc n. 507In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 548
Diabolical, a special sin: “he commits a special (that is, a distinct species) and most grave sin against charity toward neighbor, directly opposed to fraternal correction”	Merkelbach I, n. 961In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 3; Noldin n. 104; Vermeersch n. 121; Marc n. 507
Passive, a sin in the one who falls: “Accordingly passive scandal is always a sin in the person scandalized”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 964; McHugh-Callan n. 1465; Bontempi Whether scandal is a special sin, n. 10
But not a special sin: “Passive scandal cannot be a special sin, because through another's word or deed a man may fall into any kind of sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 964; McHugh-Callan n. 1466; Marc n. 506
Not avoiding the scandal of the little ones: “The scandal of the little ones is to be avoided as often as this can be done without grave inconvenience.”	Prümmer n. 610In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 184; Marc n. 511; Noldin n. 105; Merkelbach I, n. 965; Vermeersch n. 122

Its Remedies

The two headings are the manuals' own division: Prümmer treats the “Obligation of avoiding scandal” (n. 610) and then the “Reparation of scandal” (n. 612), as Merkelbach and McHugh-Callan do. The distinction of implicit and explicit reparation is Merkelbach's and McHugh-Callan's.

Avoiding scandal
Omitting, deferring, hiding: “the scandal of others can be avoided by omitting the action, or by deferring it to another time, or by hiding it”	Noldin n. 105In nearly the same words: Marc n. 511; St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 7
Explaining the action: “by admonishing the neighbor concerning the rectitude of the action (that, for example, an excusing cause or dispensation is present)”	Noldin n. 105In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 966; Marc n. 511; Wouters n. 549; St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 8
After that, the scandal is the Pharisees': “If, however, the scandal continue after the matter has been explained, it would seem to be due to malice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 7In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 105; Merkelbach I, n. 966; Sabetti-Barrett n. 184; Marc n. 511; Wouters n. 549
Watchfulness in those who are looked to: “Therefore both parents and superiors, and also clerics, priests, and religious, ought carefully to guard themselves from any less right action”	Noldin n. 104
Good example: “The wonderful power of good example is expressed and confirmed by the proverb itself: "Words sound, examples draw."”	Vermeersch n. 119
Repairing scandal
Bound to repair it: “There is an obligation of repairing active scandal, as much as can be done”	Merkelbach I, n. 962In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 612; Noldin n. 115; Wouters n. 553; Marc n. 513; McHugh-Callan n. 1488; Vermeersch n. 123
Undoing its influence, recalling the fallen: “Moreover reparation generally demands two things: a) that the further influence of scandal, insofar as it can be done, be taken away; b) that the amendment of him who suffered scandal be efficaciously cared for.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. IIIn nearly the same words: Wouters n. 553; Marc n. 512
Scandal of example, by amendment and good example: “It suffices to repair implicitly indirect scandal given by example alone, namely, by cessation from scandal, good example, public reception of the sacraments, prayer for the one scandalized, etc.”	Merkelbach I, n. 962In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; McHugh-Callan n. 1489; Vermeersch n. 123; Spirago OUR DUTY IN REGARD TO THE LIFE OF OUR NEIGHB
Scandal of counsel or doctrine, by retracting it: “Direct scandal, given by depraved counsel, false doctrine, depraved books, machination against the Church, etc., must be repaired explicitly”	Merkelbach I, n. 962In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II; Marc n. 513; Wouters n. 553; McHugh-Callan n. 1489
Public scandal, publicly: “Public scandal must also be repaired publicly.”	Prümmer n. 612In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 962; Wouters n. 553; Marc n. 514; McHugh-Callan n. 1491; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
How: “The mode of public reparation can be diverse: either a retraction drawn up in writing is published through public newspapers, or it is done before witnesses (two) who will afterwards publish the matter, or before the parish priest who will afterwards publish that the sinner has satisfied his obligations”	Merkelbach I, n. 962In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1492
Private scandal, privately: “Secret scandal must be repaired before those persons who have borne some damage from it.”	Prümmer n. 612In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1491
Labouring for the conversion of the one corrupted: “He who induced neighbor into a stable perversion, for example of concubinage or irreligiosity, is bound under grave sin to labor for his conversion”	Marc n. 513In nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
From charity; from justice where force or fraud was used, or by a superior: “The obligation arises from charity alone, because no injury is done to one knowing and willing; not, however, from justice or office, unless someone used unjust means, for example, deceit, force, fear, or unless a superior gave scandal to subjects”	Merkelbach I, n. 962In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 612; Wouters n. 553; Marc n. 514; McHugh-Callan n. 1488; Marc n. 514
Before the sacraments: “Wherefore he who has given grave scandal cannot be admitted to the sacraments unless he has repaired the grave scandal given, or, if there is question of sacramental absolution, unless he has at least seriously promised the reparation of that scandal.”	Prümmer n. 612In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 962
Rebuking it: “Let the confessor and preacher gravely rebuke those giving scandal”	Marc n. 510

Where It Comes From

In the one who takes it, an unsettled mind: “Passive scandal implies that the mind of the person who takes scandal is unsettled in its adherence to good.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 5In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1461
Sometimes he scandalizes himself: “Passive scandal is always due to some active scandal; yet this active scandal is not always in another, but in the very person who is scandalized, because, to wit, he scandalizes himself.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 43, a. 6, ad 1
What it breeds, contempt of religion: “Thus scurrility and the impurity of a priest induce contempt of the sacerdotal order and of religion.”	Vermeersch n. 120In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 104; Merkelbach I, n. 963
And souls lost: “For by their work the world is filled with sins, and hell with souls”	Marc n. 510In nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether scandal is a special sin, n. 3

Cooperation in Another's Sin

How the Authors Compare

Prümmer and Noldin draw the line between formal and material cooperation and treat the formal as never licit (n. 618, n. 117). Prümmer calls the material kind “sometimes licit, provided that a sufficient cause and a right intention are present” (n. 619), and Merkelbach requires a “proportionately grave reason” (I, n. 490).
Prümmer and Noldin agree on what the word covers. Prümmer says cooperation by influence on another's will “does not differ essentially from scandal” (n. 617), and Noldin that cooperation in the broader sense “also comprehends scandal and induction” (n. 116). In the stricter sense both mean concurrence in an act already decided on.
Immediate cooperation. Merkelbach holds that immediate cooperation, “even merely material, is illicit”, except sometimes in goods of fortune (I, n. 489), and Noldin and Vermeersch agree. McHugh-Callan reports it “held lawful by some authorities, but there are others who say that all immediate cooperation is sinful” (n. 1526).
Which virtue material cooperation offends. Merkelbach: it is “a sin against the virtue which is injured by the sin of the principal agent”, and at the same time against charity (I, n. 489). Noldin sets it against “the precept of charity” (n. 118). Vermeersch reports Cardinal d'Annibale, who “judged that charity alone is wounded”, and denies that the cooperator shares the malice of the principal act (n. 132).
A servant carrying a master's letters of illicit love. Prümmer allows it to servants, and reads St. Alphonsus as opposed only in appearance (n. 621). Wouters, with St. Alphonsus, denies it (n. 564), and so does Marc (n. 518). Sabetti-Barrett forbids letters known to be shameful but allows, for a proportionate cause, letters that only arrange a meeting (n. 196). Merkelbach gives both sides (I, n. 492). Concina: “It is likewise forbidden to carry love letters containing base things”, “because such persons become partakers of the sins”, and he rejects Tamburini's excuse for one who fears to lose a valued friendship (III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XXIV).
What counts as formal. Noldin notes that “St. Alphonsus (n. 63) presents another notion of formal cooperation”, so that some cases are solved differently (n. 117). Vermeersch counts as formal the cooperation that by its nature carries the malice of the principal act, adding: “Others call this immediate material cooperation” (n. 129).
Serving another's sin for a living. Concina sets the cases against the Probabilists by name. Servants: “it is in no way licit to serve or minister to a prostitute at all”, against Laymann, Tamburini, Sporer and Caramuel (III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XXVI, III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XXV); coachmen and boatmen who carry a master to his mistress, defended by Diana with Merolla, fall under Innocent XI's condemned proposition 51 (III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XXII); letting a house to a prostitute who will keep a brothel there, affirmed by “Sanchez, Azor, Diana, Vasquez, Castropalao, Tamburini, the Salmanticenses, Sporer, and others”, he calls “illicit and vicious” (III, diss. IV, ch. IV, n. XXVIII). Christian captives rowing Turkish galleys against innocent Christians sin gravely in his judgment, and he asks how the contrary escapes the same condemnation (III, diss. IV, ch. III, n. XIV); yet to borrow from a usurer ready to lend is lawful “grave necessity pressing”, with St. Thomas, since “to use another's sin for a good end is licit” (III, diss. IV, ch. III, n. XV).

What It Is

Cooperation: “Cooperation toward the sin of another is every concurrence furnished to the evil action of another.”	Merkelbach I, n. 488In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 617; Marc n. 517; Sabetti-Barrett n. 194; Noldin n. 116; McHugh-Callan n. 1506; Vermeersch n. 129
Helping a will already set on sin, as scandal does not: “but cooperation already supposes in another a will determined to sin and helps him by a physical action in perpetrating an external sin”	Noldin n. 116In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 617; McHugh-Callan n. 1506; Marc n. 517
In the broad sense, scandal too: “Cooperation taken in a broader sense also comprehends scandal and induction”	Noldin n. 116In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 617; Merkelbach I, n. 488
The nine ways: “which can happen in 9 modes (6 positive and 3 negative): by commanding, counseling, consenting, praising and reproaching, patronizing, participating, by not admonishing, by not opposing, by not manifesting”	Merkelbach I, n. 487In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 194

What It Is Not

Not material cooperation for a just cause: “Material cooperation in the sin of another is sometimes licit, provided that a sufficient cause and a right intention are present.”	Prümmer n. 619In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 489; Noldin n. 118; Marc n. 519; Sabetti-Barrett n. 195; McHugh-Callan n. 1514
For the other abuses one's act: “For then his sin does not proceed from your cooperation, but from the malice of him himself, who abuses your action.”	Prümmer n. 619In nearly the same words: Marc n. 519; Sabetti-Barrett n. 195; Vermeersch n. 129; McHugh-Callan n. 1514
Its conditions: “1. if the action of the cooperator is good in itself or at least indifferent; 2. if the intention of the cooperator is right; and 3. if there is present a just cause, and indeed one proportioned both to the gravity of the sin of another and to the proximity of the concurrence which is furnished for the execution of the sin”	Prümmer n. 619In nearly the same words: Marc n. 519; Noldin n. 118; McHugh-Callan n. 1516
Not made evil by foreseeing the abuse: “Cooperation does not become illicit by this, that the one cooperating knows his thing or action to serve proximately for sin”	Noldin n. 120In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1518
Not the trade in things of common use: “is licit by reason of profit alone, even if it is foreseen in general that many will abuse them”	Merkelbach I, n. 492In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 565
Not helping a lesser sin to prevent a greater: “It is always licit to cooperate materially with the sin of another in order to avoid a greater evil”	Marc n. 520In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 490; McHugh-Callan n. 1525

Its Kinds

Formal and material: “Into formal, if the one cooperating concurs both with the intention and with the evil action, and into material, if he concurs only with the evil action.”	Noldin n. 117In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 617; Merkelbach I, n. 488; Marc n. 517; Sabetti-Barrett n. 194; McHugh-Callan n. 1508; Vermeersch n. 129
Formal by the nature of the work: “implicitly, from the nature of the work which is furnished, namely when someone exercises a work which by its nature or with attention to the circumstances is directly ordered to an evil action”	Noldin n. 117In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1511; Marc n. 517; Vermeersch n. 129
Immediate and mediate: “Into immediate, if the cooperation concurs in the evil action itself, and into mediate, if it concurs in an action which serves the sin and prepares the way for it.”	Noldin n. 117In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 617; Merkelbach I, n. 488; Sabetti-Barrett n. 194; McHugh-Callan n. 1509
Proximate and remote: “Mediate cooperation is either proximate or remote, according as the one cooperating concurs in those things which more proximately or more remotely serve the evil action.”	Noldin n. 117In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 617; Merkelbach I, n. 488; Sabetti-Barrett n. 194; McHugh-Callan n. 1512; Vermeersch n. 129; Merkelbach I, n. 488
Positive and negative: “the latter is called negative, the former positive”	Merkelbach I, n. 488In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 194; McHugh-Callan n. 1508
Unjust, binding to restitution: “Cooperation is also divided from the viewpoint of responsibility or of the consequences incurred through it, into unjust cooperation and merely unlawful cooperation.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1510
McHugh-Callan, the accomplice and the cooperator: “The accomplice is always guilty, but the cooperator may be guiltless.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1507

Its Gravity

Formal, never lawful: “Formal cooperation in the sin of another is intrinsically evil and therefore is never licit.”	Prümmer n. 618In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 489; Noldin n. 118; Marc n. 518; Sabetti-Barrett n. 195; McHugh-Callan n. 1513; Vermeersch n. 132
Not even for fear of death: “Therefore it can be excused by no reason, not even fear of death”	Marc n. 518
Against charity and the virtue: “Formal cooperation has a twofold malice: one against charity, the other against the particular virtue”	Prümmer n. 618In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 118; Marc n. 518; McHugh-Callan n. 1513; Merkelbach I, n. 489
Material, unlawful without a cause: “Material cooperation is opposed to the precept of charity: for we are bound to prevent the sin of the neighbor if we conveniently can; therefore a fortiori not to help him in committing sin.”	Noldin n. 118In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1514; Merkelbach I, n. 489; Vermeersch n. 132
Merkelbach, against the virtue as well: “This is a sin against the virtue which is injured by the sin of the principal agent (although not of the same lowest species), and at the same time against charity”	Merkelbach I, n. 489
Immediate, unlawful, save sometimes in goods of fortune: “Immediate cooperation, even merely material, is illicit”	Merkelbach I, n. 489In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 118; Vermeersch n. 132; Marc n. 520
McHugh-Callan, disputed: “If one can cooperate immediately without performing an act intrinsically evil, immediate cooperation is held lawful by some authorities, but there are others who say that all immediate cooperation is sinful.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1526
The cause, proportioned: “Hence a graver cause is required the graver the cooperation is”	Merkelbach I, n. 490In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 118; McHugh-Callan n. 1519; Marc n. 519
By the sin: “the graver the sin is toward which someone cooperates, both in itself and with respect to the harm which it brings to the honor of God, the common good, or a third party”	Merkelbach I, n. 490In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 118; McHugh-Callan n. 1519
By its nearness: “the more proximate the cooperation is, that is, the more it influences the sin of another or is more closely connected with it”	Merkelbach I, n. 490In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 118; McHugh-Callan n. 1519
By whether the sin depends on it: “the more probable it is that, if you do not cooperate, the other will not sin”	Merkelbach I, n. 490In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 118; McHugh-Callan n. 1519
By one's office: “To the obligation of preventing the sin: therefore a greater cause is required in those who are bound to prevent the sin also from the office of piety or justice.”	Noldin n. 118In nearly the same words: Marc n. 520
Remote, by a light cause: “Remote cooperation is excused because of a light inconvenience”	Noldin n. 121In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 491; Vermeersch n. 136
Proximate, by a grave cause: “Proximate cooperation is excused because of a grave cause or grave inconvenience which would follow from omitted cooperation.”	Noldin n. 121In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 491; Vermeersch n. 136
Most proximate, only by the gravest: “Most proximate cooperation, especially that without which the sin would not be committed, is excused only from a very grave or even gravest cause”	Noldin n. 121In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 136
Against the common good, never: “Proximate cooperation toward an action which is gravely harmful to the public good, whether of religion or of the state, is excused from mortal sin on account of no harm whatever”	Merkelbach I, n. 491In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 620; McHugh-Callan n. 1524
Harm to an innocent, only for equal harm: “indeed, if the cooperation is gravely harmful to an innocent third party, a very grave inconvenience is required, namely, fear of at least equal harm”	Merkelbach I, n. 491In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 564; Marc n. 520
Things with no use but evil: “Things which of themselves from their own nature have no other use than evil, and which man cannot use without sin, it is never licit to sell”	Merkelbach I, n. 492In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 623; Noldin n. 120; McHugh-Callan n. 1517; Wouters n. 565

Its Remedies

Purging it of consent and scandal: “Material cooperation must be purged from affection toward the evil, from the vice of scandal, from a further evil effect.”	Vermeersch n. 133
Declaring one's mind: “protestation can be necessary by which the one cooperating, in order to prevent scandal, declares that he does not wish to concur in evil”	Noldin n. 120In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 133
Seeking other work: “Yet one should strive that as soon as possible he obtain a livelihood in another way.”	Wouters n. 558In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 558
In doubt, taking counsel: “that in doubt, favor is not to be given to liberty where the reason of scandal, danger of perversion, of formal sin, etc., stands in the way; and if it is a question of a public matter, recourse to Superiors and to the more prudent is not to be omitted”	Marc n. 520In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 623
In confession: “The confessor should instruct ignorant penitents on the sinfulness of their cooperation, when there is a duty of justice to do this”	McHugh-Callan n. 1545

Where It Comes From

It can become scandal: “Yet it can happen that cooperation at the same time becomes scandal, namely if it increases or confirms the evil will of the neighbor.”	Noldin n. 116In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1506
Where it arises most, in service and trade: “those of cooperation with evil publications, dances, and theatres, and those of the cooperation of merchants, innkeepers, renters, servants, and workingmen”	McHugh-Callan n. 1528In nearly the same words: Merkelbach I, n. 492

Folly

What It Is

Folly: “Folly, as stated above (Article 1), denotes dullness of sense in judging, and chiefly as regards the highest cause, which is the last end and the sovereign good.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1622; Bontempi How folly is opposed to wisdom, n. 2
Against the gift of wisdom: “Therefore folly is fittingly opposed to wisdom.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1621; Bontempi How folly is opposed to wisdom, n. 1
Folly and fatuity: “folly implies apathy in the heart and dullness in the senses, while fatuity denotes entire privation of the spiritual sense”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1621
The world's wisdom: “It is the wisdom of the world that deceives and makes us foolish in God's sight”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1623; Bontempi How folly is opposed to wisdom, n. 1; Spirago The Different Kinds of Christian Virtue

What It Is Not

Not natural dullness: “First, from a natural indisposition, as in the case of idiots, and such like folly is no sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1622
Not simplicity in worldly affairs: “and thus it is different from the innocent simplicity of many good persons, whose judgment is not sound in affairs of this world”	McHugh-Callan n. 1622In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 1, ad 1
Not the folly of the cross: “so too there is a good folly opposed to this evil wisdom, whereby man despises worldly things”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1623; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XXII
Not unconcern at injuries for heaven's sake: “To be unconcerned when one is injured is sometimes due to the fact that one has no taste for worldly things, but only for heavenly things. Hence this belongs not to worldly but to Divine wisdom”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 1, ad 4

Its Kinds

Earthly, sensual, devilish: “St. James (iii. 15) describes false wisdom as “earthly, sensual, devilish”; and these words express very well three chief classes of worldly wisdom.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1623In nearly the same words: Bontempi How folly is opposed to wisdom, n. 2
In two parts, hatred of God and despair of the life to come: “Hence Gregory mentions two daughters of lust, pertaining to folly, namely, "hatred of God" and "despair of the life to come"; thus he divides folly into two parts as it were.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 3, ad 1

Its Gravity

A sin, when the mind is plunged in earthly things: “by plunging his sense into earthly things, whereby his sense is rendered incapable of perceiving Divine things”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1624
Willed in its causes: “Though no man wishes to be a fool, yet he wishes those things of which folly is a consequence, viz. to withdraw his sense from spiritual things and to plunge it into earthly things.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 2, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1624
Against the precepts on truth: “Folly is opposed to the precepts about the contemplation of truth”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1624
Bontempi, of the species of what is preferred to God: “From this it is deduced that foolishness is a sin of the same species as that object which is preferred before God.”	Bontempi How folly is opposed to wisdom, n. 5
It leads to perdition: “Foolishness leads to perdition, for, being defective in its judgment, it barters away the future for present satisfaction”	McHugh-Callan n. 1624

Its Remedies

From St. Gregory, the gift of wisdom: “the gift of wisdom is given as a remedy against folly”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 1
Chastity: “As chastity especially disposes for heavenly contemplation and Wisdom”	McHugh-Callan n. 1625

Where It Comes From

St. Thomas traces it to lust.

From lust above all: “Therefore the folly which is a sin, arises chiefly from lust.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1625
From judging by gain, pleasure, power: “the wrong and sinful views taken of life, which make men judge all things by the standards of gain or pleasure or power, rather than by the standard of the First Cause”	McHugh-Callan n. 1625
Anger, to a folly of the body: “Anger by reason of its keenness, as stated above (I-II:48:2, I-II:48:3 and I-II:48:4), produces a great change in the nature of the body, wherefore it conduces very much to the folly which results from a bodily impediment.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 46, a. 3, ad 3
Merkelbach, from a lax conscience: “a) in the intellect, blindness of mind, dullness of sense, foolishness or blind tranquility after sin”	Merkelbach II, n. 119