Devotion

III. Acts of Religion. The acts of religion are distinguished into internal and external acts. The internal acts are devotion and prayer. External acts are those by which we worship God either through one's own body, and this is adoration; or by offering to God some external thing, and these are sacrifice, oblation, and vow; or by assuming something pertaining to God, namely either the Sacraments or the name of God, which can be assumed either by invocation, or by oath, or by adjuration (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 84, Preface). Concerning each of these, discussion will be had in Book II.

I. Notion of devotion. Devotion, as St. Thomas teaches, "is so called from devoting; whence those are called devoted who in a certain way devote themselves to God, so that they subject themselves totally to him... Whence devotion seems to be nothing other than a certain will of promptly giving oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God" (II-II, q. 82, a. 1). Therefore devotion consists in a certain act of the will by which we offer ourselves promptly for divine worship. Moreover:

1. Devotion is an act of religion. For "it pertains to the same virtue to will to do something, and to have a prompt will for doing it, because the object of each act is the same... But it is manifest that to perform those things which pertain to divine worship or service properly pertains to religion... Whence it also pertains to it to have a prompt will for executing such things: which is to be devoted; and thus it is clear that devotion is an act of religion" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 82, a. 2; St. Alphonsus, Op. asc., 6, p. 491; 10, p. 501).

2. Devotion is distinguished both from an act of charity and from an act in the special matter of divine worship: from an act of charity, because by an act of devotion man does not give himself over into union with God, but into God's service; from an act in the special matter of divine worship, because this act concerns means and has its name from its matter, while the act of devotion concerns the whole worship of God and promptness in showing it.

The devotion explained is called substantial and spiritual, so that it may be distinguished from a certain accidental and sensible devotion. For sensible devotion of itself is neither virtuous nor vicious, since independently of free will it can take its origin from causes either natural or supernatural. But it is called devotion by metonymy, because often, especially if it is given by God, it is a cause helping toward the act of substantial devotion (St. Alphonsus, Op. asc., 2, p. 493 and 6, p. 491 sq.).

II. Causes of devotion. "The extrinsic and principal cause is God" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 82, a. 3). The intrinsic cause is contemplation both of the divine goodness¹ and of his benefits, and of one's own need; the former consideration arouses love, which is the proximate cause of devotion; the latter excludes presumption, by which someone is hindered from subjecting himself to God, while he relies upon his own power (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 82, a. 3).

¹ "Those things which are of divinity are, according to themselves, most arousing of love, and consequently of devotion: because God is to be loved above all things; but from the weakness of the human mind it is that, just as it needs leading by the hand for the knowledge of divine things, so also for love it needs certain sensible things known to us; among which the principal thing is the humanity of Christ, according to what is said in the Preface: That while visibly we know God through this, we may be carried away into the love of invisible things; and therefore those things which pertain to Christ's humanity, after the manner of a certain leading by the hand, especially arouse devotion, although devotion principally consists concerning those things which are of divinity" (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 82, a. 3, ad 2).

III. Effect of devotion. Of itself and principally, devotion produces spiritual gladness of mind; consequently and by accident, however, sadness.

"Devotion," thus St. Thomas, "proceeds principally indeed from consideration of the divine goodness, because that consideration pertains as it were to the term of the motion of the will giving itself over to God; and from this consideration of itself indeed follows delight... I remembered God, and was delighted; but by accident this consideration causes sadness in those who do not yet fully enjoy God. But secondarily devotion is caused... from consideration of one's own defects; for this consideration pertains to the term from which man withdraws by the motion of a devout will, namely so that he may not exist in himself, but subject himself to God. But this consideration stands conversely to the first; for of itself indeed it is apt to cause sadness, by thinking again upon one's own defects; but by accident it causes gladness, namely because of hope of divine assistance. And thus it is clear that delight (or gladness) follows upon devotion first and of itself; but secondarily and by accident, sadness, which is according to God" (II-II, q. 82, a. 4).

¹ Cf. Suarez, De virtute et statu religionis; Dignant, De virtute religionis (Theologia Brugensis); Bouquillon, De virtute religionis; Wirthmueller, Die Tugend der Religion; Vermeersch, De virtutibus religionis et pietatis.

² Cf. St. Francis de Sales, Introduction to the Devout Life.

I. Exercises of devotion. 1. Superiors should take care that all religious: 1st, each year spend time in spiritual exercises; 2nd, if not legitimately impeded, daily be present at the Sacred Sacrifice, devote themselves to mental prayer, and diligently apply themselves to other offices of piety which are prescribed by the rules and constitutions; 3rd, approach the Sacrament of Penance at least once a week (can. 595, § 1).

2. Superiors should promote among their subjects frequent, even daily, reception of the Most Holy Body of Christ; moreover frequent, indeed even daily, access to the Most Holy Eucharist should be freely open to religious rightly disposed (can. 595, § 2). But if after his last sacramental confession a religious has been a grave scandal to the community or has perpetrated a grave and external fault, until he has again approached the sacrament of penance the Superior can prohibit him from approaching holy communion (can. 595, § 3). But if there are religions of either solemn or simple vows in whose rules or constitutions, or even calendars, communions are found fixed or commanded on certain days, these norms have merely directive force (can. 595, § 4).

II. Actual devotion. Although a voluntary defect of this devotion does not simply prevent the fruit of Communion, it nevertheless causes one to receive much slighter fruits. Moreover, one who at the time of Communion is voluntarily distracted commits a venial sin of irreverence. Likewise he also seems to commit a venial sin of irreverence who communicates either from a venially evil motive, for example from vainglory, or with an actual or virtual affection for venial sin. In such a case there seems to be a certain positive irreverence. It must be said otherwise of one who communicates with habitual venial sin, because there is rather a defect of perfect reverence than positive irreverence (St. Alphonsus, VI, 270).

Corollary I. Nocturnal pollution, in relation to Communion to be received on the following day, is to be judged thus: It never prohibits it under grave sin, provided the grave sin perhaps committed has been removed by Confession. For the rest:

1. If it occurred with grave sin, although remitted by Confession, "one should abstain from Communion and celebration unless something else seems good to the confessor."¹

2. If it occurred with venial sin or without sin, Communion is prohibited under venial sin by reason of the effects, namely if because of dishonorable fantasies it obstructs the required devotion. Yet it is prohibited only insofar as either one must abstain from Communion, or effort must be applied to removing the impediment² (St. Alphonsus, VI, 272).

Corollary II. Conjugal intercourse practically does not impede Communion; nor, for the most part, should spouses be positively advised to abstain from intercourse on the night before the day of Communion. To those asking, let it be said that it is licit, and at most let it be added that abstinence is a thing of greater perfection.

¹ Missal, On Defects, title IX, n. 5.

² Cf. Missal, loc. cit.

Definition of Devotion.—Devotion is defined as “the will to give oneself readily to those things that pertain to the divine service.” We find an example of it in Exod., xxxv. 21, where it is said that the multitude offered first fruits to the Lord with a most ready and devout mind. One who is devoted to another is strongly attached to that other’s interests, and so one who is devout is zealous for the service of God.

(a) Thus, devotion is an act of the will, that is, an offering of oneself to the service of God, the Last End. But devotion will be found in other acts in so far as they are done under the will’s impulse, such as prayer, adoration, sacrifice. The looks, gestures, and voice of those who pray or take part in services of divine worship are influenced by internal devotion, and so become fitting expressions of honor shown to God and an inspiration to beholders.

(b) Devotion contains a ready willingness, that is, the devout person is quick to choose the divine honor as a purpose, quick also to select and to employ suitable means for this purpose. The great model of this is Our Lord, who declared that His very food was to serve His Father (John, iv. 34).

(c) Devotion is exercised in things that pertain to the divine service, that is, to the worship or honor of God. Thus, he who offers himself to God intending the offering as an act of spiritual union or friendship exercises the virtue of charity, while he who forms the intention of doing good in order to glorify God exercises devotion. But devotion and charity are not separated, for charity inspires devotion and devotion nourishes charity.

Devotion should not be confused with emotion, spiritual consolation, or pious exercises known as devotions.

(a) Thus, emotion or pleasure of a non-religious kind is not devotion, though sometimes mistaken for it when the emotion or pleasure is of an elevating kind and occasioned by religious exercises. Neither esthetic joy (e.g., over the music, the ceremonies, the architecture of the church), nor literary pleasure (e.g. over a sublime passage of Holy Writ or a charming liturgical composition), nor intellectual satisfaction (e.g., over the refinement and culture imparted by religious truths), is necessarily joined with that strong attachment to God and inclination to do His will which is the soul of devotion.

(b) Spiritual consolations are sometimes called devotion, but they are not the same thing as the devotion we now speak of. Substantial devotion with which we are now concerned is in the will and consists in the strong inclination to praise and honor God, whereas accidental devotion is rather in the sensible appetite and consists in a feeling of sweetness or elevation in exercises of piety which sometimes reacts upon the body, as when a devout person weeps for joy at the thought of God. Substantial devotion is essential and should be maintained, even though there is no feeling of attraction or fervor. An example of this is furnished by Our Lord, who prayed earnestly during the agony in the garden and the desolation on the cross. Accidental devotion is not of itself evil, nor useless, and it may be desired and prayed for; but it is dangerous for those persons who are puffed up by it, or who become inordinately attached to it, or who are disposed to mistake it for substantial devotion, for, like the consoling vision of Thabor, it is passing and is not an end in itself.

(c) Devotions are various forms of external cult shown to God, Christ, the Blessed Virgin, the Saints, celebrated shrines, etc., whether of a liturgical or a popular, of a public or a private kind. Examples are the Forty Hours’ Devotion, novenas, consecrated days and months, the use of scapulars, medals, etc., pilgrimages, and the like. All these devotions that have the approval of the Church are good and useful in themselves. But devotees often made a bad use of them, substituting devotions for devotion and the non-essential for the essential, as when religion is made to center in pictures or music or a sentimental attachment for some favorite Saint. Persons who multiply external observances may be without the least degree of real devotion.

External and Internal Cause of Devotion.—The external cause of devotion is God, who by grace bestows the will of serving Him gladly, and therefore the Church prays God to bestow upon us the disposition of piety and devotion, and to increase in us devotion unto salvation. But there is also an internal cause, namely, mental prayer or consideration of divine things, for the will follows on the intellect. Hence, it is impossible to animate external acts of worship with true devotion, unless one practises daily or frequent mental prayer. The subjects of mental prayer that promote devotion are reducible to two:

(a) one should think on one’s own weakness (sins, dangers, temptations, etc.) and one’s need of God, for this serves to remove the impediments to devotion. Those who would be devoted to God must free themselves from presumption and self-confidence in the spirit of the pilgrim going up to the Temple who said; “I will raise my eyes to the mountains from which help cometh to me” (Psalm cxx, 1);

(b) one should think on points that will excite the love of God, such as the thought of His goodness, the memory of His benefits, the mysteries of the life of Christ; for these considerations by inspiring charity will thereby indirectly introduce devotion to God. “It is good for me to cling fast to God and to place my hope in the Lord,” said the Psalmist, after he had thought over the blessings received from Providence (Psalm lxxii. 28).

What is the first precept of the Decalogue? - The first precept of the Decalogue is: I am the Lord thy God... Thou shalt not have strange gods. Exod. 20:2, 3. - This precept, as affirmative, prescribes first of all acts of the virtue of religion; as negative, it prohibits vices opposed to religion. But religion is the moral virtue which exhibits due worship to God as the first principle of all things. Hence after the theological virtues it obtains the first place, and accordingly the sins opposed to it are most grave and mortal from their genus. Worship imports honor and reverence. Worship generally, besides honor, or the external signification of excellence, imports submission to the person who is worshiped. Therefore honor comprehends worship, yet honor conversely does not involve worship, "because reverence and worship add above honoring a testification of internal submission." Lugo, de Iust. et Iur., d. 14, s. 1, n. 3. Therefore worship owed to God includes service. "But by the same act man serves God and worships him; for worship regards the excellence of God, to whom reverence is owed; but service regards the subjection of man, who from his condition is obliged to exhibit reverence to God. And to these two things pertain all acts which are attributed to religion, because through all of them man professes the divine excellence and his own subjection to God, either by exhibiting something to him, or also by assuming something divine." S. Th. 2. 2. q. 81, a. 3 ad 2.

Some acts of religion are internal, others external. St. Thomas posits two internal acts: devotion and prayer. He makes the remaining external acts: adoration, sacrifice, offering of first-fruits and gifts, offering of tithes, vow, oath, adjuration, praise; to these below he joins the sanctification of feasts and the use of the sacraments, insofar as through this we profess God to be the author of grace, by which he affects our mind and soul so that he may subject them more and more to himself. Besides, absolutely all sacred observances and ceremonies ordained by the Church to the worship of God can be added, such as the erection of churches and altars, the use of things blessed by the Church, etc., which from the motive of religion are determined and prescribed by the Church.

But the acts opposed to religion are some such by excess, as superstition with its species, others by defect, as irreligiosity with its species. To superstition pertain idolatry, divination, vain observance; to irreligiosity, temptation of God, perjury, infidelity in promises, blasphemy, sacrilege, simony. In the present treatise we will speak only of those acts of religion and opposed sins which regard this first precept of the Decalogue; concerning the remaining things there will be speech in the two following precepts and in other proper places. For the first three precepts concern acts of religion; and in this first precept of the law the worship of God, the one true God, is commanded, and the worship of false gods is excluded; and besides idolatry, all other superstitions are excluded; consequently also dishonoring God is excluded. Cf. 465. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 81 seqq.; q. 122, aa. 1, 2; 1. 2. q. 100, aa. 4-8; L. init.; Struggl 8, 9; tr. 5, q. 1, nn. 4, 5, 6; Lessius, de Virt. relig., c. 1, dd. 1, 2.

What is devotion, and is it necessary? - Devotion is a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God. Therefore devotion imports a certain special act of the will, namely of handing oneself over to God's service, and a certain special quality of this act, namely the aforesaid promptness. But there is a distinction between the handing over of self which is had through charity, and the handing over of self which is had through devotion. For through charity man hands himself over immediately to God, adhering to him through a certain union of spirit. But through religion man hands himself over immediately to works of divine worship. The object of charity and love is good; but the object of honor or reverence is something excellent. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 81, a. 4 ad 3; q. 82; q. 83, a. 15 c.

But devotion is altogether necessary, for it is impossible to execute those things which pertain to divine worship or service, which properly pertains to religion, without a prompt will of doing them. Whence, since it pertains to the same virtue to will to do something and to have a prompt will for doing it, devotion pertains to religion, and its first act is necessary for all following acts. Therefore devotion is a certain special act of religion by which someone promptly offers and hands himself over to divine worship; and at the same time it is a universal act insofar as it moves toward all acts of the service of God. But devotion can also be taken for habitual addiction to divine worship, in which sense a man is said to be truly devout. Likewise devotion can be taken not for the act, but for the quality of the act, namely for the very promptness and fervor by which devotion is manifested. And in this sense prayer is called devout. The aforesaid promptness consists in a determined and absolute affection which conquers every difficulty, so that the will is not delayed in the execution of divine worship when the occasion offers itself; but fervor is the intensity and vehemence of pious affection in divine worship. Devotion also signifies the whole pious manner of acting, and thus a life is called devout. And peculiar pious exercises are called devout exercises, in which sense there is often speech about this or that devotion, about these or those devout exercises, which are the matter of devotion, namely about which devotion is concerned. The extrinsic and principal cause of devotion is God; the intrinsic cause disposing us to it is meditation on divine goodness and divine benefits and at the same time consideration of our infirmity and need. Spiritual joy, gladness, sweetness, facility follow devotion per se. Whence devotion is also taken for this spiritual sweetness. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 82, aa. 3, 4; Lessius, de virt. relig., c. 2, d. 1.

What is prayer, and how many kinds are there? Prayer is taken here insofar as it signifies a certain deprecation or petition, according as Augustine says that prayer is a certain petition, and Damascene says that prayer is the petition of fitting things from God. Therefore prayer can be defined: a certain, as it were, conversation of our mind with God, in which we make known to him the desire of obtaining some thing. - Prayer is mental or vocal, according as it is carried out by mind alone, or the concepts of the mind are also expressed by the mouth. It is private or public, according as it is done by a private person and in a private name, or by the community, or by a minister of the Church in the name of the Church, in the mode prescribed by her. To this public prayer chiefly pertain the Mass and the canonical hours, concerning which we will speak specifically where there will be speech about the sacraments and about particular precepts. "Common prayer is that which is offered to God through the ministers of the Church in the person of the whole faithful people; and therefore it is necessary that such prayer become known to the whole people for whom it is uttered, which could not happen unless it were vocal. And therefore it has reasonably been instituted that ministers of the Church also pronounce prayers of this sort in a loud voice, so that they can come to the knowledge of all. But singular prayer is that which is offered by a singular person, of anyone praying either for himself or for others; and concerning the necessity of prayer of this sort, it is not necessary that it be vocal." S. Th. 2. 2. q. 83, a. 12.

Concerning public prayers, two things generally are to be attended to from Benedict XIV: 1. that these prayers and their formulas are not to be indicated and designated by private persons, but by Ecclesiastical authority, C. Quemadmodum, 23 Mar. 1743. 2. that in sacred rites no others are to be used except those which have been received by the Church, C. Inter omnigenas, 2 Feb. 1774, § 8. - Struggl 21; S. Th. 2. 2. q. 83; Suarez, de Relig., tr. 4, l. 1, c. 3 seqq.; Bouquillon, de Virt. relig., l. 2, p. 1; E. M. Therefore public prayers have their chief value from the dignity and sanctity of the Church, which principally prays, but not from the sanctity and dignity of the persons through whom the Church prays. Lugo, de Euch., d. 19, nn. 124, 125. And in this prayer a threefold fruit can be distinguished: general, which by the intention of the Church is applied to all the faithful; particular, which is applied to the one praying himself; and special or middle, which is applied to him for whom the one praying specially intends to pray. Private and public prayer can be taken in another way, according as it is not exhibited before others, or only before a few; or, on the contrary, as it is exhibited openly and manifestly before fairly many others. And in both senses worship generally can also be taken as private and public.

Is there a precept of prayer? - R. Affirmative. It is proved: 1. because very frequently in Sacred Scripture, both by Christ and by the Apostles, prayer is commanded as necessary for salvation. 2. Because, on God's part, God ordinarily is accustomed to bestow his graces upon us, if you except a few, for example, the beginning of faith, only under this condition, that we ask for them by prayer; therefore it is read: You have not, because you ask not.

Jas. 4:2. And Augustine on Ps. 39: "God wishes to give, but he does not give except to one asking." Ordinarily, since again and again God from his infinite mercy also confers his graces upon those who do not ask. And in this sense more probably and commonly they teach that prayer is necessary for adults also by necessity of means for salvation. For that can truly be said to be of necessity of means without which, considering the ordinary divine order of providence, salvation ordinarily cannot be obtained. Trid. sess. 6, c. 11. But on man's part, his need is supreme, so that each one by full right ought to cry out with the Prophet: Deliver me, because I am needy and poor. Ps. 108:21, 22. Therefore the Angelic Doctor says: "Every man is bound to prayer for procuring spiritual goods, which are not given except divinely; whence they cannot be procured in another way, unless they are asked from him." In 4, D. 15, q. 4, a. 1^†; 3 p., q. 39, a. 5; L. init.; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 2; Struggl 22-24; E. M.

When does the aforesaid precept bind? - The precept of prayer binds frequently. It is proved. For it is the precept of Christ and of the Apostles that we always, at every time, without intermission pray; these words do not prove that one must pray at each physical moment, which would be impossible, but that one must pray frequently, at a suitable time. Luke 18:1; 1 Thess. 5:17. Moreover this precept obliges per se: 1. when a man obtains the use of reason; for then he is bound to turn himself to God, and to acknowledge him as the fountain of all goods and to subject himself to the supreme Lord of all things, for which prayer serves wondrously. S. Th. 1. 2, q. 89, a. 9. 2. at the time of death; for then final perseverance is especially necessary, and prayer is necessary for obtaining it. "Since it is established," Augustine says, "that God has prepared some things to be given even to those not praying, as the beginning of faith; others not except to those praying, as perseverance unto the end; surely he who thinks that he has this from himself does not pray that he may have it." Lib. de Don. Persev., c. 16, n. 39. 3. "At certain intervals of hours and times," as the same Augustine says, Ep. 130. Moreover some teach that one must pray under grave obligation at least once a year; others every six months; others nearly every month; others absolutely every month, in nearly the same manner as the precept of faith, hope, and charity is to be observed. But it obliges per accidens: 1. whenever some precept presses which cannot be fulfilled without prayer; for he who is bound to the end is also bound to the means. 2. When a grave temptation presses which cannot be repelled in another way. 3. Generally, whenever some special divine assistance seems necessary to us, as in some grave calamity, whether private or public.

For laymen and for simple clerics no precept is given for performing certain prayers. But for clerics constituted in sacred orders, for beneficiaries, and for religious destined for choir, there is present the precept of the Church of reciting the canonical hours. He who omits morning or evening prayers, per se, does not sin, if he omits them only sometimes. The reason is that there is no law which commands determined prayers on single days and at fixed hours. Yet the doctors warn that some fault of negligence and sloth is rarely absent. Moreover, in practice those cannot be excused altogether from some fault who omit them rather often, both because perhaps they scarcely pray at another time or in another way, and thus at some point they will fail in the precept of prayer, and because on account of the dangers which occur daily, prayer being neglected, they will fall into many sins. Roman Catechism, p. 4, c. 1; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 2; L. init.; Lessius, de Virt. rel., c. 2, d. 2, 3; E. M.

What are the conditions of prayer? - In order that prayer be made legitimately, it ought to be made with attention, humility, confidence, and perseverance. The first part is proved. Prayer is an act of the worship of God, and exterior worship cannot exist without interior worship. Therefore attention at least concomitant with the first intention is required on the part of the very nature of prayer. But he who is voluntarily distracted in mind, in the act by which he prays, incurs that rebuke of God: This people honors me with their lips, but their heart is far from me. Matt. 15:8. How indeed does he demand to be heard who does not hear himself? But per se he sins venially who without a just reason is voluntarily distracted; and this holds even if prayer is made without obligation, because he inflicts some irreverence upon God. The second part is proved. Humility is necessary on the part of the very petitioner, because he recognizes his need. It is written: He has regarded the prayer of the humble, and has not despised their petition... The prayer of him who humbles himself will pierce the clouds. Ps. 101:18; Ecclus. 35:21. The third part is proved. Faith is necessary on the part of God, whom we pray; namely, that we believe that we can obtain from him what we ask, by reason of the divine omnipotence and mercy, from which prayer obtains what it asks. All things whatsoever you ask when praying, believe that you shall receive them. Mark 11:24; Jas. 1:6. The fourth part is proved. Perseverance is required on the part of the effect of obtaining; for as need is shown more by it, so one is moved more to mercy. Yet prayer has the efficacy of obtaining from the grace of God, whom we pray, who also induces us to pray. But it ought to be persevering, as to the desire of praying, continuously; and as to prayer itself, by not interrupting it at appointed times. "Some things are not denied, but are delayed so that they may be given at a fitting time. Yet this can be impeded if they do not persevere in asking." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15. Be instant in prayer, watching in it. Col. 4:2; Luke 11:8.

Does one pray who pronounces the words correctly and outwardly devoutly, if he voluntarily wanders in mind? Certainly; otherwise neither would he pray who wanders unwillingly, concerning which no one doubts; then, because prayer is petition, and only words and intention are necessary for petition. Therefore attention in the first intention suffices. As to outward devotion, external attention is had if one attends to pronouncing the words correctly, and is not occupied with a thing which cannot coexist with prayer, as if someone were listening to the conversation of others; not likewise if he clothes himself. Attention to God or to the sense of the words is internal attention. In vocal prayer the words are to be pronounced duly and correctly, not by syncopating or mutilating them, nor by corrupting their meaning, and they are to be pronounced so that, unless something obstructs, noise, deafness, one can hear himself. One can use a companion, and then it is necessary to hear him, namely, so that he communicates to him and makes his own what he hears from the companion, and thus the whole will be his, because hearing is in place of pronouncing. In order that prayer be profitable, the state of grace is not absolutely necessary. Therefore prayer also profits a sinner asking for things necessary to salvation. Struggl 27 seqq.; Elbel 419; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, aa. 13-16; Quodl. 3, aa. 8, 9; L. 1. 4, n. 176; Suarez, de Relig., tr. 4, l. 3, c. 4; E. M.

Whom besides God can we pray? - The Blessed Virgin Mary, as our mediatrix; the Angels, as guardians of men; all the Saints and friends of God, as our intercessors before God. Baptized infants, who died before the use of reason, can also be invoked privately, since they are saints and reign with Christ; and according to many the same is more probably to be said of the Souls detained in Purgatory. And indeed they are friends of God. Nor is it repugnant that those who need our prayers can usefully pray for us, just as the living usefully pray for one another, although they too need prayer to be made for them. More probably; for others deny it, chiefly because our necessities and prayers are hidden from them. But invocation of the Saints is of counsel, not of precept, since Trent, sess. 25, says only that it is good and useful to invoke them. Yet they commonly say that he is not to be excused from venial sin who would never invoke the Blessed Virgin, mediatrix of graces for us before God. Trent, sess. 25, de Invocatione, etc.; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, aa. 4, 11; Gur., Comp. 262, Cas. 247; Struggl 31; Del Vecchio, v. 1, n. 663; E. M.

For whom can we pray? - We must pray neither for the Saints nor for the damned. For the former possess beatitude in heaven which will never be lacking; but the latter have already been immutably handed over to eternal punishments in hell. But it is honorable to pray for the just who are detained in the fire of purgatory. It is a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins. 2 Mach. 12:46. Likewise it is permitted and we ought to pray for ourselves and, if the discussion is about private prayer, for all who dwell on earth, whether faithful, whether just or sinners, whether excommunicated or not, whether friends or enemies; namely, we must pray for all those whom we are commanded to love according to that saying of Christ: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. Matt. 22:39. Hence the Apostle says: I urge first of all that supplications, prayers, petitions, thanksgivings be made for all men... for this is good and acceptable before God our Savior, who wills all men to be saved. 1 Tim. 2:1 seqq. If the matter is of private prayer, etc.; for as to public prayer, see the exception in the treatise on Censures, n. 1111.

But this duty of praying for all is satisfied if someone, although he makes no special mention of others, nevertheless excludes no one in those prayers which are not poured forth for himself alone, such as the Lord's Prayer and the Angelic Salutation. For one must pray for all others to the extent that charity requires this, namely, in common. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 37, aa. 7, 8; Struggl 32; E. M.

What ought and can we ask when praying; what are the fruits of prayer, and are they certain? - R. To the first. First we ought to ask for spiritual goods, and these absolutely, because it is certain that we cannot abuse them: Seek first the kingdom of God and his justice. Matt. 6:33. But we can also ask for temporal goods, and for evils of temporal punishment, such as humiliation, poverty, etc., but conditionally; for they can sometimes help us toward salvation. Struggl 25; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, aa. 5, 6, 9.

R. To the second and third. Prayer, insofar as it is a free, good, supernatural work, is meritorious, and profits the one praying, and him alone, by condignity, namely if he is in the state of grace. Insofar as it is a laborious work, at least not lacking inconvenience, it is satisfactory, and can profit the one praying and others living by way of payment, and therefore more probably infallibly, by force of the communion of Saints; and the dead by way of suffrage, if and insofar as it has pleased divine Mercy. Prayer which is made for the dead, more truly from S. Thomas, Suppl., q. 71, a. 12, "as to the remission of punishment, avails him for whom it is made," although the measure of assistance furnished through our suffrages is unknown to us; but it depends on divine acceptance. For prayer profits them insofar as God, merciful and kind, accepts the satisfaction offered by us through it for the dead. But precisely insofar as prayer is prayer, it is impetratory, and profits oneself and other living persons and the dead. For prayer in obtaining does not rest upon the merit of the one praying, but upon divine mercy, which extends even to the evil, either on account of the salvation of him who prays, or also on account of the salvation of others and the glory of God. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 178, a. 2 ad 1. One undoubtedly receives what he duly asks. "And therefore four conditions are set down, with which concurring someone always obtains what he asks: namely, that he ask for himself, things necessary to salvation, piously and perseveringly," S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15. "Pray for one another, that you may be saved; for the continual prayer of a just man avails much." Jas. 5:16 seqq. The prayers of many are more easily heard. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 7 ad 3.

That he ask for himself; "because man cannot merit eternal life for another by condignity, therefore consequently neither can someone sometimes merit by condignity for another the things which pertain to eternal life. And on account of this he who prays for another is not always heard." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15 ad 2. "For it happens sometimes that prayer made for another does not obtain, even if it is made piously and perseveringly, and concerning things pertaining to salvation, on account of an impediment which is on the part of him for whom prayer is made." S. Th. l. c., a. 7 ad 2.

Things necessary to salvation; for the merit of prayer is principally ordered to beatitude. Therefore, if that which is asked is not necessary to salvation, nor manifestly contrary to salvation, then although the one praying can by praying merit eternal life, nevertheless he does not merit to obtain that which he asks. For what is more useful to the sick man, the physician knows better than the sick man. But if that which is asked is useful to salvation, he merits it not only by praying, but also by doing other good works; and therefore he undoubtedly receives what he asks, but at a fitting time, when he ought to receive it. S. Th. l. c., a. 15 ad 2.

Piously, that is, from the habit of virtue and grace, from charity, from religion, with humility, with faith. "Prayer, besides the effect of spiritual consolation which it presently has, has a twofold power with respect to a future effect, namely the power of meriting and the power of obtaining. But prayer, as also any other act of virtue, has efficacy for meriting insofar as it proceeds from the root of charity, whose proper object is the eternal good, the fruition of which we merit. Yet prayer proceeds from charity through religion as mediator, of which prayer is an act, with certain other virtues also accompanying, which are required for the goodness of prayer, namely humility and faith. For it pertains to religion to offer prayer itself to God; but it pertains to charity to desire the thing whose completion prayer asks. Faith, however, is necessary on the part of God, whom we pray, namely that we believe that we can obtain from him what we ask. Humility, however, is necessary on the part of the petitioner himself, because he recognizes his need. Devotion also is necessary, but this pertains to religion, of which it is the first act necessary for all consequent acts. But it has the efficacy of obtaining from the grace of God, whom we pray, who also induces us to pray. Whence Augustine says: He would not exhort us to ask, unless he wished to give. And Chrysostom says: He never denies benefits to the one praying, who by his goodness stirs them so that they do not fail to pray." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15.

Perseveringly: for since the force of prayer in impetration is from divine grace and mercy, it would be irrational always to be heard immediately, namely so that that grace and mercy may appear well. Nor indeed is it expedient for our salvation that we always be heard immediately, and therefore one must pray perseveringly, lest we impede grace if we do not persevere in prayer.

But God hears not only the prayer of the just man, but also that of the sinner "proceeding from a good desire of nature, not as though from justice, because the sinner does not merit this, but from pure mercy, the four conditions premised nevertheless being observed, namely that he ask for himself, things necessary to salvation, piously and perseveringly." S. Th. l. c., a. 16. The prayer of a sinner, although it does not proceed from sanctifying grace, nevertheless is made from actual grace, and is pious insofar as it asks something pertaining to piety. S. Th. l. c., a. 15 ad 1, a. 16 ad 2. Indeed prayer made with due conditions, that is, if it asks fitting things from God, with faith, with humility, with perseverance, is infallible by reason of Christ's promise, which pertains not only to the just, but also to sinners, and whether one prays for himself or for others, as is clear from the text of Jas. 5:16 seqq. "It is certain that prayer has a peculiar promise of God, by reason of which this obtaining is in its own way certain and infallible... Further, it is certain that this promise is not altogether absolute, but under certain conditions; these being posited, obtaining will be infallible, but not without them... It is certain that the state of grace is not simply necessary for obtaining... There is no reason why we should deny that the prayer of a sinner, which is apt to be heard, has an infallible promise... Everyone who asks receives... Everyone who asks, whether just or sinner... Whatever you shall ask in my name, this I will do... On account of this, the opinion which asserts that the promise is universal, whether one prays for himself or for others, seems sufficiently pious and probable... This infallible obtaining is not from justice, but principally from mercy, and also from simple fidelity." Suarez, de Relig., tom. 2, lib. 1, c. 23, nn. 2, 3; c. 25, nn. 2, 3; c. 27, nn. 1, 2, 4. Roman Catechism, de Poenit., p. 2, nn. 74, 76, p. 4, c. 2; S. Th., Quodl. 8, aa. 8, 9; C. G. l. 3, c. 158; Lugo, de Poenit., d. 26, s. 1; Suarez, de Poenit., d. 48, s. 3; Bellarmine, de Indulg., c. 13; E. M. 452.

To n. 451. -

"Devotion seems to be nothing other than a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 82, a. 1. "The extrinsic and principal cause of devotion is God.... But the intrinsic cause on our part must be meditation or contemplation ... of divine goodness and ... of our own defects." S. Th. l. c. a. 3. The effect of devotion per se and principally is spiritual joy; consequently, however, and accidentally, also sadness, which is according to God. S. Th. l. c. a. 4. Devotion is indeed a special act of the will. But it is also in some way a general act, insofar as "it is found in diverse genera of acts ... as the motion of the mover is found in the motions of mobile things." S. Th. l. c. a. 1 ad 2. Devotion likewise pertains to a special virtue, namely to the virtue of religion, and is its internal and first and most important act. S. Th. l. c. a. 2. Therefore devotion is rightly distinguished from sensible sweetness and taste, which can be had in spiritual exercises and is very useful to the interior spiritual life. Wherefore the doctrine of the Pietists is to be rejected, and likewise several propositions of Michael de Molinos concerning sensible devotion already condemned by the Church are to be condemned.

1. Devotion, concerning which the whole thesis turns, is defined by the Angelic Doctor: a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God.

2. 2, q. 82, a. 1. For devotion is said from devoting; whence those are called devout who in some way devote themselves to God, so that they subject themselves totally to Him. In Exod. 21, 21 it is said that the multitude of the children of Israel offered firstfruits to the Lord with a mind most prompt and devout. S. Th. id. Therefore devotion is the offering and handing over of oneself.

2. But this offering and handing over of oneself cannot be done except by that faculty which exercises command over the other faculties, and also over itself, namely so that it may move itself into the end or into God, and move the other powers of the soul, and direct their acts, into the end or God. But this faculty is not the intellect, but the will. Therefore devotion is a certain will.

3. To offer and hand oneself over to God can be done in two ways. Someone can be offered and handed over immediately to God, by adhering to Him through a certain union of spirit, according to that saying, 1 Cor. 6, 17: He who adheres to God is one spirit. And this offering and handing over of oneself pertains to charity. Likewise someone can be offered and handed over to God, not by this immediate union of the soul with God, but by offering and handing himself over to the works of divine worship. And this other offering and handing over of oneself pertains to devotion. But divine worship necessarily and essentially includes the service and servitude of God.

4. Aptly St. Thomas, 2. 2, q. 81, a. 3 ad 2: "It must be said that by the same act man serves God and worships Him; for worship regards the excellence of God, to whom reverence is owed; but service regards the subjection of man, who from his condition is obliged to show reverence to God. And to these two pertain all acts which are attributed to religion, because through all of them man testifies to divine excellence and his own subjection to God, either by offering something to Him, or also by assuming something divine."

5. Therefore devotion is a certain will of handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God. But in this definition of devotion the adverb promptly is added: a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God. Wherefore it signifies neither a simple will, nor only the mode of this will; but it signifies both at once, both the quality and the act, namely the quality in such an act, the act affected by such a quality. Promptness excludes delay; delay is accustomed to arise from difficulties, and can also arise from a more remiss will. Therefore the aforesaid promptness consists in a will that is absolute, efficacious, complete, namely actually conquering every obstacle, every fear, every hesitation. Hence by this promptness interior devotion is manifested. And without this promptness of will, true and perfect devotion cannot be had. Therefore devotion, as has already been said, does not signify just any will, but a will so affected that it is prompt. Those are called devoted to some superior, to some friend, who are dedicated to him by a will so affected that they are prompt for him. "Hence in the usage of the Church devotion has been appropriated to those who are so affected toward God that they hold themselves prompt for God and for those things which are God's. And for this reason devotion has been led down to an act of this sort of will, by which man exhibits himself prompt for divine worship." Cajetan, in 2. 2, q. 82, a. 1.

6. Promptness of the will of this sort practically has as companion fervor of the will, which is nothing other than intensity and vehemence of affection.

7. Hence the word devotion has been transferred to signify several other things, which in reality are intimately connected with devotion. By devotion sometimes is signified the quality of a pious act, posited with promptness and fervor. In this sense prayer is called devout, meditation devout, namely one that is made with an attentive mind, a humble gesture of the body, in a place separated from all tumult.

8. Pious acts themselves, or exercises of piety, are not rarely called devout exercises, devotions, by denomination from devotion, because they are the matter about which devotion turns.

9. And the very manner of acting is accustomed to be called the devout life, namely when it is occupied especially with those pious exercises by which devotion is begotten and nourished; whence also such persons are called devout persons, or simply devout. And the Church generally calls women the devout feminine sex. Such persons indeed are called devout by Italians and by the French. The Spaniards also call them beatas.

10. This Spanish expression is not without its reason. For the effect of devotion is a certain spiritual joy, which is a certain heavenly gladness and a certain heavenly blessedness of the soul. And sometimes this spiritual joy also is accustomed to be called devotion.

11. There exists a twofold cause of devotion: one extrinsic, the other intrinsic. The extrinsic is the grace of God. The intrinsic is meditation, consideration, and study of divine things.

12. It is worthwhile to hear the Angelic Doctor: "It must be said that the extrinsic and principal cause of devotion is God, concerning whom Ambrose says ... 'God calls those whom He deigns; and whom He wills He makes religious

; and if He had willed, He would have made the Samaritans devout from being undevout.' But the intrinsic cause on our part must be meditation or contemplation. For it has been said that devotion is a certain act of the will for this, that man promptly hand himself over to divine service. But every act of the will proceeds from some consideration, because the understood good is the object of the will.... And therefore it is necessary that meditation be the cause of devotion, insofar as by meditation man conceives that he should hand himself over to divine service. To this indeed a twofold consideration induces him: one, indeed, which is on the part of divine goodness and His benefits, according to that saying, Ps. 72, 27: It is good for me to adhere to God, and to put my hope in the Lord God; and this consideration excites love, which is the proximate cause of devotion. But the other is on the part of man considering his own defects, from which he needs to lean upon God, according to that saying, Ps. 120, 1: I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains, whence help will come to me: my help is from the Lord, who made heaven and earth; and this consideration excludes presumption, by which someone is impeded from subjecting himself to God, while he leans upon his own power."

13. Rightly and deservedly, therefore, very many propositions of Michael de Molinos have been condemned as erroneous, almost all of which are reduced to the first and second; by which it is asserted that, for the internal life, man must annihilate his powers; do nothing; bear himself merely passively. Those who neglect to think upon the Divinity, and who in the consideration and meditation of divine things are affected with tedium and are carried away by the thought of other things, just as they lack devotion, so they also lack the effect of devotion. Nor certainly can an argument of progress in the spiritual life be drawn from this, as the thing is in reality evident per se. Nevertheless it was very obscure to Molinos, who did not hesitate to assert in propositions 28 and 29: "Tedium concerning spiritual things is good.... When the internal soul is disgusted with discourses concerning God and the virtues, and remains cold, feeling no fervor in itself, it is a good sign."

14. Nor consequently can what the same Molinos asserts in proposition 64 be a wonder, since it is a natural consequence of the principle established. "The theologian," he says, "has less disposition than a rude man for the state of the contemplative; first, because he does not have faith so pure; second, because he is not so humble; third, because he does not so care for his own salvation; fourth, because he has his head stuffed with phantasms, species, opinions, and speculations, and the true light cannot enter into it."

15. But if those things which are of the Divinity are according to themselves most exciting to love, and consequently to devotion, because God is to be loved above all things, the science of the Divinity per se increases devotion; and therefore the theologian and the learned man and anyone who strives to penetrate divine goodness and divine benefits with intimate knowledge is also greatly helped by that science toward conceiving devotion. But if science is the occasion that man trust in himself, and does not perfectly subject that science to God, and therefore does not totally hand himself over to God, hence it is that it sometimes occasionally impedes devotion; and then "in simple persons and women devotion abounds, by repressing elation." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 82, a. 3 ad 2. Aptly Cajetan on this place: "That which removes an impediment is posited as the occasional cause of motion, as ... one who removes an obstacle from water is the cause of its flow; so simple persons and women have in themselves the cause of devotion, namely because they do not have the impediment to devotion, that is, swelling concerning themselves. And because God gives grace to those who do not place an obstacle, therefore the Church calls the feminine sex devout. Therefore the science of doctors is not at fault, nor is womanly imperfection in praise; but the abuse of science in magnifying oneself, and the right use of imperfection in not elevating oneself; than which the right use of perfection would be far better."

16. Now then, if contemplation truly is the cause of devotion, it must be that those things which are of higher contemplation excite devotion more. Yet frequently greater devotion is excited from the consideration of the Passion and Death and other mysteries of the life of Christ than from the consideration of the divine perfections and of His own infinite greatness. Therefore it does not seem true that contemplation is the per se and proper cause of devotion.

17. But this difficulty is easily solved. For those things which are of the Divinity are, according to themselves, most exciting to love, and consequently to devotion; but it is from the weakness of the human mind that, just as it needs to be led by the hand to the knowledge of divine things, so also to love, through certain sensible things known to us, among which the principal is the Humanity of Jesus Christ the Savior. In the Preface of the Mass for the Nativity of the Lord, which is one of those nine which Pope Pelagius II, in the Decrees de Consecr. dist. 1, cap. Invenimus, commends as consecrated by ancient usage, it is said: That while we know God visibly, through this we may be snatched up into the love of invisible things. And therefore those things which pertain to the Humanity of Christ, by way of a certain leading by the hand, most greatly excite devotion, although devotion consists principally about those things which are of the divinity. -

Therefore the consideration of all those things which are in some way known to excite the love of God causes devotion; but the consideration of any things whatever that do not pertain to this, but distract the mind from them, impedes devotion. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 82, a. 3 ad 1, ad 2. Moreover it follows from what has been said that for all religious and spiritual persons there should be daily meditations of this sort concerning divine goodness, charity, mercy, concerning our infirmity and misery, by which devotion and consequently other virtues are begotten. Cajetan, in loc. cit.

18. But from this it does not follow that devotion is only toward God and that there is no devotion toward the Most Blessed Virgin Mary, toward the Angels, toward the Saints. For devotion indeed per se and principally is toward God; but it is also toward others, though in order to God. "It must be said," says St. Thomas, 2. 2, q. 82, a. 2 ad 3, "that the devotion which is had toward the saints of God, dead or living, is not terminated at them, but passes over into God, insofar, namely, as in the ministers of God we venerate God."

19. From the cause of devotion let us now advance a step to the effect of devotion. -

The proper effect of devotion is a certain heavenly gladness, and a certain heavenly blessedness. Nevertheless this spiritual joy, in this life, is not separated from spiritual sadness: the former follows devotion first, principally, and per se; the latter follows devotion only secondarily and accidentally.

20. "For it has been said that devotion proceeds from a twofold consideration. Principally indeed from the consideration of divine goodness, because this consideration pertains as it were to the term of the motion of the will handing itself over to God; and from this consideration delight indeed follows per se, according to that saying, Ps. 76, 4: I remembered God and was delighted; but accidentally this consideration causes a certain sadness in those who do not yet fully enjoy God, according to that saying, Ps. 41, 3: My soul has thirsted for God, the living fountain; and afterward it follows: my tears have been my breads, etc. But secondarily devotion is caused, as has been said, from the consideration of one's own defects; for this consideration pertains to the term from which man recedes by the motion of the devout will, namely so that he may not exist in himself, but subject himself to God. But this consideration has itself conversely to the first: for per se indeed it is apt to cause sadness, by thinking again upon one's own defects; but accidentally joy, namely on account of the hope of divine assistance. And thus it is clear that delight follows devotion first and per se; but secondarily and accidentally, sadness, which is according to God." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 82, a. 4.

21. Therefore the spirit, which on the one hand is troubled because of the defects of the present life, on the other hand is also delighted from the consideration of divine goodness, and from the hope of divine help. S. Th. l. c. ad 2. Nor indeed is this spiritual joy impeded by the fact that in devotion some break forth into tears. Tears come not only from sadness, but also from a certain tenderness of affection, especially when something delightful is considered, with an admixture of something sad: just as men are accustomed to weep from an affection of piety when they recover sons or dear friends whom they had thought themselves to have lost. Thus Gen. 45, 14, Joseph, embracing Benjamin his brother, wept amid the embraces; and also, Tob. 11, 14, after the return of the younger Tobias, his father and mother, kissing him, weep for joy. And in this way tears proceed from devotion. And this not rarely happens to pious and devout souls in the consideration of the Passion of Christ. In it there is something which saddens, namely human defect, for the removal of which Christ had to suffer; and there is something which gladdens, namely the kindness of God toward us, which provided for us concerning such liberation. S. Th. l. c. a. 4 ad 1, ad 2, ad 3. -

Hence Cajetan concludes on this article: "that those are not devout persons who, commonly sad and wild, do not know how to converse with others except by being disturbed or dissolved. For devout persons are cheerful, joyful in their own soul, not only from the principal cause, but also from the secondary cause, namely from the consideration of their own defects. For their sadness is according to God, and is accompanied by joy, according to that saying of Augustine: Let him grieve, and rejoice over his grief. On account of which we read concerning the Saints that they were joyful and cheerful; and deservedly so, as beginning on earth the heavenly conversation."

22. The aforesaid spiritual joy not only brings with itself facility in the exercise of spiritual things, but even proceeds further, all the way to a certain sensible sweetness, by which devout persons perform those things which regard the worship of God. Nevertheless devotion is in no way to be confused with this sensible sweetness and delight. Devotion is a human, virtuous, and meritorious act, and therefore is in our power. The aforesaid facility, sweetness, delight, do not depend on our will. They arise and remain in the special grace of the Holy Spirit, touching us, preventing us, exciting us; and then bodily disposition also helps us to conceive and perceive it. Hence it happens that man now operates without any difficulty and with interior taste, now operates with difficulty and with tedium. The absence of sweetness and facility of this sort does not diminish the merit of the will constantly persisting in its devotion, but rather increases it. Yet the same sweetness and facility and taste, which is perceived from devout exercises, is the occasion of greater merit. For acts, in the aforesaid exercises, are elicited more intensely, are continued for a longer time, and are repeated with greater frequency.

23. From this whole last observation it is clear what is to be thought concerning those Protestants who are called Pietists. Rejecting every discourse and understanding of the things of our faith, they give themselves wholly to a certain hidden and unknown sense of devotion, and they labor to excite that within themselves, without the foundation of true faith, without true knowledge of divine things. Vain piety is not true piety, because it is without a solid foundation. A holy life, a spiritual life, a Christian life, cannot exist without true faith. But the just man lives by faith. Rom. 1, 17.

24. The falsity of the doctrine of Molinos in this matter is also clear. For Michael de Molinos rejected every sensible sweetness and taste in the spiritual life, from which consequently he removed every sensible means for procuring devotion. And thus proposition 27 of the following tenor was condemned: "He who desires and embraces sensible devotion does not desire nor seek God, but himself; and he acts badly, when he desires it and tries to have it, who walks by the internal way, both in sacred places and on solemn days." Likewise proposition 30 was condemned, which has itself thus: "Everything sensible which we experience in the spiritual life is abominable, filthy, and unclean." Likewise proposition 33 was condemned, sounding thus: "The soul which proceeds by this internal way acts badly if on solemn days it wishes by some particular effort to excite within itself some devout sense: since for internal souls all days are equal, all are festive. And the same is said concerning sacred places, because for souls of this sort all places are equal." But how fitting sensible means are for conciliating for us true and solid devotion is well clear from the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola; indeed it is a most shining thing from the whole liturgy of the Church.

25. Having explained the nature of devotion from its intrinsic nature, from its causes, from its effects, it remains that we examine whether it is truly a special act of the will, and of what virtue it is the act. It is indeed a special act of the will; for it has a special object, well distinct from any other, namely promptly to do those things which pertain to divine worship; and the will thus prompt and prepared for doing whatever things regard the service and servitude of God is properly devotion. Will, that is, an act, and simply an act of the will, that is, an act of the will of man offering himself to God both for worshiping Him and for serving Him; which act per se involves no oath, no promise, and no vow; and externally it is explained by words, when man says to God with heart and mouth: I hand myself wholly over to Your service, to Your divine service.

26. From this notion it becomes manifest that devotion, although formally it is a special act, nevertheless can also in some true sense be called a universal act, namely virtually or causally, because it moves to all acts of homage and service of God. It moreover imposes a mode of acting devoutly upon other acts. For the mover imposes the mode on the motion of the movable. But the will moves the other powers of the soul to their acts, and the will, insofar as it is of the end, moves itself to those things which are for the end. And therefore, since devotion is an act of the will of man offering himself to God for serving Him, who is the ultimate end, it follows that devotion imposes a mode on human acts, whether they are acts of the will itself concerning those things which are for the end, or also acts of the other powers which are moved by the will." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 82, a. 1 ad 1.

27. As devotion is a special act of the will, so it is a special act of the virtue of religion. There are not lacking those who regard devotion rather as an affection of religion than as a special act of religion. What that affection of religion is, which is not an act of religion, those who affirm this certainly are persuaded that they understand. But we confess that we do not understand. Wherefore, with the common doctrine, which is the doctrine of St. Thomas, 2. 2, q. 81, a. 7, q. 82, proemium and art. 2, which is thus concluded: "And thus it is clear that devotion is an act of religion," we also thus conclude.

28. And indeed to operate those things which pertain to divine worship or service properly pertains to religion. But to the same virtue pertains to operate something, to will to operate it, and to have a prompt will for doing it, because the object of both acts is the same. On account of which the Philosopher says, Eth. l. 5, cap. 1, around the beginning: Justice is that by which men will and work just things. Therefore to the same virtue of religion pertains having a prompt will for executing those things which regard divine worship or service, which is to be devout.

29. But that it is an internal act of religion is deduced from its own intrinsic nature, since it is the prompt will itself of devoting oneself wholly to divine service. But that it is the first and most important act of religion is clear from the very nature of religion. The office of the virtue of religion is to testify to man's subjection toward God, insofar as He is the first principle and lord of all. Whence, according to the diversity of those things which are subjected to God by man through religion, diverse are the acts of religion. Now the first and more excellent good of all man's goods is the spiritual good of the mind, and this is especially subjected to God through acts of devotion and prayer, which therefore are the most important. But devotion informs all acts of religion, furnishing them the mode of performing them devoutly. Therefore there can be no doubt that it is the first and most important of all acts of religion.

To n. 460. -

"Can a church be dedicated to the Most Holy Eucharistic Heart of Jesus, and can an image or statue of its title be placed on the high altar? R. The Bishop Ordinary of the place is to substitute a liturgical title both for the church and for the image or statue...." S. R. C. 28 Mar. 1914, A. A. S. v. 6, p. 146. "

I. The Decree of the S. R. C. of the day 28 March 1914 is to be confirmed again with the sentence: In what has been decided and more fully.

II. The title 'Eucharistic Heart of Jesus' can be permitted only in confraternities approved under that title; provided that it is accepted in the same sense in which the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus is understood, as it is present in the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist.

III. But since a title of this sort is not canonical and liturgical, indeed smacks of novelty, it is never to be recognized and admitted in the sacred liturgy.

IV. Moreover confraternities which are called by that title can celebrate no other feast as proper except the feast of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus with the universal Church, or the feast of the Most Holy Body of Christ." S. R. C. 15 July 1914, A. A. S. v. 6, p. 383.

886. 1. Genuine concept of devotion. In order that the other offices of religion may be more easily fulfilled, devotion is infused into our hearts and increased by repeated acts, or the will of promptly handing oneself over to God and to His worship. For devotion is so called from devoting, and among the Gentiles the devoted were those who devoted themselves to the gods unto death for the safety of the commonwealth. Therefore it is proper to devotion to hand oneself wholly over to the service of God promptly and cheerfully. It can indeed be considered as an act, but here it is taken for a habitual disposition.

¹ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 82; Suarez, op. cit., Tr. IV, lib. II, c. 6-8; St. Francis de Sales, Introduction a la Vie devote (Philothea), where devotion is excellently treated.

(a) This indeed presupposes the love of God and arises from it, but it is as it were a more intense degree of charity. The first degree of charity consists in this, that all the precepts of God be rightly observed; but when we arrive at that degree of perfection that we not only keep the commandments, but also solicitously, diligently, promptly, and cheerfully do good works, charity receives the name of devotion. Wherefore, according to St. Francis de Sales, if charity is compared to fire, devotion can be likened to flame.

887. (b) Devotion therefore ought to be distinguished from diverse devotions, or spiritual acts and services by which worship toward such a mystery or such a saint is exercised: these are diverse according to the disposition and inclination of each one, and according to various times, while the former is substantially the same in all minds and in various ages. Besides, devotions have their force from interior devotion, and profit insofar as they increase this; wherefore, if true devotion is diminished by their multiplication, they are carefully to be cut back, lest devotion itself perish.

888. (c) From true devotion differs that sweet and sensible affection, or delight, which we sometimes experience in the service of God. For there are those who enjoy these consolations and a little later hand themselves over to vices, while others are deprived of them, who serve God from their whole heart and from all their strength. Nor is this wonderful: for pious emotions of this kind often arise from the natural temperament itself, and sometimes are also divinely granted to beginners, so that these may gradually be drawn to true piety by sensible affections. Therefore they are not to be despised,² since they deter us from the vanities and pleasures of the world: for the least spiritual joy far surpasses all the consolations of the world. Yet one must not trust too much in these pious affections: for they are something transitory and accessory, and they have value insofar as they draw us to solid piety. If they render us arrogant, presumptuous, vain, curious, impatient, disobedient, they are very pernicious; if, on the contrary, they make us more humble, kinder, more fervent, more prone to obedience, mortification, and the fulfillment of the duties of our state, they are truly useful and proceed from God.

² Wherefore this proposition 27 of Molinos was condemned by Innocent XI, Nov. 20, 1687 (Denzinger, n. 1114): "He who desires and embraces sensible devotion does not desire nor seek God, but himself; and he acts badly when he desires it and strives to have it, who walks by the internal way, both in sacred places and on solemn days." St. Francis de Sales discusses splendidly the utility and dangers of sensible consolations, and also spiritual aridities, Introduction a la Vie devote, p. IV, ch. 13-15.

Therefore when spiritual consolations occur, they are to be used for fostering humility, self-denial, and the mortification of passions and vices. But it must be kept before the mind that true and solid devotion is not that which rests upon pious emotions and is situated in the sensible appetite, but that which is nourished by faith and charity, remains in the will, and induces one to do arduous things for the sake of God and the neighbor.

889. 2. Means of progressing in devotion. That true devotion is very useful is clear from the fact that it renders us prompt and cheerful for fulfilling the offices of religion, and therefore greatly promotes spiritual progress, and brings true peace and internal joy. Therefore it is of the greatest moment to progress assiduously in devotion.

(A) For this, first, certain impediments must be removed: (a) a proclivity toward earthly consolations and pleasures; for no one can serve two masters, the world and Christ, pleasure and devotion, the flesh and the spirit, but between these two one must necessarily choose. For nothing turns us more away from the service of God than disordered affection for earthly and carnal things, since the mind ensnared by these delights is not able to savor the things that are of God: "For they that are according to the flesh mind the things that are of the flesh; but they that are according to the spirit mind the things that are of the spirit... Because the wisdom of the flesh is an enemy to God; for it is not subject to the law of God, neither can it be. And they who are in the flesh cannot please God."³

³ Rom. 8:5-8.

(b) Immoderate solicitude for temporal things, and excessive occupation in external affairs. The duty is indeed incumbent upon Christians of sustaining themselves and their own, and therefore of laboring strenuously; but it is a vice to be so immersed in business, labors, and earthly solicitudes, that scarcely any thought is had of heavenly things, and the offices of religion are passed over, or are fulfilled only negligently.

On this matter let the Lord be heard:⁴ "Therefore I say to you, be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on. Is not the life more than the meat, and the body more than the raiment?... For your Father knoweth that you have need of all these things. Seek ye therefore first the kingdom of God, and His justice, and all these things shall be added unto you." Therefore, among the various solicitudes and occupations of the world, the mind should sometimes be raised to God; and fixed times for praying and thinking of salvation should be predetermined, lest the mind be plunged into the depth of earthly solicitude.

⁴ Matt. 6:25-33; let the whole passage be read with the comparisons there given.

890. (c) Excessive curiosity, and immoderate affection for studies, even theological ones; for these, unless they are tempered by pure intention and frequent elevation of the mind to God, easily drink up the sap of devotion and completely dry out the mind. On the contrary, however, if we devote ourselves to study with the intention of pleasing God and instructing the neighbor, if we use acquired knowledge for nourishing our own faith and charity and that of others, we certainly progress much in devotion.⁵

⁵ To the point St. Thomas says, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 82, a. 3, ad 3: "Knowledge and whatever else pertains to greatness is an occasion for man to trust in himself; and therefore not to hand himself over totally to God... Yet if man perfectly subjects knowledge and any other perfection to God, devotion is increased from this very thing."

Wherefore St. Bernard earnestly exhorts his disciple and friend Eugenius III, raised to the chair of Peter, that among the innumerable occupations by which he is pressed, he not neglect consideration:⁶ "And first indeed consideration purifies its own fountain, that is, the mind from which it arises. Then it rules the affections, directs acts, corrects excesses, composes morals, honors and orders life, finally confers knowledge both of divine and human things... This is what pre-orders things to be done, and reconsiders things done, so that nothing may reside in the mind either uncorrected or needing correction. This is what foresees adversities in prosperity, and in adversities as if does not feel them: of which the one belongs to fortitude, the other to prudence."

⁶ St. Bernard, De consideratione, lib. I, c. 7, P. L., CLXXXII, 737.

891. Moreover the positive means by which devotion is fostered are: (a) attentive and pious consideration of divine benefits and of one's own defects.

St. Thomas splendidly declares this:⁷ for since devotion is an act of the will, it is necessary that it proceed from some consideration of the intellect. "A twofold consideration induces one to this: one indeed which is on the part of the divine goodness and His benefits, according to that saying:⁸ It is good for me to adhere to God, and to put my hope in the Lord God; and this consideration excites love, which is the proximate cause of devotion. The other is on the part of the man considering his own defects, from which he needs to lean upon God, according to that saying:⁹ I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains, whence help shall come to me: my help is from the Lord who made heaven and earth; and this consideration excludes presumption, by which someone is impeded from subjecting himself to God, while he leans upon his own strength." Among the divine benefits, it especially helps to recall the Lord's passion: for while we recall Christ's anguish, torments, and ignominious death, we easily understand that our whole life, all labors, and all services are owed to Him who suffered such things for us.

⁷ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 82, a. 3.

⁸ Ps. 72:27.

⁹ Ps. 120:1.

892. (b) Nor is frequent thought of the divine presence less profitable, with brief ejaculatory prayers, and the often repeated offering of actions. For by these exercises our whole life is ordered to God; and certainly as often as we turn the eyes of the mind to God, especially if we recall that He dwells assiduously in the temple of our heart, and offer our actions to Him as spiritual victims, so often do we dedicate and devote ourselves and our goods to God, and thus devotion wondrously grows.

(c) Finally, prayer itself greatly helps devotion, just as it is rendered easier through devotion: for there is a mutual and constant influence of prayer upon devotion, and of devotion upon prayer. For since true devotion is a gift of God, we ought earnestly to ask it; on the other hand, since devotion renders us prompt for the service of God, it makes us pour forth more fervent prayers.

893. Corollary. From this it follows that genuine devotion is fitting not only for clerics and religious, but also for every kind of vocation and state of men: for all can and ought to love God and promptly and cheerfully order their life to Him. If devotion were situated in fasts and tears, in the assiduous reciting of prayers, or contemplation, in austerities or vigils, it would indeed be adapted to few. But true devotion, far from hindering the duties of any state from being fulfilled, greatly helps us to execute them more perfectly: thus a mother of a family who is truly devout will better love her husband and children, because she will strive to do good to them not only on account of natural motives, but also on account of God and Christ. Therefore let spiritual directors take care, adhering to the footsteps of St. Francis de Sales,¹⁰ to teach devotion in such a way that they may sweetly induce penitents to fulfill all the duties of their proper state more perfectly.

¹⁰ Cf. St. Francis de Sales, Introduction a la Vie devote, p. I, ch. 3; Hamon, Vie de S. Fr. de Sales, Paris, 1858, l. V, ch. 1.

Utility. - It greatly concerns the moral theologian to acquire for himself an accurate notion of a virtue whose very mention, in the present manner of treating honesty, is too often passed over, so that he himself may esteem it more and preach it more efficaciously.

Taken not as a form of worship commonly imposed on several persons (the Catholic religion), but as a virtue, religion is the moral virtue by which the interior and exterior worship which is owed to God is truly exhibited. Most noble after the theological virtues, religion is joined to justice, but as a potential part, because we can never render to equality what we owe to God the Creator, Lord, and universal Benefactor, and because God is also worshiped by free acts. - The material object of this virtue is the various acts of worship, to the doing of which it inclines on account of the special honesty of observing that divine excellence which infinitely transcends every other.

It is immediately clear how religion differs formally from charity. While charity loves, religion adores; the former observes unity, the latter distance and dependence: the former is of an equal friend, the latter of a creature and an inferior. Yet there is no opposition between the two; for is not the miracle of goodness which overcomes the distance between God and us most apt for kindling and nourishing love and at the same time the will of every submission?

Religion, a virtue of the will, has in the will its internal or strictly elicited act. And it is that very affection by which the soul submits itself to that infinite excellence, and intends or seeks the honor of God.

This same affection inspires Christian humility, which, not content with a moderated pursuit of one's own excellence, reveres God's excellence by contempt itself for earthly sublimity. Cf. below, the treatise on Humility.

Whatever acts break forth from that affection of subjection, strictly speaking, are commanded acts of religion. Among them, however, some, by their own nature, signify our affection toward God in such a way that, whether they are interior or even exterior, they contain divine worship per se and are referred among the proper acts of the virtue of religion. These, by a certain broader usage, are also called elicited acts of religion. They are: devotion, adoration with sacrifice, prayer, praise, vow, oath, sanctification of feasts, pious offerings of things or persons. But because all good acts glorify God, we can also perform all from the intention of religion: such acts are then said to be commanded by the virtue of religion. Thus the whole life of religious, morally considered, is made honorable by a general intention of religion.

N.B. - The logical division of the present treatise would be that in a former section we should treat of the individual or singular exercise of the virtue of religion, in another of its collective or social exercise. This latter is performed both by the profession of common religious life and by the sanctification of feasts. - But both arguments must be postponed. Therefore we shall treat only of the individual exercise of religion. Hence first we must treat of the positive acts of the worship of God, which we shall set forth according to the order of the divine precepts to which they correspond, and then of sins against the virtue of religion.

— Religion is here understood as the moral virtue by which the interior and exterior worship owed to God is exhibited. Worship denotes the reverent execution of the offices which we have toward God as He is our Lord. The honesty of rendering the things which are owed to the Lord under this title is the formal object of religion; the material object is the various acts of worshiping. The very interior affection toward worshiping God is the strictly elicited act of religion; more broadly elicited are acts, whether interior or exterior, which contain divine worship per se; commanded are other good acts which have been performed from the intention of divine service.

These acts are devotion, adoration, praise, and prayer.

I. Actual devotion is a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God. It is acquired by prayers and by consideration or contemplation of the divine perfections and of one's own defect. Per se and principally, it brings spiritual joy, as the fruit of the considered divine goodness and of the promise of aid; accidentally, however, and consequently, it brings sorrow according to God, from consideration of one's own misery and of the absence of the vision of God. Cf. 2, 2, q. 82.

II. Adoration, taken strictly, is the formal exhibition of supreme reverence and the protestation of subjection, in recognition of the infinite excellence and supreme dominion of God. By a broader usage, it is extended to the very veneration which belongs to creatures.

Taken adequately, it comprises, besides interior veneration (through internal adoration), exterior humiliation of the body (through external adoration); the latter aids the interior; from man's composite nature, as it were spontaneously, it accompanies the former, and from the necessity of social worship it is sometimes prescribed.

III. Praise is prayer making clear the greatness of virtue insofar as it shines forth in effects, and especially in benefits.

Hence it is said to differ from honor, because we honor all the good, but we praise benefactors. Therefore it pertains to the office of gratitude which must be rendered to God. Cf. Aristotle, Rhet. I and 3; St. Thomas on Ps. 17.

The power of God shines forth in all visible nature; but in no creature more than in the heroic life of the saints.

Praise of the mouth is a part of external worship. For stirring up affections, chant agrees with it especially well, and is therefore most suitably instituted, "that the souls of the weak might be more provoked to devotion" (2, 2, q. 91, art. 2).

543. DEVOTION is taken in a twofold sense: 1. for the general condition of all acts of religion, and thus it is readiness of the will to draw itself to the service of God; 2. for a special act, and thus it is internal offering and handing over of oneself to the service of God. For to devote is the same as to consecrate or offer, and to make oneself over to another.

The obligation of the act of devotion sometimes urges of itself; but the frequency of the acts can be determined with great difficulty, since no time has been assigned for its obligation. - This obligation urges per accidens: 1. when there is grave danger of the opposed vice, namely sloth in spiritual things; 2. when we are bound to elicit other acts of virtues, for the eliciting of which devotion itself is necessary, as are acts of faith or adoration, hearing Mass, etc. (Salmant., tr. 21, c. 9, n. 7).

544. The source of devotion, on our part, is meditation: a) On the divine Goodness: for from this consideration love is excited, which is the proximate cause of readiness of the will. b) On our misery, which, if we consider it, we break forth into fervent and efficacious prayer, all the more because consideration of this kind excludes presumption.

545. The effect of devotion is twofold. The first is spiritual joy, from consideration of the divine Goodness and of his benefits; according to that saying (Ps. 76:4): I remembered God, and was delighted. The other effect is a certain salutary sadness according to God, from consideration of our misery (2.2, q. 82, a. 4).

Note. Substantial and intellectual joy (delight) is always present in every fervid act of devotion. But sensible and accidental joy is often lacking. "He would act badly," says St. Alphonsus (Prat. d'amar G. C., c. 17, § 2), "who would reject spiritual consolations (sensible joy); as certain pseudomystics taught that this was to be done." Cf. St. Francis de Sales, Philot., P. IV, c. 13.

328. Notion. Three things are ordinarily signified by the name devotion:

1. Certain exercises of piety; in this sense we speak of devotion toward the Eucharist, toward the Five Wounds, etc.

2. Attention and a certain spiritual consolation in prayer.¹ It is ordinarily called accidental or affective devotion. In this sense we say: I made meditation with great devotion, or without devotion.

3. The first act of the virtue of religion, in which sense it can be defined: Devotion is a certain will [i.e., an act of the will] to give oneself promptly to those things which pertain to the service of God. Thus St. Thomas.²

The word devotion itself, considered in itself, signifies a habit rather than an act, and indeed devotion is not rarely taken as a habit;³ but then it does not really differ from the virtue of religion itself. Following the Angelic Doctor, however, we take devotion insofar as it is an internal act of religion and insofar as it is elicited by a firm, constant, and generous will. St. Thomas rightly proves in this manner that devotion is to be considered as an act:⁴ "By acts, and not by habits, we merit, as was established above.⁵ But devotion has a special notion of meriting. Therefore devotion is a special act." Not everyone who sometimes proposes to give himself to the service and worship of God is called devout, but he who does this from a stable and constant virtue. Christ had devotion most perfectly, who could say of himself: "In the head of the book it is written of me that I should do thy will: O my God, I have desired it, and thy law in the midst of my heart";⁶ and: "My meat is to do the will of him that sent me."⁷ It is to be noted that the will to give oneself promptly to those things which pertain to the service of God can arise not only from the virtue of religion, but also from the virtue of charity; but in different ways. For if such a will intends a union of friendship with God, it is an act of charity; but if it intends the worship and service of God, and indeed as something due because of God's excellence and our subjection, it is an act of religion. The Angelic Doctor writes to the point:⁸ "It belongs immediately to charity that man give himself to God by adhering to him through a certain union of spirit; but that man give himself to God for certain works of divine worship belongs immediately to religion, but mediately to charity, which is the principle of religion." Just as charity commands all the virtues, and consequently also the virtue of religion, so likewise the virtue of religion, through the act of devotion, commands the other acts which pertain to the worship of God. Hence devotion has a most general influence upon all the other acts.⁹ For why do we worship God by prayer, sacrifice, and ceremonies? Because we wish to give ourselves and all our things to the divine service. Hence it appears how necessary devotion is in the spiritual life, so that, when it is lacking, human acts of divine worship become remiss and imperfect; indeed, the vice of acedia arises. Just as the virtue of religion is intimately connected with the virtue of charity, so the act of the virtue of religion, which is devotion, is closely joined with the act of charity which is ordinarily called a good intention in all our works.¹⁰

¹ In the German language, Andacht.

² S. theol. 2, 2, q. 82, a. 1. In the German language this devotion could perhaps be called self-consecration and zealous surrender to God, devotedness (Selbstweihe und eifrige Hingabe an Gott, Ergebenheit).

³ Piety (Frömmigkeit).

⁴ S. theol., l.c., in arg. Sed contra.

⁵ S. theol. 1, 2, q. 21, a. 3 and 4.

⁶ Ps. 39:8ff.

⁷ John 4:34.

⁸ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 82, a. 2 ad 1.

⁹ Ibid., a. 1 ad 2.

¹⁰ Good intention (Gute Meinung, bonne intention).

329. The causes of devotion are partly extrinsic and partly intrinsic. The principal extrinsic cause is God through his grace. This grace, both sanctifying and actual, is altogether necessary for a supernatural and meritorious act of devotion. For with sanctifying grace all the theological and moral virtues are infused, as was said above, I, n. 472. Now the infused virtue of religion does not elicit a supernatural act of devotion unless actual grace excites and assists it. The acquired virtue of religion, however, can elicit some act of devotion even without grace. The secondary extrinsic cause of devotion is often the example and moral influence of other devout men, as is evident from daily experience.

The intrinsic cause of devotion is meditation and contemplation both of God's beneficence and excellence and of the humanity of Christ, and of human dependence upon God the Creator, Governor, and Mover. For from contemplation of God and Christ charity is excited, which is the proximate cause of devotion, according to the words: "It is good for me to adhere to my God, to put my hope in the Lord God."¹¹ But from consideration of human dependence and defects arises the desire for divine assistance, according to the words: "I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains, from whence help shall come to me: my help is from the Lord, who made heaven and earth."¹² From these things it appears clearly how necessary good and frequent meditation is for the religious life.¹³

¹¹ Ps. 72:28.

¹² Ps. 120:1.

¹³ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 82, a. 3.

330. The effects of devotion are several:

1. Spiritual joy.

For devotion, as was just said, is caused principally by meditation on the divine excellence and beneficence. But this meditation produces spiritual delight, according to the words: "I remembered God, and was delighted."¹⁴ Accidentally, however, this consideration causes a certain sadness in man the wayfarer,¹⁵ according to the words: "My soul hath thirsted after the strong living God: when shall I come and appear before the face of God? My tears have been my bread day and night."¹⁶

2. Accidental or affective devotion.

For the spiritual joy arising from devotion does not remain in the mind alone, but overflows into all the human faculties, causing sweet consolations, even sensible ones. God is accustomed to grant this affective devotion to beginners in the spiritual life, lest they be deterred by the difficulties which arise. As time advances, however, this devotion gradually ceases; indeed, it not rarely gives place to spiritual aridity, God thus disposing it for our testing. Accidental devotion, although it is much less than substantial devotion, nevertheless is not to be despised as useless or evil in itself. Therefore Innocent XI condemned the proposition of Michael Molinos:¹⁷ "He who desires and embraces sensible devotion does not desire or seek God, but himself; and he acts badly who, walking by the interior way, desires it and strives to have it, both in sacred places and on solemn days." On the other hand, affective devotion is not to be esteemed excessively, nor ought a man to grieve from the lack of it, since substantial devotion alone suffices.

3. Facility and promptness in performing the other acts of religion, such as praying, adoring, sacrificing, etc., and even the acts of the other virtues.

The reason is that a devout mind is prompt to please God through all virtuous acts.

4. An excellent influence also upon bodily gestures and one's manner of acting.

For because of the intimate union of body and soul, a mind truly and constantly devoted to God shines forth even in the body, so that the countenance, bodily gestures, voice, and ecclesiastical ceremonies to be performed appear under the influence of devotion.¹⁸

From all these things we are convinced of the great value of devotion and are admonished to pray with the Church "that we may be instructed by an affection of pious devotion," and that "God may increase devotion in us unto salvation."

¹⁴ Ps. 76:4. Hence the most devout St. Paul said of himself: "I exceedingly abound with joy in every tribulation" (2 Cor. 7:4).

¹⁵ Cf. S. theol., l.c., a. 4.

¹⁶ Ps. 41:3ff.

¹⁷ Proposition 27 (Denz. n. 1247).

¹⁸ Cf. Wirthmüller, Die moralische Tugend der Religion § 9.

III. The means of advancing in the pious and devout life are some general and common, others particular.

The particular means are diverse according to the different grade which the pious have reached, and according to the inclination of grace, their condition, and their disposition; so that especially those virtues are inculcated to them which are opposed to the predominant vice, or better correspond to the duties of state or the motions of grace.

The general means common to all are spiritual exercises, namely the practice of mental prayer, frequent remembrance of the divine presence, mortification, and discussion of conscience. To these external means can be added: the direction of the confessor together with reading of books which treat of the spiritual life, a definite rule or good ordering of life, reception of the sacraments, and sanctification of the social relations which we have with others.

IX. Corollary. - Therefore true devotion is much impeded by:

1. adhesion to earthly consolations, even licit ones; for the spirit and the flesh are opposed to each other;

2. deliberate venial sins, because they make charity tepid;

3. an excessive abundance of occupations, which distracts the mind, dissipates the heart, and calls one away from God. Hence if many occupations are imposed on someone by office, let him take care to do them for the cause of pleasing God, and from time to time amid occupations to recollect himself in God.

XII. Warning concerning false devotees. - Aertnijs, Th. P., n. 212, notes:

"From truly devout persons those are to be distinguished whose devotion is either hypocrisy, for deceiving others, or illusion, by which they themselves are deceived. All their devotion consists in external exercises of religion; namely they frequent church, recite many prayers, confess often, and several times in the week receive Holy Communion. Nevertheless they neither understand nor care for true and solid virtue, but teem with vices; they remain in church longer than is fitting, with disturbance of parents and neglect of the domestic matter; they frequent the Sacraments that they may be seen by men and praised; wherefore, if the confessor does not indulge them to communicate as often as they would wish, they bear the rebuff badly; in the confessional they desire to converse with the confessor for a long time, without any utility or necessity. The spirit of mortification is altogether lacking to them; therefore they gape after delights in food and drink, abhor labor, and are talkative. They lack humility and obedience; therefore they do not subject themselves to the direction of the confessor, but the confessor would have to obey their nods; they deceive the confessor, while they confess only very light faults, but graver ones, such as we here enumerate, they do not accuse; they affect praises and honors, cling to their own sense, are impatient of correction, spurn others and correct them arrogantly. They are destitute of charity toward the neighbor, whence they are very troublesome to their household, spare the good name of no one, envy others, are easily angry, etc. - Among persons devout in appearance are to be numbered certain matrons and young ladies who wish to join a worldly life, given to delights and luxury, with piety; hence they frequent both theaters and church, attend nightly dances and sacred processions, read romantic books and books of prayers, frequent the Sacraments and pursue worldly circles.

"Indeed there are those who also wish to be contemplative and are eager always to speak about spiritual things. Meanwhile there lies hidden, or even appears, often an immense pride, tenacity of one's own judgment, foolish imaginations, false madnesses. They neither cultivate nor understand virtues; they are wholly lacking in a spirit of mortification, humble and simple obedience, genuine charity toward the neighbor, patience.

"Such persons are to be brought back to true humility, then to a pure intention in all things. Afterward they are to be directed according to the common rules, and carefully taught in what true devotion consists."¹⁵

¹⁵ Theol. Mechl., Treatise de Virtutibus, n. 90, q. 2. Cf. St. Francis de Sales, Introduction a la vie devote, p. I, ch. I.

S. Th. II-II, q. 82.

656. Devotion is said from devoting, whence it signifies the act by which someone vows himself to another (toewijding). To vow, however, is to promise or hand over spontaneously, and therefore he who spontaneously hands himself over to the service of someone, for example, of a prince, is said to be devoted to him. Thus he who, from an affection of divine worship and honor, hands himself over wholly to God, is rightly said to be devoted to God, that is, addicted to divine service. Therefore in the proper sense devotion is "the will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God" (a. 1), or "the act of the will of a man offering himself to God for serving Him" (ad 1).

In a derived sense, devotion also indicates the state of one who is habitually addicted to divine worship (vroomheid). But since the act of devotion manifests itself through a prompt and fervent mode of acting, therefore devotion, by extension, indicates not only the act, but the mode of the act, namely, the promptitude of will and fervor by which all tepidity concerning divine worship is excluded (godvruchtigheid), and the effect of spiritual sweetness is sometimes produced. This effect is called accidental devotion by moderns (godsvrucht).

657. Devotion is an act of religion. It belongs to the same virtue to do something and to have a prompt will of doing it, because the object of each act is the same. But to do those things which pertain to divine worship is an act of religion. Therefore also to have the will of doing these things, which is to be devout.¹ Indeed, it is the principal and primary act from which all others arise (a. 2).

¹ Christ gave the example of perfect devotion, who, in the very moment of the Incarnation, entering the world, from charity toward the Father, posited the principal act of religion and of perfect obedience (Heb. X, 5 sq.).

658. The cause of devotion on the part of God is grace; on our part it is contemplation or meditation. For every act of the will proceeds from a consideration of the intellect. Now a twofold consideration induces us to serving God: 1. directly, the consideration of divine goodness and of His benefits, because it arouses love, which is the proximate cause of devotion: for from the fact that we love another, we are made prompt to serve him; 2. indirectly, by removing that which impedes devotion, the consideration of our infirmity and defects, which excludes presumption, by which someone is impeded from subjecting himself to God, while he trusts too much in himself. Therefore these considerations are causes disposing us to devotion (a. 3).

2. Hence theological science per se does not harm devotion, as St. Thomas has it, ad 3.

659. Devotion causes per se and principally spiritual joy of the mind; secondarily and by accident, sadness according to God. For devotion arises principally from consideration of divine goodness: from it per se there is born delight concerning that goodness itself, and by accident sadness because we do not yet possess it. But secondarily devotion arises from consideration of one's own defects, which per se causes sadness, and by accident joy on account of the hope of divine help (a. 4).

660. Observation. Devotion toward the saints: 1. if it happens on account of their own proper excellence, is an act of dulia, not of religion; 2. if it is not terminated at them on account of their excellence, but is ordered to God, so that the saints are worshiped solely on account of the relation which they have to God, insofar as in the ministers of God we venerate God, it will be an act of religion; but the Church does not do or approve this, in order to avoid error, namely, lest supreme worship be exhibited to the saints on account of themselves (III, q. 25, a. 3, ad 3); 3. if someone wishes to worship the saints in themselves on account of their excellence, so that he may thus worship God, it will be an act of dulia commanded by religion (q. 82, a. 2, ad 3).

I. Two things the first commandment of the Decalogue prescribes. As affirmative, it prescribes the worship of God: The Lord thy God shalt thou adore, and him only shalt thou serve: Matthew 4. As negative, it forbids that worship be shown to other gods: Thou shalt not have strange gods before me. Thou shalt not make to thyself a graven thing; thou shalt not adore them, nor serve them: Exodus 20.

II. Question I. What is Religion? Answer. The common definition of Religion is this: Religion is a virtue which renders to God the worship due to him as the first principle of all things. St. Thomas, II-II, q. 81, art. 1, derives the etymology of Religion from re-reading [relegendo] those things that pertain to divine worship, because such things must frequently be turned over again in the heart. Religion is not a theological virtue, because it does not regard God proximately, but a moral virtue — and indeed the chief among these virtues, whose object is the worship to be shown to God, as the Angelic Doctor teaches, II-II, q. 81, art. 5.

III. Question II. How many are the acts of Religion? Answer. There are two kinds of the acts of Religion: one of interior acts, such as devotion and prayer; the other of exterior acts, which are divided into three classes. Some subject the very body to God, as adoration; others immolate exterior things to God, as sacrifices, oblations, tithes, first-fruits, and the rest of that kind, which are commonly comprehended under the one name of oblation; the last are those by which something is applied in protestation of the divine honor, such as oaths, by which the name of God is invoked, and vows, by which something is promised to God. Of all these there must be discourse.

IV. Question III. What is devotion? Answer. St. Thomas hands down this definition, II-II, q. 82, art. 1: A certain will of promptly delivering oneself to those things which pertain...

to the service of God. The word will placed in the definition expresses not a power, but an act. The remaining words betray the peculiar nature of devotion. For this promptitude, which renders the soul ready in the divine service and swift in the execution of the things that redound to God's honor, is the singular token of devotion.

V. Question IV. What are the effects of devotion? Answer. They are gladness of heart, an interior sweetness of soul, savor, and delight. It is not necessary, however, that devotion always bring forth these effects, since pious and holy men are often, not rarely, deprived of all these, and are not for that reason less fervent and ready in the offices of Religion. The more mature fruit of devotion is the exact observance of the commandments, which frequently produces the effects just recounted.

VI. There is a twofold cause of devotion. The first and chief is God, who breathes where he wills, and pours out a more abundant supply of graces. The other is the interior meditation of the divine goodness, clemency, and the other attributes of the divine nature, and, at the same time, of our own need and weakness. From the former meditation follow gladness, cheerfulness, and joy. From the latter, humility, lowliness of soul, and contempt of vanity and pride. Of the time at which the precept of devotion presses, I shall speak presently.

The FIRST act of Religion is Devotion, by which the will devotes itself, prompt, to the divine services; whence also it takes its name; it is taken, however, not rarely for that taste which results from attention during meditation, or prayer; yet properly it is promptitude, and the universal will to carry out whatever pleases God; whence it is clear that it does not pertain to the Intellect, although it presupposes its act, as I shall indicate below; at times, however, before every consideration of the mind the will is anticipated by a sweet and savory affection, by which it is gently stirred toward mental Prayers; and this affection, poured in by the Holy Spirit, can deservedly be called the grace of Devotion, or the seed of the virtue: In this matter almost no logical difficulty occurs; for with Devotion there is rare agreement of syllogisms, or arguments; wherefore all that is to be said here I shall dispatch with a single question.

DEVOTION is an act of the Will, by which one promptly wills to carry out all things that pertain to the service of God, and thus hands himself over entirely to the divine cult. Devotion therefore looks to the means fit for obtaining the ultimate end.

The Saintly Doctor expounds its sweet nature in the eight Collationes, Coll. 6. That one refuse to be consoled, and to take delight in things of others; That one delight in the love of God, as D. Bernard says sermone 4. super Qui habitat. Let him withdraw from affection for all things delightful. Let the soul be alone, alone seeking those things which lead to God, as S. Bernard runs on serm. 40. in Cant. where he says: Let the soul be alone, that she may keep herself for Him alone, whom she has chosen to herself from all. Flee the crowd, flee the household, withdraw from friends and intimates. Forget your own people, and your father's house, and the King will desire your beauty. Withdraw therefore, but in mind, not in body, but in intensity, but in Devotion, but in Spirit.

AT LENGTH, with him, in serm. 3. de Annunc. Domini, D. Bonaventure concludes: The food of the soul is the grace of God, most sweet indeed, having all sweetness and delightfulness of savor; it not only delights, but refreshes, and heals. There are four signs that show the presence of the grace of God. First, if the heart is pacified in itself and quiet, because the heart rests, or is filled, in nothing except in God alone. Second, when the mind and spirit feel themselves inclined to devotion. Third, in the presence of grace, then the countenance of a man brightens more than usual, and shows itself benign. Fourth, when in outward movements a man is more composed and ordered.

THEREFORE he concludes that he is devout who devotes, or gives, his whole self to God; for in ancient times they were called devoted who devoted themselves to Idols unto death, as is related of the two Decii by Pliny lib. 10. Decad. 1.

The Saintly Doctor distinguishes, however, a THREEFOLD devotion opusc. de sex alis Seraphim, cap. 8. The first is common, or in the common works of the divine service, as in the divine offices. The second is special in prayers. The third is promptitude in whatsoever holy works.

AROUND the common divine offices a threefold condition is required for devotion: First, that all be done in order without error, that each perform his own office, as is said prima Cor. 4. Let all things be done honestly, and according to order among you. Thus King David, primo Paral. 25. He separated to the ministry of the Lord those who prophesied with harps, psalteries, and cymbals, according to their number, serving in the office dedicated to them. Second, that the work of the Lord, that is, the office of the divine cult, be carried out vigorously and not sluggishly or slothfully: For He says Hierem. 48. Cursed is he who does the work of God fraudulently. The LXX read, negligently. Third, that the divine offices be paid reverently, without dissoluteness and noise, distinctly and attentively, as the Psalmist said: In the sight of the Angels. Hebrew: Neghed, over against, Coeli, and Eccles. 39. With all your heart, and mouth praise and bless the name of the Lord.

For the Divine Office the Holy Spirit instituted it for five reasons.

¶ FIRST, that the Church militant might be like her sister triumphant in hymnody: To those singing we are joined, zealous rivals of nurturing Sion. Thus John saw that city descending.

SECOND, that mindful of the benefits of God we might give thanks to God at every hour, especially by recalling the passions of the Savior; at midnight the Incarnation and Nativity: at morning his being dragged before the Judges: at the first hour scourged: at the third pierced with thorns: at the sixth Crucified: at the ninth having died: in the evening taken down; late in the day buried, let us remember. Whence Isaias 63. I will remember the mercies of the Lord.

THIRD, that we stir ourselves to devotion: For He commanded a perpetual fire upon the altar, Leuit. 6. This is the perpetual fire, which shall never fail, upon the Altar.

FOURTH, that at fixed hours the people flow to the Church, at the times of the offices, to the glory of God; for thus John, and Peter went up at the hour of prayer, the ninth, with the people, and in Luke, first, All the multitude of the people was without at the hour of incense.

FIFTH, for the adornment and Majesty of the Christian Religion; for if Pagans, Mahometans, and others pour forth into superstitious rites, much more ought Christians to celebrate pious rites in the cult of the true God; thus Ecclesiasticus 47. He gave honor in the celebrations, and adorned the times.

¶ AS TO special Devotion in private prayers, there is need of a devotion that drives out weariness, makes alert and wakeful, lest we imitate the prayer of the disciples dozing in the garden, or of the soldiers sleeping at the sepulcher, for Psalm. 76. I meditated in the night with my heart. For by devotion the heart is kindled into the service of God: For the spirit of love himself makes us ask with unutterable groanings, Rom. 8.

He says this Devotion is necessary for Prelates; and he establishes that at times that devotion is preeminent for them by which they rightly exercise the angelic office. For thus also Moses often withdrew into the tabernacle, and the Lord withdrew at night into the mount, Lucae 6. For, like the Angels, they ought always to meditate on God as present, after the example of Elias, and Eliseus, who said: As the Lord liveth, in whose sight I stand.

¶ The THIRD, which truly is general devotion, is the continuous study of pleasing God, as the Apostle said 2. Corinth. 5. We contend, whether present, or absent, to please him. But he admonishes that for this reason we anticipate all our works with prayer. Therefore it is said 1. Paral. 20. When we know not what we ought to do, we have this only remaining, that we direct our eyes to you, and Psalm. 121. As the eyes of servants are in the hands of their masters, etc.

¶ GRAVELY, however, he discourses on the wonderful effects of devotion in that chapter. See it; for I do not transcribe all here, that I may eagerly compel you to the Seraphic fountain; where wonders are found.

In the little book also on the progress of the Religious lib. 2. cap. 73. he distributed as it were seven modes of devotion, according to the diverse motives from which the promptitude and alacrity arise for those things that pertain to the cult of God.

FIRST, then, it arises from fear, by which, having been implanted and struck in, one is borne toward Divine things, Psalm. 50. Cast me not away from thy face, Psalm. 37. Forsake me not, O Lord my God, etc.

SECOND, from grief, and penitence for past offenses, Psalm. 50. Turn away thy face from my sins.

THIRD, from desire of glory: Lord, before thee is all my desire, Psalm. 37. and Isa 26. Thy name, and the desire of my soul. My soul desired thee in the night.

FOURTH, from the imitation of Christ, and the compassion to be shown his passions, while he is transfixed by that sword Lucae 2.

FIFTH, from love, by which they are inflamed from the memory of the divine goodness. By this love, the Holy Spirit gives testimony to our spirit, that we are the sons of God. Rom. 8.

SIXTH, from joy, which he stirs up in the cult of the Lord from the hope of predestination to glory, Psalm. 83. My heart and my flesh have exulted in the living God.

SEVENTH, from contemplation, and admiration of the divine majesty, to whom service is rendered, Iob. 37. Great in strength, and in justice is God: therefore shall they fear him.

It arises also from all the affections mixed together, from which, as from aromatics crushed together, the incense is compounded, evaporating toward heaven, or from many oils one balsam is made.

Further, since devotion is the fatness of pious affection, and has more to do with the affect than with the intellect, as can be seen in simple devout persons, and in certain lettered but undevout ones; yet perfect devotion is not without the light of the intellect: but the understanding of simple devout persons is one thing; and that of the lettered another. For the lettered know how to speak subtly on any spiritual matter, and to express in proper words what they will, to divide beautifully, and to distinguish and assign congruous causes and reasons, and to compose persuasively and in order with arranged speech, and from small things to weave lengthy treatises, and to weave those things that are plain and known in artful words, so that they may seem to the unlearned things drawn from the innermost marrow of Philosophy.

But simple devout persons see the truth more splendidly in itself, and know how to think of it more profoundly, and to weigh its weight, and to search out the veins of an intimate savor by the taste of affection, and by the ray of pure understanding to discern whatsoever things more lucidly; so that, although they know not how to distinguish in expressed words properly, they are more able, from the taste of savor, to know the natural differences of the truth than by the conjectures of arguments. Let the example be of any craftsman skilled in his art, and of a subtle Philosopher, of whom the one can thus beautifully discourse on the art; and the other act properly. So the Seraphic Doctor.

He truly ADMONISHES, cap. 70. that devotion is agitated in some by temptations. First by hesitation, while one wavers in doubt: whether the things he does are pleasing to God, and whether he is predestined, etc.; and this indeed is a grave hindrance to a joyful soul, by which often even holy men have spread their wings in vain. The second temptation is of elation, by which they seem to rub the heavens between their fingers: But from this also let them guard carefully. See the Saintly Doctor, and D. Thomas art. 3. ad 3.

From what has been said you have, that devotion is a preeminent act, and a gift of God; for by it we devote ourselves with alacrity to the cult of God, as the Saintly Doctor explained above. But this gift God at times takes away, as it were a file scraping from the soul the rust of some elation, or presumption, that thus, oppressed with sorrow, one may cry out to the Lord, and acknowledge from him that promptitude which he had ascribed to himself. See D. Bonaventure.

You have also, that devotion is an act of Religion; for it pertains to the same virtue to do something, and to have a prompt will for doing it, because the object of both acts is the same. Hence Aristotle says, 5. Eth. cap. 1. Justice is that by which men will to act justly, and by which they do act justly.

You have, thirdly, with D. Bonavent. in the places adduced, and D. Thom. art. 3., that contemplation is the cause of devotion. The reason of both Saintly Doctors is, because Devotion is a certain act of the will for this, that it hand itself over promptly to the divine service. But every act of the will arises from some consideration. Therefore D. Augustine says, lib. 14. de Trinit. cap. 8. The will arises from understanding. Therefore it is necessary that meditation be the cause of devotion, inasmuch as it conceives the motives by which one hands himself over to the divine service, to which one is led by considerations of the goodness of God, of his benefits, etc. and on the other hand by consideration of one's own lowliness, and unworthiness; from which one gathers that he has need of Divine help, Psalm. 120. I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains, from whence help shall come to me. D. Bonavent. pursues the benefits of God outstandingly, and Caietanus art. 3.

GATHER, at length, with S. Bonavent. in the places adduced, and D. Thom. art. 4., that Joy is the effect of devotion; for from the consideration of the Divine goodness, and of benefits, and of graces, alacrity arises in the servitude of God, whence he exults, Psalm. 76. I was mindful of God, and was delighted. But the accident indeed also generates sadness, as is said, Psalm. 42. My soul hath thirsted after God, the fountain of living water: my tears have been, etc. For while he sees his own defects, he feels his miseries, touches his calamities, is cast down with sorrow, and darkened. But while he considers the divine mercy, he is raised up, comforted, and leaps toward the servitude of God, as the lame man healed by Peter at the gate of the temple exulted.

D. Bonavent. enumerates the wonderful effects of devotion, opuscul. de sex alis Seraphim, cap. 8. He says this is the unction of the Holy Spirit, which teaches all things 2. Ioan. 2. Whence Eccles. 24 They that eat me, shall yet hunger. It strengthens in the service of God: For God by it works in us both to will and to accomplish, according to his good will. It makes one shudder at sins, the Psalm saying, 118. I hated iniquity, and Apoc. 10. Sweet to the taste, it embitters the belly. It orders actions, Cant. 2. He ordered charity in me: indeed he raises up ebriety, so to speak, in the wine-cellar of divine considerations; he composes morals, and life; even outwardly, as Tob. 3. said, I never mingled with those who play. See the Saintly Doctor.

I CONCLUDE, that devotion is as it were the sharp spur of Religion, by which one hastens to the service of God, and it commands all the acts of the virtues, even Theological ones. And this Paul willed, and supposed, while he commands that all things be done to the glory of God. Whence S. Thomas, quaest. 81. art. 8. says simply that sanctity, which is Religion, commands all the virtues. Nor indeed is it necessary that the virtue commanding the acts of another be superior to it; but it suffices that they have motives, by which the affection well disposed toward one virtue is affected toward the acts of the other virtues from their connection, as Valentia says, disput. 6. quaestione 1. puncto 2.