Section — Koch–Preuss
Section 4: Temptations and Occasions of Sin
The cause of personal sin (causa deficiens),1 as we have seen, is free-will. "If any one saith," defines the Tridentine Council, "that it is not in man's power to make his ways evil, but that the works that are evil God worketh as well as those that are good, not permissibly only, but properly and of Himself, in such wise that the treason of Judas is no less His own proper work than the vocation of Paul; let him be anathema."2 —"Man's will alone/' says St. Thomas, "is directly the cause of his sin."3 And St. Augustine:
1 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Civit. Dei, XII, c. 7: "Let no one seek an efficient cause of an evil will; for it is not efficient but deficient, because that is not an effecting but a defecting. For to fall away from that which supremely is toward that which is less is to begin to have an evil will." (Migne, P. L., XLI, 355).
2 Conc. Trident., Sess. VI, can. 6: "If anyone says that it is not in man’s power to make his ways evil, but that God works evil works as well as good, not merely permissively but also properly and of Himself, so that the treason of Judas is no less His own work than the vocation of Paul, let him be anathema."
3 Summa Theol., 1a 2ae, qu. 80, art. 1: "A man’s will alone is directly the cause of his sin." —Cfr. De Malo, qu. 3, art. 3: "An act of the will is nothing other than a certain inclination of the will toward what is willed, just as natural appetite is nothing other than an inclination of nature toward something. The inclination of nature is both from the natural form and from Him who gave the form; hence the upward motion of fire is said to be from its lightness and from the generator that produced such a form. Thus the motion of the will proceeds directly from the will and from God, who is the cause of the will, who alone works in the will and can incline it to whatever He wills. But God is not the cause of sin. It remains, therefore, that nothing other than the will is the direct cause of human sin."
"It is written into every heart by the hand of God that sin is impossible without the cooperation of the will." 4 The will can excite concupiscence and proceed from desire to act, thus producing sin, as it were, out of itself. The will may also be seduced by outside influences (causae occasionales). Of these there are chiefly two, viz.: temptation and occasion.
4 De Duab. Anim. c. Manich., c. n, n. 15: "Every mind reads within itself, divinely inscribed, that sin cannot exist without the will." (Migne, P. L., XLII, 105.)
I. TEMPTATIONS. —Temptation, broadly speaking, is a testing or trial of the will. Defined more narrowly, it is a direct incitement to evil which stirs up concupiscence and thereby causes a struggle between the good and the evil forces of nature.
A temptation may be either internal or external, and it may proceed from God (tentatio probationis), or from the devil, or from the world, or from concupiscence.5 i. Christ exhorts all men to pray, "Lead us not into temptation." 6 St. Paul says that God suffers all to be tempted.7 Hence there are temptations that come from God. Not, of course, as if God seduced His creatures to sin. "Let no man, when he is tempted, say that he is tempted by God, for God is not a tempter of evils, and he tempteth no man." 8 "When He 'tempts' a man/' says Dr. Pohle, "He simply 'tries his faith/ as in the case of Adam and Abraham; which is quite compatible with His infinite holiness." 9 God tries man's faith, not merely in a passive manner, by allowing him to be tempted, but sometimes actively, by sending him trials and worries which may become a source of temptation and thereby a means of probing his character. But St. Paul tells us that God never allows man to be tempted beyond his strength.10 And St. James assures us: "Blessed is the man that endureth temptation; for when he hath been proved, he shall receive the crown of life which God hath promised to them that love him.”11 Hence Au- gustine's exhortation: "It is not good for us to be without temptations, nor should we ask God that we be not tempted, but rather that we be not led into temptation." 12 2. THE DEVIL. —Sin originated with the Devil. He “sinneth from the beginning.”13 He is "the prince," 14 " the god of this world,"15 a murderer and a liar,16 "the tempter" par excellence,17 who seduced our first parents,18 and tempted Job,19 Ananias and Saphira,20 Judas,21 nay our Lord Jesus Christ Himself.22 The Apostles repeatedly warn the faithful against this sinister foe, who is the more dangerous because, according to St. Paul, he transforms himself into an angel of light.23 In view of the plain scriptural teaching on the subject no Christian needs to be assured that belief in the evil one is not a "remnant of medieval superstition," or that the Devil is not merely a "symbol of evil." 24 On the other hand, we must not lose sight of the fact that Satan is a creature dependent upon God and limited in power. He is a dangerous tempter, but he can compel no man to do wrong. His power amounts to nothing unless he can get man to consent to his evil suggestions. "It is our will, not his power that delivers us into his hands/' says St. Bernard.25 "However great the power and pertinacity of Satan," says the Roman Catechism, "he cannot, in his deadly hatred of our race, tempt or torment us as much or as long as he pleases; but all his power is governed by the control and permission of God." 26 There is an apt comparison of the devil to a chained dog in a sermon attributed to St. Augustine. 27
5 Cfr. Conc. Trident., Sess. VI, c. 13: "The struggle that remains is with the flesh, with the world, and with the devil." — Cfr. St. Augustine, Serm., 344 (a/. 31), n. 1: "This contest is set before us: this struggle with the flesh, this struggle with the devil, this struggle with the world." (P. L., XXXIX, 1512).
7 1 Cor. X, 13. —Cfr. Gen. XXII, 1; Deut. XIII, 3; Tob. XII, 13.
8 Jas. I, 13: "God is not a tempter of evils, and He Himself tempts no one."
9 Pohle-Preuss, God the Author of Nature and the Supernatural, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1916, p. 345.
10 1 Cor. X, 13.
11 Jas. I, 12. —St. Ambrose, De Abraham, 1. i, c. 8, n. 66: "God tempts in one way, the devil in another. The devil tempts in order to overthrow; God tempts in order to crown. Indeed, He tempts those whom He has approved for Himself. Hence David also says: Prove me, O God, and try me. And He first approved holy Abraham and then tempted him, lest, if He tempted him before approving him, He should burden him. For God did not will the son to be sacrificed by his father, nor did He will this duty to be fulfilled, for He offered a ram to be sacrificed in place of the son; but He tested the father’s affection, whether he would prefer God’s precepts to his son and would not bend the force of devotion through consideration of paternal affection." (Migne;, P. L., XIV, 445). —IDEM, ibid., n. 76: "I inquired into your affection; I did not exact the deed. I tested your mind, whether for My sake you would not spare even your dearest son. I do not take away what I Myself gave, nor do I begrudge the heir whom I bestowed upon one who had none." (P. L., XIV, 448).—Epist., 51, n. 11: “You are a man, and temptation comes to you; overcome it.” (P. L., XVI, 1162). Expos. Evang. sec. Luc., 1. 4. n. 41: "He who wishes to give a crown proposes trials. And if ever you are tempted, know that a crown is being prepared. Take away the martyrs’ struggles, and you have taken away their crowns; take away their torments, and you have taken away their beatitudes." (P. L., XV, 1625).
12 Enarr. in Ps., 63, n. 1: "It is not expedient for us to be without temptations, nor should we ask God that we not be tempted, but that we not be led into temptation." (P. L., XXXVI, 761).
13 1 John III, 8.
14 John XIV, 30.
15 2 Cor. XI, 3; John XII, 31.
16 Gen. III, 1-6.
17 Matth. IV, 3.
18 John VIII, 44.
19 Job I, 12.
20 Acts III, 5.
21 Luke XXII, 31; John XIII, 2.
22 2 Cor. XI, 3.
23 1 Cor. VII, 5. Cfr. 2 Cor. XI, 14; Eph. VI, 11-17; 1 Pet. V, 8-9.
24 Cfr. M. Hagen, S.J., Der Teufel $m Lichte der Glaubensquellen, Freiburg 1899.—Th. H. Simar, Die Theologie des hl. Paulut, and ed., pp. 67 sqq.; J. G. Raupert, Hell and its Problems, pp. 82 iqq.
25 De Gratia et Lib. Arbitrio, 6, n. 18: "Our will, not the devil’s power, delivers us into bondage to him." (Migne, P. L., CLXXXII, ion).— Cfr. St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps., 63, n. 1: "The devil is indeed bound so that he may not do as much as he can or as much as he wishes; nevertheless he is permitted to tempt only so much as is expedient for those making progress." (P. L., XXXVI, 761). —IDEM, ibid., 103, s. 3, n. 22: "No one can be tempted by the devil unless God permits it, either for condemning the wicked or for proving the devout." (P. L., XXXVII, 1375).— St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 1a 2ae, qu. 80, art. 3: "The devil by his own power, unless restrained by God, can compel a man to perform an act which in its kind is a sin; but he cannot impose the necessity of sinning. This is evident because man resists an inducement to sin only through reason, the use of which the devil can totally impede by moving the imagination and sensitive appetite, as is evident in those who are possessed. But when reason is thus bound, whatever a man does is not imputed to him as sin. If reason is not totally bound, however, insofar as it is free it can resist sin. Hence it is manifest that the devil can in no way impose the necessity of sinning."
26 Catech. Rom., P. 4, c. 15, qu. 8: "Even with such power and persistence, and with mortal hatred of our race, Satan can tempt or vex us neither as much nor as long as he wishes; rather, all his power is governed by God’s will and permission." —Cfr. J. Wirtz, Die Lehre von der Apolytro* sis, Treves 1906, pp. 31 sqq.
27 Cfr. Pseudo-Augustine, Append. Serm., 37 (al. 197 de tempore), n. 6: "He is bound like a dog fastened with chains and can bite no one except him who joins himself to him in deadly security. Now see, brethren, how foolish is the man whom a dog placed on a chain bites. Do not join yourself to him through the wills and desires of the world, and he will not presume to approach you. He can bark and harass; he cannot bite anyone except one who wills it. For he harms not by compelling but by persuading, and he does not extort our consent but asks for it."—The last sentence is taken from the Epistula Pelagii ad Demetriadem, c. 25 (ibid., XXXIII, 1117).—Cfr. Brev. Rom., Dom. IV post Pent., Lect. II Noct.
As regards the manner in which the devil proceeds, note that he is himself a creature, and therefore cannot read the souls of men, but judges their state by the natural manifestations of their thoughts and purposes.28 Nor can he exercise a direct influence upon the human will. His methods are necessarily indirect and circuitous, though for that reason no less effective. He works upon the imagination, blindfolds reason, stirs up the passions, etc. "The devil," says St. Thomas, is a cause of sin, not directly or sufficiently, but only by persuasion, or by proposing the object of appetite."29 He is "the enemy" who came and "sowed cockle among the wheat while men were asleep."30 While it must be admitted that the devil, "the prince of this world," has a share in every sin, it would be wrong to assume that all temptations come from him. Sacred Scripture points to concupiscence as the principal source of sin. "Every man is tempted by his own concupiscence."31 The fact that sin is often inspired by the devil, does not, of course, render it less culpable. Not to speak of concupiscence, which exercises a powerful influence over every human heart, man himself is but too often the tempter and seducer of his fellowmen.32
28 Cfr. St. Jerome, In Ps., 6, 20: "The devil does not know inwardly in the soul what a man thinks unless he understands it through outward movements."
29 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 1a 2ae, qu. 80, art. 1: “The devil is not the cause of sin directly or sufficiently, but only by way of persuading or proposing something desirable. Since the human will is moved necessarily by no object, but by itself, the devil is not in himself the cause of sin, but only by way of persuading or proposing a desirable object. Although the devil, according to the condition of his nature, could persuade something by illuminating a person’s intellect, as a good angel does, he nevertheless does not do this, because the more the intellect is illuminated, the more it can guard itself against the deception which the devil intends. Hence it follows that the devil’s inward persuasion and any revelation by him do not occur through illumination of the intellect, but only through a certain impression upon the interior or exterior sensitive powers. By way of disposing, however, he can be a cause of sin insofar as by moving the spirits and humors he makes some persons more disposed to anger, concupiscence, or something of this kind. For it is manifest that when the body is disposed in a certain way, man is more prone to concupiscence, anger, and passions of this kind; and when these arise, man is disposed toward consent. Thus it is evident that the devil inwardly incites to sin by persuading and disposing, but not by completing the sin.”
30 Matth. XIII, 25. —On the temptation of Job St. Ambrose remarks: "The woman, the enticement of the first deceit, is employed; friends are employed to overcome the one who resists by wicked counsels." (Expos. Evang. sec. Luc., IV, n. 39; Migne, P. L., XV, 1624).
31 Jas, I, 14 sa; cfr, Rom. VII, 20; Gal. V, 17.
32 Cfr. the Catechism of the Council of Trent, P. IV, c. 15, qu. 10.
- THE WORLD. —"This present wicked world,"33 which is full of sin and impiety,34 and hates God and His servants,35 is another prolific source of sin. The term world, as used in the Scriptures, denotes either the physical universe or the human race. In the former sense, i. e., as the aggregate of material things, "the world" deceives and lures man away from His Creator. Taken in the latter sense, i. e., as humanity, especially in the state of original sin and estranged from the true Church, "the world" is full of direct and indirect temptations —seduction, denial of truth, scandal, heresies and perverted ideals, a corrupt civilization, a mendacious press, debased arts, etc. This sad state of affairs accounts for St. John's warning: "Love not the world, nor the things which are in the world; if any man love the world, the charity of the Father is not in him." 36 4. CONCUPISCENCE. —Concupiscence is the inordinate leaning of human nature towards evil. It results from the fall of our first parents 37 and is the most prolific source of temptations. St. James says: "Every man is tempted by his own concupiscence, being drawn away and allured. Then when concupiscence hath conceived, it bringeth forth sin. But sin, when it is completed, begetteth death." 38 Concupiscence manifests itself through the eyes and the flesh, and also in the form of pride. Though not a sin in itself, it is "of sin and inclines to sin." 39 It is "an incentive" to sin, and becomes sinful only when freely consented to.40
33 Gal. I, 4.
34 John VII, 7; XIV, 17.
35 John XV, 18 sq.; XVI, 20, 33; XVII, 9, 14, 25. —Cfr. Simar, Die Theologie des hl. Paulus, 2nd ed., pp. 72 sqq.; Tillmann, Die Wiederkunft Christi, Freiburg 1909, pp. 25 sqq.
36 1 John II, 15; cfr. Matth. XVIII, 7; Rom. XII, 2; Col. III, 2. —St. Augustine, Serm., 80 (a/. 23 de Divers.), n. 8: "The world is evil; behold, it is evil and yet is loved as though it were good. But what is the evil world? Heaven and earth and the waters and the things in them—fish, birds, and trees—are not evil. All these things are good, but evil men make the world evil." (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 498).
37 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God the Author of Nature and the Supernatural, pp. 203, 217.
38 Jas. I, 14-15; cfr. Jas. IV, 1; Gen. II, 6; IV, 7. —Supra, Vol. I, pp. 116 sqq.
39 Conc. Trident., Sess. V, can. 5. —Cfr. 1 John II, 16; Rom. XIII, 23. —Prop. Damnat. Baii, n. 50 sq., 74-76 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1050 sq., 1073 sqq.). —Denifle, Luther und Luthertum, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 438 sqq.
40 Conc. Trident., Sess. V, can. 5.
Concupiscence is in all human beings (with the exception of the Blessed Virgin Mary,4141), but manifests itself differently,42 according to temperament, age, sex, disposition, heredity, education, training, association, manner of life, and other factors. Every man has his own temptations according to his peculiar constitution of body and soul. But each also has his own means of fighting temptation. Hence, while no man is free from concupiscence and temptation, no one is tempted beyond his strength. Every man is able, with the aid of grace, to overcome temptations. Nay, more, he can and should convert them into means of spiritual progress. "Blessed is the man that endureth temptation; for when he hath been proved, he shall receive the crown of life, which God hath promised to them that love him." 43 Temptation, therefore, is designed to test and steel the character.44
41 Pius IX, Bull "Ineffab. Deus" (Dec. 13, 1854).—St. Augustine, De Nat. et Grat., c. 36, n. 42: "Excepting the holy Virgin Mary, concerning whom, for the honor of the Lord, I wish no question whatever to be raised when sins are being discussed." (Migne, P. L., XLIV, 267). Cfr. Pohle- Preuss, Mariology, pp. 72 sqq.
42 Cfr. St. Ambrose, Expos, in Evang. sec. Luc., IV, n. 39: "The very diversity of temptations corresponds to the diversity of those who contend." (Migne, P. L., XV, 1624).—Cfr. Pius IX, Bull "Ineffabilis Deus."
43 Jas. I, 12; cfr. Gen. IV, 7; Cor. X, 13; Heb. II, 18; 1 Pet. V, 9.
44 Cfr. H'ense, Die Versuchungen, 3rd ed., pp. 114 sqq.
Christ allowed the devil to tempt Him in order to show by His example how temptation should be withstood. Moreover, He expressly designated the most effective means of combatting it, viz.: watchfulness and prayer,45 the practice of the theological virtues, conscientious fidelity to duty, faithful perseverance in one's vocation, mortification, in short, imitating Him in all things. "If any man will come after me," He says, "let him deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me." 46 In many temptations, especially those against chastity, salvation lies in flight.47
45 Matth. XXVI, 41.—Cfr. St. Ambrose, De Cain et Abel, 1. i, c. 5, n. 16: "The Lord Jesus has certainly taught you how to resist temptations of this kind." (Migne, P. L., XIV, 325)-—IDEM, Expos. Evang. sec. Lucam, IV, n. 17: "We are taught that there are especially three weapons of the devil with which he is accustomed to arm himself to wound the mind of man: one of gluttony, another of vainglory, a third of ambition. He began from the point where he had already conquered. And therefore in Christ I begin to conquer from the point where I was conquered in Adam, provided that Christ is for me the image of the Father and an example of virtue. Let us therefore learn to beware of gluttony and to beware of lust, because it is a weapon of the devil. You have learned the devil’s weapon; take up the shield of faith and the breastplate of abstinence." (P. L., XV, 1617).
46 Matth. XVI, 24; cfr. Luke XIV, 27; 1 Cor. IX, 27.
47 Cfr. Gen. XXXIX, 12; 1 Cor. VI, 18; Pseudo-Augustine, Append. Serm. 293 (a/. 250 de Temp.), n. 1: "Against the assault of lust take hold of flight, if you wish to obtain victory." (P. L., XXXIX, 2301).— Cfr. Homer's Odyssey, XII, 120.
"Brethren," admonishes St. Paul, "be strong in the Lord and in the might of his power. Put ye on the full armor of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For our wrestling is not against flesh and blood, but against principalities and powers, against the rulers of this world of darkness, against the spirits of wickedness in regions above. Therefore take ye up the full armor of God, that ye may be able to resist in the evil day, and to stand in all things perfect. Stand, therefore, with your loins girt about with truth, and having on the breastplate of justice, and your feet shod with the preparation [to carry] the gospel of peace: taking up withal the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to extinguish all the fiery darts of the evil one. And take unto you the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit (which is the word of God). With all prayer and supplication pray at all times in the spirit ; and in the same watching with all instance and supplication..." 48 " When you are tempted," says the Venerable Don Bosco, "shake off the thought of evil and do not wait until temptation has gained possession of your heart, but ward it off by work or prayer."
48 Eph. VI, 10-18.—Cfr. St. Au- in gustine, Enarr. in Ps., 136, n. 22: XXXVII, "If you wish to be armed against temptations in the world, let desire for the eternal Jerusalem grow and be strengthened in your hearts." (P. L., 1774).
II. OCCASIONS OF SIN. —An occasion is an external circumstance which leads one to commit sin. An occasion, therefore, is not a temptation; but it may become a temptation by causing evil thoughts to arise in the mind and thus inciting concupiscence. However, not every occasion necessarily entails temptation, and many temptations arise without any external incitement whatever. It is important for the confessor to keep this fact in mind, because habitual and occasional sinners must be treated differently.49
49 Cfr. Pighi, De ludicio Sacrapp. 39 sqq., 59 sqq.; E. Be- De Recidivis et Occasionariis, 3rd ed., Faventiae 1882; Aertnys, C.SS.R., Theol. Mor., Vol. II, 7th ed., pp. 192 sqq.; Reuter-Lehmkuhl, S.J., Neo-Confessarius, pp. 274 sqq.
Occasions, like temptations, are an indispensable test of virtue. "Who hath been tried... and made perfect," says Holy Scripture, "he shall have glory everlasting: he that could have transgressed and could do evil things, and hath not done them." 50 i. All men are in duty bound to avoid, or, if they cannot avoid, to overcome or resist the occasions of sin.51 To determine this duty more definitely, the Scholastics have evolved the following distinctions:
50 Ecclus. XXXI, 10; cfr. 1 Cor. V, 10.
51 Ecclus. III, 27; XXXI, 10; Matth. V, 29-30; Mark IX, 41-46.
a) PROXIMATE AND REMOTE OCCASIONS. —An occasion is proximate (occasio proximo) if it leads a person to commit sin oftener than not. It is remote (occasio remota) if it leads to the commission of sin only once in a while.
A proximate occasion of sin may be either absolute or relative. It is absolute or proximate in itself (occasio absolute sive per se proximo) if it constitutes a danger for every man and in all circumstances. It is relative (occasio per accidens sive relative proximo) if the danger it involves differs according to individual character or disposition. Relatively proximate occasions are, e. g., strong drink, the theatre, a certain class of books, plays, etc.
b) VOLUNTARY AND NECESSARY OCCASIONS. — An occasion is voluntary (occasio voluntaria) if sought or wilfully persisted in after one has gotten into it involuntarily. A necessary occasion (occasio necessaria) is one that can be avoided only by the use of extraordinary diligence or not at all. In the latter case it is called physically necessary (occasio physice necessaria). Such temptations may grow out of the mutual intercourse of parents and children, married persons, soldiers, prisoners, etc. If it is more difficult to avoid an occasion than to keep from sinning by the use of proper precautions, an occasion is called morally necessary (occasio moraliter necessaria). Occasions of this kind cannot, as a rule, be avoided without great inconvenience or injury. They invariably involve a grave conflict of duties.52 On the one side there is the duty of avoiding the proximate occasion of sin; on the other are such unavoidable professional obligations as, e. g., hearing confession, practicing medicine, etc.
52 See Vol. I, pp. 211 sqq.
Hence the further distinction between occasio quae est in esse and occasio quae non est in esse. Occasions of the former class entail immediate danger of sin, whereas those of the latter leave an opportunity of escaping the danger. As an example of the former kind we may mention a woman being an inmate of a brothel.53
53 Cfr. St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps., 50, n. 3: “Mulier longe, libido prope. Alibi erat quod [David] videret, in illo unde caderet." (P. L., XXXVI, 587)-
- PRACTICAL HINTS. —As a general rule it is forbidden to seek an occasion of sin, even though it be only remote, for "He that loveth danger shall perish in it." 54 On the other hand no man is bound to avoid all remote occasions, for this is impossible.55 But every man is strictly bound: a) To avoid all proximate and voluntary occasions of (grievous) sin, and also those morally necessary occasions that entail immediate danger (occasiones in esse).56°° It is a mortal sin to expose oneself voluntarily and without necessity to the danger of committing a mortal sin or to remain inactive towards such danger in a case of necessity, even though the sin be not committed, for to remain voluntarily in the proximate occasion of sin is deliberately to choose evil. Innocent XI condemned the proposition that it is licit to absolve a man who remains in the proximate occasion of mortal sin, though able to get away from it.57 b) If a man finds himself in a morally neces- sary proximate occasion of sin, which does not involve immediate danger (quae non est in esse), he is in duty bound to convert the same into a remote occasion by fervent prayer, devout reception of the Sacraments, frequent renewal of the firm purpose of not consenting to sin, and especially by avoiding the company of those with whom he has sinned before or of whom he has reason to apprehend that they will tempt him. Should these means prove ineffective, all other considerations must be set aside and the occasion strictly shunned, even at the risk of life. c) A physically necessary occasion which cannot be gotten away from, must be neutralized by the use of extreme caution and other available means. If a man is a proximate occasion of sin to himself, he should mortify his body and try to the best of his power to control his passions. "I chastise my body/' says St. Paul, "and bring it into subjection, lest perhaps, when I have preached to others, I myself should become a castaway."58 A warning example to all is Peter' s denial of Christ.59
54 Ecclus. III, 27.
55 Cfr. 1 Cor. V, 9-10; John XVII, 15.
56 Cfr. Prov. VI, 27-28; XVIII, 6-10; Matth, V, 29-30; Mark IX, 41-46.
57 Prop. Dainnat. sub Innocentio XI, n. 61: "One who remains in a proximate occasion of sin which he can but does not wish to abandon may sometimes be absolved, even though he directly and deliberately seeks it or thrusts himself into it." No. 62: "A proximate occasion of sin need not be fled when some useful or honorable reason for not fleeing it occurs." No. 63: "It is lawful directly to seek a proximate occasion of sin for our own or our neighbor’s spiritual or temporal good." (Denzinger-Bannwart, Enchiridion, n. 1078-1080).
58 1 Cor. IX, 27.
59 Matth. XXVI, 69 sqq.
READINGS. —F. Hense, Die Versuchungen und ihre Gegenmittel, 3rd ed., Freiburg 1902. —Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. II, pp. 220 sq. —St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 1a, qu. 114, art. 1-5. —Th. H. Simar, Die Theologie des hl. Paulus, 2nd ed., pp. 67 sqq. —M. Hagen, S J., Der Teufel im Lichte der Glaubensquellen, Freiburg 1899.—W. H. Kent, art. "Devil" in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, pp. 766 sq.—J. J. Ming, S.J., art. "Concupiscence," ibid., Vol. IV, p. 208. —J. F. Delany, art. "Temptation," ibid., Vol. XIV, p. 504. —IDEM, art. "Occasions of Sin," ibid., Vol. XI, pp. 196 sq. —A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol. Mor. et Past., Vol. II, pp. 248 sqq. —H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. I, 11th ed., pp. 322 sqq., 360 sqq. —A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. II, 11th ed., pp. 358 sqq., 364 sqq. —Sabetti-Barrett, S. J., Comp. Theol. Mor., 22nd ed., pp. 751 sq. —A. Konings, CSS.R., Theol. Mor., 2nd ed., New York, 1876, Vol. II, pp. 161 sqq. —St. Francis de Sales, Introduction a la Vie Devote, Part II, Ch. 18, Part IV, Ch. 3-6.—A. Vermeersch, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. I, pp. 403 sqq.—F. Ter Haar, CSS.R., De Occasionariis et Recidivis, Turin 1927.