Chapter II — Various cases are here examined, in which it is determined whether superstition, properly speaking, is present

I. In resolving all the cases we are about to discuss, this must always be kept before our eyes: that superstition occurs in some action whenever a cause is employed to produce an effect which it can, by no means whatsoever — neither by its own power nor by divine institution — actually influence. The connection between the cause and the effect must therefore be examined; and where none appears, but the two are altogether unrelated, there the crime of superstition creeps in. For the sake of clarity, I will append a few examples to confirm this teaching.

II. Guilty of superstition are those who ring a bell at a pregnant woman's waist, so that her delivery may go well — since no connection at all exists between this cause and that effect. Superstitious too is the casting of some Saint's image into a river, or hanging it upon the riverbank, to obtain rain, for the reason already given. There would, however, be no superstition if a sacred object were cast into a river or into fire in the hope that God, through that Saint's intercession, might be moved to extinguish the fire, or to keep a swollen river within its banks. Superstitious, likewise, are the prayers by which witches bless rosaries for women in labor. It is likewise superstition to recite certain fixed verses of some psalm to stop dogs from barking, to check a flow of blood, or to cure some other ailment, with a vain confidence in an infallible outcome — unless one recites them devoutly, imploring divine aid. Superstitious equally are the words that are customarily whispered into horses' ears to expel intestinal pains.

III. Those who fast on bread and water on the feast of St. Stephen the Protomartyr, with the fixed conviction that, even if struck by grave illness that year, they will not die — do not sin, provided they do not place excessive trust in such prayers, but rather also offer prayers to God to be delivered from a sudden death; in this they commit no fault at all, but rather render worship to God and perform a good work.

IV. It is a manifest superstition to observe certain days, months, or seasons as fortunate or unfortunate, as the Apostle says (Gal. 4): "You observe days, and months, and times, and years. I am afraid of you, lest perhaps I have labored in vain among you." That such observance of days is indeed superstitious is sufficiently clear from experience: for among the Hebrews, Monday is held unlucky, because they believe Cain was born on that day; among the Athenians, Tuesday is unlucky; among the Medes, Wednesday; among the Phrygians, Thursday; among the Trojans, Friday; among the Persians, Saturday — while each of these very days is held lucky among other nations. The same days, then, are both lucky and unlucky. All days are of the same nature, and it is by our own idleness or industry that they turn out well or ill for us. What of those who observe the feast-days of the Conversion of St. Paul, of St. Urban, and of St. Vincent, to divine the outcome of the coming year? All this is expressed in the well-known verses: "A clear day of Paul betokens a good season of the year; if there be snow or rain, it points to a dear season; if there be winds, they portend war among the people; if there be mists, the flocks will perish." The more common opinion teaches that no superstition is contained in these verses, and that those who observe them are not superstitious — provided they do not presume to draw any certain conclusion from such observance. For these are but idle popular observations, deserving no attention at all, but rather to be wholly disregarded. For what has the feast of Paul, or of Urban, to do with the other days of the year? Yet such conjunctions of the stars can indeed occur at these times, making the sky cloudy or clear.

V. The observance of the days called "critical" involves no superstition, since it rests on natural causes. Physicians call "critical" those days on which they are accustomed to form a judgment about the nature of a disease — namely, the fifth, seventh, and eleventh. If a fever worsens on these days, they predict death; if it abates, recovery. It would, however, be superstitious if these days were observed for the purpose of obtaining an inheritance.

VI. The observation of the days of the moon, for the preservation of natural things, is entirely free of superstition — contrary to what certain modern philosophers contend. Nor indeed is it vain, since experience confirms that timber cut on a certain phase of the moon is more quickly eaten away, while that cut on another day remains sound. Many other effects could be recorded, were they not all so well attested. These same philosophers admit these effects, but attribute them to other causes. I recall once reading in a certain pamphlet that plague is in no way contracted by contact, and that it is a vain precaution to separate the healthy from those infected with the plague; I judged that this author deserved nothing but to be placed among plague-victims himself, so that he might confirm, at the risk of his own body, the doctrine he had spread to the ruin of others. A similar refutation is deserved by those who deny that the moon has any influence at all upon things here below.

VII. Likewise lawful is the observance of the dog-days for the reduction of blood [by bleeding], and of the climacteric years — since the human body undergoes a particular change at these times, as physicians maintain. The observance of these years is therefore not superstitious, since it rests on natural causes. The "climacteric years" are certain sets of seven years, during which — as some hold — the body may perhaps undergo some vain and empty change. This much, in my own opinion, may be true.

VIII. It is superstitious to gather herbs on the feast of St. John the Baptist, if this is done out of the conviction that the herbs will have greater power and efficacy for being gathered on that day. If, however, it is merely believed that herbs gathered at that time of year have a stronger effect, without ascribing this to the sanctity of the day, there will be no superstition. It is more advisable, however, for a preacher to caution the common people against such credulity. The same must be said of dew gathered on that same feast of St. John the Baptist. It is likewise a superstitious delusion for women to believe that eggs laid by a hen on Good Friday possess a particular power to extinguish fire when thrown into it; or that vegetables touched on certain days with a broom, or spun on a Saturday, are preserved from worms. It likewise smacks of superstition to refuse to cut one's nails on a Friday, or to cut down a tree on the feast of St. John the Baptist; or to make a ring from coins offered to a Crucifix on Good Friday, so that a child afflicted with a wasting disease of the limbs might pass through it three times to regain health.

IX. Those invited to a banquet who refuse to sit down at table if there are thirteen at the gathering, fearing that one of the company will die that year, are guilty of superstition — since this odd number can in no way have any bearing on death. What, then? Are we to condemn such observers of vain omens for mortal fault? If they acted from some vain fear, led on by popular rumor, without any firm conviction that the event would actually occur, then ignorance would excuse them from grave fault — especially if the diners are simple, uneducated people. But if they were persons of standing, under a particular obligation to root out such vain observances, I would scarcely excuse them from the offense.

X. Guilty of superstition are those who treat with medicines the very sword by which someone was wounded, so that the wounded man may recover his health; likewise those who use a thread hung from the fingers, from which a ring is suspended within a glass vessel or jar, to strike and count the hours; and those who firmly believe that some evil is impending for them because they hear birds chattering, wolves howling, or oxen lowing. There is, however, no superstition — or at least none that is grave — if someone, moved by popular rumor and only a slight fear, took precautions against such events, without any firm conviction, but merely indulging a certain innate tendency to nervousness.

XI. Superstitious are certain fixed prayers which some are accustomed to offer with the express purpose, and firm conviction, that the Blessed Virgin will appear to them at the moment of death — both because such a request is a rash presumption, and because a demon is capable of transforming himself into an Angel of light, and, under the appearance of Christ the Lord or his Mother, of deceiving them. Those who charm cattle by the utterance of certain fixed words, to protect them from wolves, likewise commit a manifest superstition — since such an outcome cannot occur except through the art of a demon.