Prayer

138. Notion. Prayer taken in a broader sense is an elevation of the mind to God; but taken in the stricter sense it is a petition of fitting things from God. This petition before God can be made either by mind alone or also by voice.

a. A twofold act concurs in prayer: one of the will, namely desire, by which we desire that some good be conferred by God or some evil averted; the other of the intellect, which is petition, or the manifestation of this desire, by which we endeavor to induce God to furnish what we desire.

b. Fitting things are called goods which can be desired honorably and fittingly: spiritual goods indeed absolutely, but temporal goods under at least the implicit condition that they contribute to the salvation of the soul.

c. Prayer is an act of religion: for by the very fact that we ask goods from God, we acknowledge the power and goodness of God and profess that we depend on God and need Him as the first author of our goods, which is the duty of religion.

¹ Fr. Schmid, Die Wirksamkeit des Bittgebetes, Brixen: Pressverein, 1895; Ch. Pesch, Praelectiones dogmaticae, 3rd ed., Freiburg: Herder, 1899, IX, nn. 312-365; St. Alphonsus de Liguori, Del gran mezzo della preghiera.

139. Whether attention of mind is required for the essence of prayer. The question is referred to vocal prayer, namely whether vocal prayer performed with distraction of mind is essentially prayer. Internal attention is not required for the essence of prayer; wherefore wandering of mind during the course of prayer does not prevent prayer from being, as to substance, true prayer, provided it is begun with attention of mind and this attention virtually endures during the time of prayer.

a. With respect to prayer, a twofold attention is distinguished: external and internal. Attention excludes distraction; therefore external attention excludes external distraction. But external distraction consists in external actions which so occupy the mind that they entirely impede internal attention, such as conversation, the reading of some book, etc. Internal attention is the exclusion of internal distraction; internal distraction is a wandering of the mind to other things not pertaining to prayer. Therefore internal attention consists in application of the mind to prayer.

Internal attention is distinguished as threefold: material, by which attention is paid to the words of the prayer, so that they may be uttered entire and in their order; literal, by which attention is paid to the meaning of the words; spiritual, by which attention is paid either to God, who is worshiped by prayer, or to the mystery to be recalled to memory, to which the prayer is ordered, or to the good which is asked from God through prayer.

b. For the essence of prayer a twofold condition is required: a. intention, and indeed in order that prayer be formally true prayer, or a special act of divine worship, it is required and sufficient that it be begun with the intention of praying to God, and that this intention virtually endure through the course of the prayer. Without this intention the prayer would not be true prayer; but from this intention virtually enduring the prayer has it that it is formally true prayer and an act of divine worship. b. Attention to the act of prayer had at the beginning and virtually enduring is required, because without this attention prayer would not be a human act: for the one praying must know that he is praying. But just as the intention of praying, so also attention is judged to endure as long as no external action is placed which impedes the internal attention of mind and the intention of praying. Therefore for the essence of prayer there is indeed required internal attention of mind to the act of praying elicited at the beginning of the prayer; nevertheless through the course of the prayer formal internal attention is not required for the substance of prayer. From these things it is inferred that practically nothing else is required for validly reciting a prayer than that the one praying have at the beginning of the prayer the will of praying and that through the course of the prayer he avoid external distraction.¹

c. Therefore external distraction indeed impedes true prayer; but internal distraction does not impede it, because it does not prevent attention and intention from virtually enduring. Now the principal reasons by which Lugo shows that prayer recited with a distracted mind is substantially prayer are these: To pray signifies to speak with God and to manifest one's desires to Him; but one can do this even when plainly distracted. For if someone, wishing to manifest a petition to a king, reads it from writing while meanwhile he is plainly distracted in mind, he is to be said to speak to the king and to ask him. Moreover, all concede that the administration of the sacraments is valid, although the minister, plainly distracted, utters the form of the sacrament; but the form of extreme unction, which is deprecatory, could not in this case be valid if it were not even substantially prayer. Finally, all concede that one validly recites the office who is indeed plainly but involuntarily distracted; but if every distraction impeded the very essence of prayer, not even one involuntarily distracted would satisfy the obligation.

Whether distraction in prayer is a sin. It is clear that involuntary distractions in themselves are no sin; but voluntary distractions, although they do not corrupt the substance of prayer, nevertheless contain some irreverence toward God, however not grave; wherefore they are a venial sin, even if the matter concerns prayers which are not to be recited from precept.

¹ Cf. Lugo, De eucharistia, disp. 22, n. 29 ff.

140. Division of prayer. Prayer taken in a broader sense:

1. By reason of end is: a. adoration, by which we acknowledge before God the supreme excellence of God and our entire subjection; to this prayer of adoration is referred praise of God; b. thanksgiving for benefits received; from the virtue of gratitude man is bound several times in life positively to give thanks to God for goods obtained; c. petition, which is prayer strictly taken.

It is manifest that propitiatory prayer, by which remission of sins and punishments is asked, and likewise prayer of intercession, by which goods are asked for others, pertain to prayer of petition taken generally; wherefore they are not to be distinguished from it as diverse species.

2. By reason of mode, one prayer is mental, which is performed by the mind alone, namely by intellect and will; and the other is oral (vocal), which is performed at the same time by mind and mouth: for what is done by words alone is not prayer.

3. Oral prayer is one kind public, which is made in the name and by the authority of the Church; the other is private, which is made in the name and by the proper authority of the one praying. Therefore two things are required for public prayer: that it be made in the name of the Church and that it be instituted by the authority of the Church, such as the canonical hours, the greater litanies, etc. (n. 136, d).

No one can pray in the name of the Church except a minister of the Church, or a person deputed to this by the Church. Prayers instituted by the authority of the Church are performed according to a determinate form approved and prescribed by the Church. Prayers recited, although instituted and approved by the authority of the Church, are private prayer if they are performed not in the name of the Church, but in the name of the one praying, whether the one praying is an ecclesiastical or secular person.

4. By reason of the one praying, prayer is singular, which is made solitarily by only one person, and common, which is made commonly by several persons together. The Lord commends common prayer in a special way: Where two or three are gathered in My name, there am I in the midst of them.¹

¹ Matt. 18:20.

141. Who are to be prayed to. Although God alone is to be prayed to as the principal author and giver of goods, so that to pray to a saint in this way is true idolatry, nevertheless, as patrons and intercessors before God, these can usefully be invoked:

1. Angels and saints in heaven, which the Council of Trent teaches as of faith.¹

a. Privately, even baptized infants who died before the use of reason can be invoked.

b. Although there is no precept of invoking the intercession of saints, nevertheless he who would never invoke the Blessed Virgin Mary could not be excused from venial sin: for he would be guilty of neglect of salvation if he wholly neglected so efficacious a help.²

2. Saints and just persons existing on earth, which likewise is of faith from Sacred Scripture.³

3. It is very probable that souls detained in purgatory not only intercede for us, but that we also can privately invoke them.

a. Since the Church has defined nothing concerning this matter, there is not one opinion of theologians. Commonly now it is conceded that the souls of purgatory help us by their suffrages: for the communion of saints suggests this, and it is confirmed by the testimony of Sacred Scripture, from which it is established that souls detained in limbo prayed for the people.⁴ Nevertheless the older authors with St. Thomas deny this, because the souls of purgatory are in a state of punishment;⁵ but more recent authors, especially Bellarmine and Suarez, depart from them. And indeed, the state of punishment does bring it about that the souls do not pray for us as the saints in glory do, as if from their proper office; but it does not prevent them from being able to intercede for us, since they are in the state of grace and divine friendship.

b. Those who deny that we can usefully direct our prayers to the souls of purgatory contend that they do not know our needs and our prayers. But although the contrary cannot be demonstrated by certain arguments, nevertheless it is piously believed that God, either by Himself or through guardian angels, manifests our needs and prayers to them. The opinion which holds that we can usefully invoke souls is confirmed by the practice of many of the faithful.

¹ Sess. 25, De invocatione sanctorum.

² Cf. Council of Trent, sess. 25, De invocatione sanctorum.

³ Rom. 15:30; James 5:16.

⁴ Jer. 15:1; 2 Macc. 15:12 ff.

⁵ Summa, II-II, q. 83, a. 11, ad 3.

142. For whom one must pray. We can and must pray for all who can be helped by prayer and whom we are commanded to love from the precept of charity. Therefore one can and ought to pray:

a. Each one for himself, as is clear from the nature of the thing;

b. For his neighbor, even for a sinner and an enemy,¹ so that from prayers poured out for all, such as, for example, the Lord's Prayer, it is not licit without sin to exclude anyone positively. Yet we are not bound to pray for a determinate person unless he is constituted in grave or gravest necessity and a special relation of office or necessity intervenes with that person.

c. For the souls detained in purgatory, both for all in common and especially for those who are joined to us by a special bond, as parents and benefactors; for since their necessity is truly grave and since we can easily succor them in various ways, piety and gratitude suggest that we help them by prayer. Yet a strict obligation of praying for parents and other connected persons cannot be established, because it is not certainly established that they need our intercession.

¹ 1 Tim. 2:1-3; James 5:16; Matt. 5:44.

143. What must be prayed for. What goods we can ask from God is gathered first from the Lord's Prayer handed down to us by Christ, then from the prayers which the Church directs to God for her faithful. Therefore we can ask:

1. Supernatural goods, namely eternal beatitude and the means necessary for it; and these indeed absolutely, because by their nature they are necessary or useful for salvation and no one can abuse them for sin.

But it is not licit to ask them contrary to or beyond the order of divine providence, for example beatitude without good works, remission of sins without penance, grace greater than the highest saints have; but within the order of divine providence supernatural goods can be asked without limitation. Graces gratuitously given are not to be asked, except in the case of special necessity.

2. Natural goods, whether spiritual (sciences, arts) or bodily (health, riches, honors, dignities), can indeed be asked, but only under the at least implicit condition that God has foreseen that they will be profitable to us for salvation: for these are not of themselves useful for salvation, and therefore we can abuse them.

3. That God avert evils from us, both moral evils (sins, temptations) and physical evils (diseases, pains, want, misfortunes), unless it is useful for our salvation that we bear temptations and certain physical evils.

It is not to be asked that God entirely extinguish concupiscence in us, because this is contrary to ordinary divine providence; nor is it to be asked that we be able to avoid all or even the lightest sins, because this is a special privilege; but privileges are not to be asked. With regard to light sins, we can ask that we diminish them more and more or avoid determinate ones.

4. To ask from God a morally evil thing (evil of fault) is always a grave sin, even if the thing which is asked is in itself only lightly evil: for to ask from God help for an evil thing and thus to make Him the author of evil, even light evil, is grave irreverence toward God, because it is directly opposed to His infinite sanctity.

It is not licit to ask an indifferent thing without further relation to an honorable end, for example profit from a game without relation to another end, because it is not the petition of a true and fitting good. Yet because a petition of this kind is not directly opposed to some divine attribute, it is not a mortal sin.

144. Efficacy of prayer. Prayer made with the due conditions, from the liberal promise of God, has infallible efficacy of obtaining those things which are asked, whether he who prays is just or a sinner; and from the clear sayings of Sacred Scripture this seems to be certain of faith to theologians.

a. Insofar as prayer is a good work, with the suppositions to be supposed, there belongs to it the threefold effect common to all good works, namely meritorious of sanctifying grace, satisfactory for temporal punishments, and impetratory of actual graces. Insofar as prayer is a petition by which we implore God, powerful and merciful, that He succor our need, it has a special impetratory power of obtaining those things which are asked from God. Now here the discussion is of this special force and virtue of prayer for obtaining. But the conditions which are required for prayer infallibly to obtain that which it asks are commonly numbered as four, as will be said below.

Prayer deprived of the due conditions nevertheless is not wholly without every effect: for although it does not obtain infallibly from the promise of God, nevertheless from His kindness it will obtain at least the spirit of more fervent prayer.

b. Although it befits God, supremely powerful and kind, that He succor him who humbly implores His help, nevertheless prayer has infallible efficacy from the promise of God, whose promise cannot deceive. God in fact promised infallible efficacy to prayer made with the due conditions: Amen, amen I say to you, if you ask the Father anything in My name, He will give it to you.¹ Ask, and it shall be given to you; seek, and you shall find; knock, and it shall be opened to you, etc.²

Note. Since every prayer or petition intends to move God so that by His special intervention He may effect that which is asked, it can now be asked how God produces the effects of prayer, namely whether through natural causes or through supernatural causes.

a. If the effect of prayer is a good of the supernatural order, namely actual grace, God Himself produces it immediately, without the intervention of a natural cause.

b. If the effect of prayer is a good of the natural order, it can be produced by God in a diverse way:

a. Either God Himself produces the effect without the intervention of natural causes (at least acting in a natural way). In this case God, because of prayer, works a miracle, either according to substance or at least according to mode.

b. Or God, because of the foreseen prayer, from eternity so disposes and directs natural causes that the effect follows necessarily in time.

c. Or God foresees that the effect is going to follow from natural causes according to the present order without special intervention. In this case God by His intervention only prevents the effect from being frustrated through the influence of a free cause (of a demon or of man).³

Therefore the effects of prayers are sometimes miracles, which are produced by God Himself without the concurrence of natural causes; but more frequently they arise from natural causes, yet not without the special intervention of God. From these things the difference is clear between miracles and what are called hearings of prayers (Gebetserhorungen). For if hearing of prayers is taken generically for any effect which God produces because of prayer, even miracles are numbered among hearings of prayers; but if the term is taken specifically, hearing of prayers is opposed to miracle and signifies an effect which God produces because of prayer through secondary causes.

¹ John 16:23. Cf. 14:13-14.

² Matt. 7:7 ff. Cf. Luke 11:10; James 4:3; Ps. 49:15.

³ Cf. Suarez, De oratione, bk. 1, c. 18; Pesch, IX, n. 331 ff.

145. The conditions which are required in order that prayer have an infallible effect are comprehended in this brief formula: that prayer be made in the name of Jesus: whatever you ask the Father in My name, this I will do.¹ To pray in the name of Jesus signifies to pray in union with Jesus; but for prayer to be made in union with Jesus, four conditions are required, of which one is referred to the object, two to the mode, and the fourth to the subject of prayer.

a. The object of prayer ought to be useful for promoting the end intended by Christ, namely our salvation.²

If supernatural goods are asked, prayer has an infallible effect, although sometimes the very goods which are asked are not granted, but in place of them others which contribute more to our salvation. If natural goods are asked, prayer does not have an infallible effect, because those goods can be an impediment of virtue and an occasion of sinning for us; but if God foresees this, He does not grant them, although they are asked earnestly and constantly.

b. As to mode, prayer first ought to be made with confidence, without hesitation and distrust: therefore let us approach with confidence to the throne of grace.³ The divine promises especially demand this condition: for we pray in the name of Jesus if we pray with confidence in His merits.

This confidence proceeds from theological faith and hope: for first we must believe that God can and wills to succor men; then, because God has so often promised that He will hear prayers, we ought without doubt to trust that God will give what we ask, provided that it contributes to our salvation. This confidence, necessary for efficacious prayer, refers to prayer in general; a particular prayer by which a determinate good is asked can be joined with doubt whether God will grant it, both because there can be defect in the prayer, and because it is not evident to the one praying that what is asked is truly good. This doubt indeed does not impede, but diminishes the efficacy of prayer. Hence if someone by the grace of the Holy Spirit can pray with great confidence, he has a sign of future obtaining.⁴

Then it ought to be made with perseverance.⁵ Those goods indeed which are necessary here and now, such as helps for overcoming temptation, God grants immediately; but other goods He does not always bestow immediately. For certain goods, by a positive disposition of God, are not granted except after constant prayer, as the gift of perseverance; but other goods, both natural and supernatural, God does not confer except after some time, so that meanwhile through prayer we may dispose ourselves better for receiving them.

c. The subject of prayer ought to be in the state of grace: for he prays most in union with Jesus who prays in the state of grace. Not that the prayer of a sinner, if the remaining conditions are not lacking, is not heard, but that the state of grace contributes much to increasing the efficacy of prayer.⁶

The prayer of sinners is not only efficacious for obtaining, which is established from Sacred Scripture, where sinners are read to have been heard;⁷ but also for infallibly obtaining, because the efficacy of prayer is not founded on the dignity of the one praying, but on the mercy and promise of God.⁸ But if in Sacred Scripture it is said that God does not hear the prayers of sinners,⁹ this signifies that the prayers of sinners are less efficacious, or even inefficacious if namely sinners ask badly. From these things it is clear that great care must be taken not to deter sinners, as if their good works and prayers were useless before God.

Whether prayer made for others is of infallible efficacy. There are those who for the infallible efficacy of prayer require this condition also, that prayer be made for oneself. St. Augustine¹⁰ and St. Thomas¹¹ seem to require this; but others with Suarez¹² teach that of itself even prayer made for others has infallible efficacy, because the divine promise, wholly general, contains no limitation: Whatever you ask. Yet this difference intervenes between prayer made for oneself and for others: that he who in the due manner asks for himself things useful for salvation by that very fact acquires the disposition necessary for receiving graces; but by the fact that someone prays for another, this other does not acquire the necessary disposition; on the contrary, he can obstinately resist the graces which are asked, on account of which obstinacy prayer made for others can lack effect.

¹ John 14:13.

² John 16:23-24.

³ Heb. 4:16.

⁴ Suarez, De oratione, bk. 1, c. 21, n. 9.

⁵ Cf. Luke, c. 11.

⁶ John 14:13; 15:7, 16; 16:23.

⁷ Luke 18:14; 23:43.

⁸ Cf. St. Thomas, II-II, q. 83, a. 16; Suarez, De oratione, bk. 1, c. 25.

⁹ John 9:31; Ps. 65:18.

¹⁰ In Joannem, tr. 102, n. 1.

¹¹ Summa, II-II, q. 83, a. 7, ad 2.

¹² De oratione, bk. 1, c. 27.

146. Necessity of prayer. An adult man is bound to pray (with impetratory prayer), not only by necessity of divine precept, but also by necessity of means.

a. Concerning the necessity of divine precept no one doubts: for so many explicit testimonies of Sacred Scripture by which prayer is inculcated cannot be understood of counsel alone: Ask and it shall be given to you;¹ Be instant in prayer;² It is necessary always to pray and not to faint.³ The internal reason of this precept is: a. the obligation of exhibiting worship to God, which is exhibited by every kind of prayer; b. one's own indigence.

Prayer of petition prescribed need not be vocal: for we have no divine precept of vocal prayer. Nor do the words of Christ the Lord, Thus therefore shall you pray,⁴ contain a precept imposed upon individual faithful of using that formula of praying which He Himself taught.

b. Concerning the necessity of means, the question is whether adult man is bound to ask for himself the helps necessary for salvation. Most theologians say the affirmative opinion must be held not only as certain, but scarcely not as of faith. The reason is this: that must be called necessary by necessity of means without which ordinarily salvation cannot be obtained; but without prayer, according to the ordinary mode of providence, salvation cannot be obtained. For it is certain of faith that the grace of God is necessary for salvation; but according to the ordinary mode of providence, God does not confer efficacious helps of grace except on those asking: Ask and you shall receive,⁵ that is, according to the interpretation of the holy Fathers: if you do not ask, you do not receive.

¹ Matt. 6:9.

² Col. 4:2.

³ Luke 18:1. Cf. Luke 11:9; Matt. 26:41; 1 Pet. 4:7; 1 Thess. 5:17.

⁴ Matt. 6:9.

⁵ John 16:24.

147. When the precept of praying obliges. 1. When man is bound to pray of himself cannot be accurately determined; without doubt he is bound to pray frequently. Yet he who fulfills the obligation of praying arising from his own indigence also fulfills the obligation arising from the precept of worshiping God.

a. There are those who say that we are bound to pray every week; there are those who with St. Alphonsus say every month; there are those who say that to have prayed once a year is sufficient. But neither the weekly nor the monthly obligation is certainly established. The same must be said concerning the opinion of those who teach that there exists an obligation of praying at the moral beginning of the use of reason. Besides, since the faithful are bound on every Sunday to assist at the sacrifice of the Mass, those who rightly fulfill this precept also satisfy the precept of praying.

b. Therefore he who through a long time (through years) neglects every prayer sins in a twofold way, both because of neglected divine worship and because of neglected care of salvation. Yet in confession it is sufficient to indicate the time during which he omitted prayer, and the other sins which he committed because of neglected prayer.

2. But accidentally we are bound to pray as often as without prayer we cannot fulfill another precept or overcome temptation.

Note. From these things it now follows: a. that the precept of praying is satisfied even by merely internal prayer: for this precept refers to private prayer, and to it insofar as it is petition of divine help; b. that for those who are not constituted in sacred orders, there are no certain and determinate prayers which must be recited from precept; c. that neither of itself nor accidentally are we bound to pray morning and evening, before and after table. Therefore the omission of those prayers of itself is no sin, not even venial. Yet pastors and confessors ought earnestly and frequently to commend this pious exercise to the faithful: for if they neglect morning and evening prayers, it will soon happen that they rarely pray, and thus are deprived of the special help of God, and in dangers of sinning which occur daily fall into sins.

PRAYER sometimes means any pious affection by which the mind and heart are raised to God. More strictly, it is the petitioning of God for what we stand in need of, and this is called the prayer of petition to distinguish it from the more general signification of the term.

Mental prayer is made with the internal faculties of the soul, while vocal prayer is made with the lips also.

Public prayer is offered in the name of the Church by authorized ministers in forms approved by the Church; all other is private prayer. Public worship is subject to the authority of the Church, which has regulated it by a large body of laws and decrees. Unauthorized forms of prayer may not be used in public worship, and it has been prescribed that only the litanies which are found in the Breviary and in the more recent editions of the Ritual, or such as have been specially approved by the Holy See, may be used in public. Moreover, no litanies may be published even for private use without the approbation of the Ordinary (Can. 1259).

For adults, prayer is a necessary means of obtaining salvation; for there are certain graces necessary for salvation, such as final perseverance, which God only grants in answer to prayer, as St Augustine teaches.¹1 Prayer is also of precept: “We ought always to pray and not to faint.² This precept is grave of itself, and for its fulfilment requires that we should pray frequently. Beyond saying this, it is difficult to determine precisely what neglect of prayer is required for a mortal or a venial sin, It would seem certain, however, that grave sin would be committed by altogether neglecting prayer for a whole year. The faithful rightly accuse themselves in confession when they have omitted morning or night prayers, for those times are the most suitable for fulfilling this duty, and if no prayers are said then, they will hardly be said at other times; moreover, the omission will usually be due to sloth or carelessness about spiritual things,

¹ De bono persev., c. 16.

² Luke xviii 1.

Our Lord promised that prayer when rightly made would be heard by God: “‘ I say to you, Ask and it shall be given you: seek and you shall find; knock and it shall be opened to you.¹ We learn from his teaching and from the nature of prayer what qualities it must have in order to be acceptable to God and heard by him. The object prayed for must be necessary, or at any rate useful for salvation. Not only spiritual blessings are proper objects of prayer but temporal blessings as well, as far as they conduce to the welfare of the soul. Prayer must be persevering: God has promised to hear prayer, but he has not promised to hear it at once. The time must be left to his wisdom and providence with due conformity to his holy will. Prayer must come from a humble heart, in which faith, hope, and charity dwell, in order to merit the promises of God. Moreover, God will not do violence to man’s free will, and so if prayer is offered for someone else, its effect to some extent depends on that person’s dispositions and free will. He may, if he pleases, put obstacles in the way, which will prevent the prayer from obtaining the precise effect wished for in his regard. ‘Theologians conclude that prayer must be made for one’s self in order to be infallibly heard by God.

¹ Luke xi 9.

We are obliged by precept only to pray to God, unless we admit with the common opinion that anyone who should never pray to the blessed Virgin Mary would sin venially by neglecting so powerful a means of salvation. We may, however, lawfully and with fruit pray to the angels and saints, more probably to the holy souls detained in purgatory, and in private to anyone whom with reasonable certainty we believe to be with God in heaven, that they may intercede with him for us.

We should pray for all men whom it will benefit without excluding anyone in our private prayers. It is useless praying for the damned, and the Church forbids her ministers to pray publicly for those who are excommunicated,

WHAT pertains to the obligation of hearing Mass and abstaining from servile work on Sundays and holy days of obligation has been already explained under the Third Commandment of the Decalogue. It only remains to add a few observations to what was there laid down.

Before Urban VIII issued his Bull Universa, September 13, 1642, various feasts were kept as of obligation in different countries. ‘For the purpose of introducing greater uniformity, Urban VIII drew up a list of feasts which were everywhere to be observed and besides which no others might be observed without the sanction of the Pope. Besides all the Sundays of the year, the list contained the following feasts: Christmas Day, the Circumcision, Epiphany, Resurrection and two following days, the Ascension, Whit Sunday and two following days, the Holy Trinity, Corpus Christi, Finding of the Cross, the Purification, Annunciation, Assumption, and Nativity of the Blessed Virgin; the Dedication of St Michael, the Nativity of St John the Baptist, SS Peter and Paul, St Andrew, St James, St John, St Thomas, SS Philip and James, St Bartholomew, St Matthew, SS Simon and Jude, St Matthias; St Stephen, St Sylvester, St Joseph, St Anne, the feast of All Saints, and one of the principal patrons in each kingdom or province, and another principal patron in each city, town, or village, where such are venerated.

In most countries the number of these feasts has been greatly reduced, and in England they have been reduced to eight by decrees of the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda dated March 9, 1777, and May 17, 1830. ‘Those eight are: Christmas Day, the Circumcision or New Year’s Day, the Epiphany, the Ascension of our Lord, Corpus Christi, SS Peter and Paul, the Assumption of our Lady, and All Saints. The suppressed feasts are still observed as days of devotion.

As in England we had no patrons such as those whose feast was to be observed according to the Bull of Urban VIII, by . a decree dated May 24, 1863, Pius IX granted permission for the name of St George to be inserted in the prayer A Cunctis at Mass, and for a commemoration of St George to be made in place of that of the patron among the suffrages of the saints in the Office. By a decree S.R.C. (December 2, 1891 [n. 3758]), regulars may add the name of their saintly founder as well. In Ireland the feast of St Patrick is celebrated as the feast of the patron and as a day of obligation in addition to those observed in England. in the United States the following are the holy days of obligation: Christmas Day, the Circumcision, the Ascension, the Assumption, the Immaculate Conception of our Lady, and All Saints.

Canon 1247 is as follows: “‘ The festival days of obligation in the Church universal are these only: Each and all Sundays, the feasts of the Nativity, Circumcision, Epiphany, Ascension, and Corpus Christi, of the Immaculate Conception and Assumption of Blessed Mary Mother of God, of St Joseph. her Spouse, of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and finally of All Saints.”

The feasts of the Immaculate Conception and of St Joseph have not so far been introduced in England.

III. Acts of Religion. The acts of religion are distinguished into internal and external acts. The internal acts are devotion and prayer. External acts are those by which we worship God either through one's own body, and this is adoration; or by offering to God some external thing, and these are sacrifice, oblation, and vow; or by assuming something pertaining to God, namely either the Sacraments or the name of God, which can be assumed either by invocation, or by oath, or by adjuration (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 84, Preface). Concerning each of these, discussion will be had in Book II.

Prayer can be defined with St. John Chrysostom: a conversation with God. Prayer is distinguished into meditative prayer, or meditation, and deprecative prayer. We shall speak of each separately.

Meditative prayer is when someone piously thinks about divine things. It is divided into speculative meditation, or simple meditation, and affective meditation, according as either the consideration of the mind or the affection of the will prevails.

Meditative prayer is called contemplation when man meditates on divine things by a simple intuition of truth and without discourse. Contemplation is called passive when the soul, aided by grace, in contemplating behaves passively, that is, when God himself infuses into the soul the species to be formed, which happens chiefly through the gifts of the Holy Spirit. In this passive contemplation properly seems to consist the mystical union of the soul with God (cf. St. Alphonsus, Prax. Conf., n. 126 sq.).

Mystical union admits different degrees, which several reduce to four: simple union, full or perfect union, the union of ecstasy, and the union of marriage. Simple union consists in such a union with God as still admits wanderings of the mind; full union, in such a union as no longer admits wanderings of the mind, although the external senses and the motion of the body are not yet suspended. The union of ecstasy consists in such a union with God as not only does not admit wanderings, but also holds the external senses and the motion of the body suspended. The spiritual or consummated union of marriage consists in such a union with God by which the soul seems, as it were, to have been transformed into God, or in the fact that the soul senses that it has a participation in the acts of the divine nature (cf. St. Alphonsus, loc. cit.).

Authors dispute whether or not the soul, by a long exercise of active contemplation, can arrive at the lower degree of passive contemplation or mystical union; in other words, whether or not mystical contemplation is the normal evolution of the supernatural life.¹

¹ Cf. Garrigou-Lagrange, Perfection chretienne et Contemplation, I, pp. 1-45; Maumigny-Richstaetter, Katholische Mystik, pp. 40-44; Van den Tempel, Wetenschap der Heiligen, chapters 10 and 11; Tanquerey, Precis de Theologie ascetique et mystique, 4th ed., p. 973.

I. Notion. Deprecative prayer is defined by St. Thomas as: a petition of fitting things from God (II-II, q. 83, a. 1; St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., III, pref.). It is said:

1. Petition, that is, the manifestation of our will; and indeed with a trusting desire of obtaining something, so that it is not simply a narration, but truly a motive cause.

2. Of fitting things, that is, of those things which can honestly be sought from God.

3. From God; for deprecation, as an act of the virtue of religion, is directed primarily to God, to be fulfilled by him himself.

II. Division. Deprecative prayer is divided:

1. Into internal and external prayer, according as we do not use, or do use, the external voice. External prayer, however, does not necessarily exclude application of the mind. It is disputed whether or not the sole use of words (with the intention, however, of obtaining something from God having been had and not retracted) suffices for prayer; in other words, whether or not internal attention¹ at least virtually persevering pertains to the essence of prayer. Several affirm, because when internal attention at least virtually persevering is lacking, there is mere battology. Others deny, relying on these reasons. First, it does not appear that a true petition is lacking if someone, though voluntarily distracted, from the intention of obtaining something utters words which have and retain a precatory sense. Then, if internal attention pertained to the essence of prayer, even involuntary distraction would stand in its way.

"They say," says St. Alphonsus, "that he who spontaneously distracts himself actually revokes the first attention and therefore does not satisfy, since he no longer prays; but he who is involuntarily distracted remains virtually attentive, and therefore prays and satisfies. I, however, confess my weakness: I have never been able to understand how attention can virtually remain in one who is distracted, even involuntarily. Indeed I understand well that intention, since it pertains to the will, when once it has been had and is not retracted, virtually perseveres in the effect or in the means undertaken, because these means proceed from that intention. But I do not understand how someone can be said to be virtually attentive to prayer, who has his mind occupied elsewhere. It will rightly be said that this one, involuntarily distracted after the intention of attending has been had and not retracted, wishes to attend; but it cannot be said that he attends when he is wholly wandering elsewhere. For just as it is repugnant to say that someone virtually understands what he reads when he does not actually understand, even if he had had the intention of understanding, so it is repugnant to say that one virtually attends who does not actually attend" (IV, 177). The first opinion seems more probable to St. Alphonsus, at least because of extrinsic authority (loc. cit.). Nevertheless the other is also held by him as sufficiently probable (III, 669).

2. Into private prayer, which is made by a man as a private person, in a private name; and public prayer, which is made by a legitimate minister of the Church, in the name of the Church. Thus a priest, alone in a desert praying the breviary, pours forth public prayers. On the contrary, if the same priest in the Basilica of St. Peter, in the midst of a gathering of men, silently prays the rosary, he pours forth private prayers.

3. Into continued prayer, which is made through more extended delays; and ejaculatory prayer, which we, in a certain way, dart forth very briefly and rapidly. This last prayer, frequently repeated, is very useful: both because often time is lacking for pouring forth continued prayers; and because attention, which is necessary for prayer, is more easily lost through more extended prayer; and because it is a very efficacious means for repelling temptations, and for preserving the intimate union of the soul with God.²

¹ Attention is distinguished as twofold, internal and external. Internal attention consists in the application of the mind to that which is being done. External attention consists in the fact that someone excludes external works with which internal intention cannot be combined. Internal attention is threefold, namely superficial, literal, and spiritual, according as one attends to pronouncing the words well, to the sense of the words, or to other divine things.

² Let St. Augustine, Epist. 130, ch. 10, nn. 19-20, be read (ed. G., t. 2, col. 584).

III. Object. St. Thomas declares: "It is lawful to pray for that which it is lawful to desire" (II-II, q. 83, a. 6); these words agree plainly with the general rule stated in the Roman Catechism: "But whatever can rightly be wished, it is lawful to ask,... as those most abundant promises of the Lord testify: Whatever you wish, you shall ask, and it shall be done for you. For he promises that he will grant all things."¹ Therefore, just as within the order of divine Providence it is absolutely lawful to desire those goods by which we are beatified and by which we merit beatitude, so it is also lawful to ask the same things absolutely. But other goods we can neither lawfully desire nor ask except conditionally, namely insofar as they are helps by which we are aided to tend toward beatitude. Temporal evils, under the aspect of good, for an honorable and proportionate end, both for oneself and for others, can be the conditional object of prayer (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 83, a. 5; St. Alphonsus, De Magno orat. Medio, part I, ch. 3, n. 5 sq.).

¹ Roman Catechism, part IV, ch. IV, q. 1.

IV. Morality. 1. Prayer is an act of religion, and indeed of latria; this is clear from the fact that he who prays professes the power of God and his goodness (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 83, a. 3). If prayer is directed to the Saints, it is an act of hyperdulia if it is referred to the Blessed Virgin Mary, and of dulia if it is referred to other Saints (n. 400).

2. Prayer is necessary by necessity of means and of precept. But here by the name of prayer is understood formal, supernatural, and indeed deprecative prayer, whether mental or vocal. I say: a) formal, so that prayer included in every good work is excluded, insofar as every honorable work has an impetratory force; b) supernatural, because it is a means and work ordered to supernatural salvation; c) deprecative, so that it may be indicated that meditative prayer does not suffice; d) whether mental or vocal, since either one suffices. Therefore:

a) Prayer, as it has just been explained, is necessary by necessity of ordinary means, so that such prayer is the ordinary means by which an adult obtains eternal salvation. This is proved first from Sacred Scripture, which continually urges us to prayer, and indeed to this end, that we may be able to work our salvation;¹ there is added the authority of the holy Fathers and Doctors, who call prayer a necessary means for obtaining grace; and grace is necessary by necessity of means.

St. Augustine: "God wills to give, but only to the one asking."² And elsewhere: "It is established that God has prepared some things to give even to those not praying, as the beginning of faith; other things only to those praying, as perseverance unto the end."³ St. Thomas: "Everyone is bound to prayer from the very fact that he is bound to procure spiritual goods for himself, which are given only divinely; whence they cannot be procured in any other way except by being asked from him" (in IV Sent., d. 15, q. 4, a. 1, ad 3). St. Alphonsus, that strenuous defender of the importance of prayer, writes: "Without me you can do nothing... But that help of grace, according to ordinary Providence, God does not grant except to those praying, according to the celebrated sentence of Gennadius: We believe that no one comes to salvation unless God invites him; that no one invited works out his salvation unless God helps him; that no one merits help except one praying. Therefore, posited on the one hand that we can do nothing without the help of grace, and on the other that that help is for the most part not granted by God except to those praying, who does not see it to follow that prayer is altogether necessary for us unto salvation?" (De Magno orationis Medio, part I, ch. 1, pp. 635-636).

b) The necessity of precept follows from the necessity of means, and is declared countless times in Sacred Scripture.⁴ Besides, note:

a) With respect to the time of fulfilling the precept of prayer, it must be said that it obliges sometimes of itself, sometimes by accident.

It obliges of itself: 1. at the beginning of moral life; 2. more frequently in life; 3. at the point of death, almost as was said about the theological virtues, because almost the same reason can be urged (n. 489).

It obliges by accident: 1. when a temptation presses which can scarcely be overcome otherwise; 2. when a great benefit somehow necessary for salvation (for example, the choice of a state of life) must be obtained from God; 3. when a community is placed in grave danger (St. Alphonsus, III, pref.; Inst. Catech., part 1, ch. 1, n. 32; De Magno or. Medio, part I, ch. 3, § 4, n. 36).

According to St. Alphonsus and others, he sins gravely who neglects prayer for a notable time, say for two months, because it seems grave to omit for so long the most ordinary means of obtaining necessary graces (Inst. Catech., p. 1, ch. 1, § 4). But prayer made when it obliges by accident should also be counted.

Finally there is not of itself an obligation of praying morning and evening; nevertheless that practice is very greatly to be inculcated, all the more because often (by accident, namely) it will not be omitted without venial sin. These things also hold concerning prayers before and after the more principal meals.

b) With respect to the persons to be invoked, first note that the doctrine which teaches that the invocation of the Saints is good and useful is proximate to faith from the Council of Trent.⁵ But there is also an obligation of invoking them according to these words of St. Thomas:

"An order has been divinely instituted in things, according to Dionysius, so that through intermediates the lowest things may be led back to God. Whence, since the saints who are in the homeland are nearest to God, the order of divine law requires this: that we who, remaining in the body, are pilgrims from the Lord, be led back into him through the saints as intermediates. And this indeed happens when through them the divine Goodness diffuses its effect. And because our return into God ought to correspond to the procession of his good things to us, just as through the mediation of the suffrages of the saints the benefits of God come down upon us, so it is fitting that we be led back into God in order that we may again receive his benefits through the mediation of the saints; and thence it is that we establish them as intercessors for us with God, and as mediators, when we ask from them that they pray for us" (Sent., lib. IV, dist. 45, q. 2, a. 2). "But these things," adds St. Alphonsus, "if they must be affirmed of the Saints, will hold more strongly when we speak of the intercession of the divine Mother" (De Magno or. Medio, part 1, ch. 1, n. 26), since she has been constituted mediatrix of all graces. - There is no obligation of invoking souls detained in purgatory.

c) With respect to the persons for whom one must pray, a distinction must be made between private and public prayer. In private prayer one must pray for all wayfarers, because the precept of charity extends so widely; hence for oneself, for all the living, and for souls in purgatory (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 83, a. 7; IV Sent., dist. 21, q. 1, a. 1, sol. 2; St. Alphonsus, De Magno or. Medio, part 1, ch. 1, n. 17 sq.); but not for the damned, as is clear, nor for the blessed, who have attained the term. But in order that there be an obligation of praying for a determinate person, a special reason of necessity, familiarity, or office must intervene. - In public prayer one must not pray for the excommunicated; priests can privately and with scandal removed apply Mass for them; but if they are to be avoided, only for their conversion (can. 2262).

¹ 1 Pet. 4:7; Matt. 26:41; Jas. 4:2.

² M.P.L. 37, col. 1324.

³ M.P.L. 45, col. 1017.

⁴ Luke 18:1; 1 Thess. 5:18; Col. 4:2.

⁵ Sess. 25, decree on the invocation of the Saints.

V. Efficacy. By the efficacy of prayer is understood that force of prayer which is proper to it as prayer, not as a good work; this force of impetrating is founded not on the dignity of the prayer, nor on the merit of the work, but on the sole promise of God. Moreover prayer duly made is of infallible efficacy when someone prays for himself. This is clear from innumerable texts of Sacred Scripture.¹

It is disputed whether the same must be said when someone prays for another living person who is well disposed. But it seems that this must be affirmed, because the texts of Sacred Scripture are universal. There is added that Sacred Letters continually urge prayer for others; by this they seem to suggest that even prayer of this kind is of itself certainly going to be heard (St. Alphonsus, Op. asc., 3, pp. 59, 60, 63). Prayer for souls in purgatory² more probably infallibly profits some soul; nevertheless, not infallibly that soul for which in particular it is poured forth, although for the most part it will at least profit that soul somewhat.

¹ Jer. 33:3; Ps. 49:15; Matt. 7:7, 11; Luke 11:10; Matt. 18:19; Mark 11:24; John 14:14; 15:7; 16:23.

² Cf. St. Bellarmine, De purgatorio, lib. 2, ch. 16.

VI. Conditions. In order that prayer have the efficacy described, it is required that someone ask: 1. for a thing useful to salvation according to divine providence;³ 2. with humility;⁴ 3. with confidence;⁵ 4. perseveringly⁶ (St. Thomas, II-II, q. 83, a. 2, ad 2 and a. 15, ad 2; St. Alphonsus, De Magno or. Medio, part 1, ch. 3).

Nevertheless prayer poured forth without these due conditions is not always altogether useless, because even if it does not require an infallible effect from the fidelity of God, nevertheless often it obtains grace from God's mercy; as, for example, a sinner pouring forth a tepid prayer often through it receives grace for praying more fervently (St. Alphonsus, in Trent, sess. 6, n. 143).

Finally I note with St. Thomas: "If someone from set purpose wanders in mind during prayer, this is a sin, and impedes the fruit of prayer" (II-II, q. 83, a. 13, ad 3); namely, it is a venial sin because of a certain irreverence toward God. "But wandering of the mind which occurs apart from set purpose does not take away the fruit of prayer" (St. Thomas, loc. cit.).

¹ Cf. John of St. Thomas, in II-II, q. 83; Monsabre, La Priere; Sertillanges, La Priere; Tillmann, Das Gebet; Massoulie, Traite de la veritable Oraison.

² Cf. Jansen, Het smeekgebed; Schmid, Die Wirksamheit des Bittgebetes.

³ 1 John 5:14.

⁴ Luke 18:14; Jas. 4:6.

⁵ Mark 11:24; Jas. 1:6-7.

⁶ Luke 11:8-9.

4. Recitation of prayers, which, if visitation of a church is prescribed, is usually imposed as to be made in the visitation itself. Besides this, observe:

a) If, for gaining indulgences, prayer in general according to the mind of the Supreme Pontiff¹ is prescribed, mental prayer alone does not suffice; but vocal prayer can be chosen at the judgment of the faithful, unless some particular prayer is assigned (canon 934, § 1). Therefore, in the case posited, mental prayer alone does not suffice; yet it is enough to add some vocal prayer - not, however, a minimal one - to mental prayer (St. Alphonsus, n. 538, q. 10).²

According to the common opinion, five Our Fathers and Hail Marys suffice, or equivalents to be chosen at will, unless a particular prayer is prescribed. But for gaining the Portiuncula Indulgence, by decree of the Sacred Penitentiary dated July 10, 1924, the recitation of six Our Fathers, Hail Marys, and Glory Bes is required, and other equivalent prayers cannot be recited.³

b) If a particular prayer has been assigned, indulgences can be acquired in whatever language the prayer is recited, provided that the fidelity of the version is established from a declaration either of the Sacred Penitentiary or of one of the Ordinaries of the place where the language into which the prayer is translated is vernacular; but indulgences entirely cease because of any addition, subtraction, or interpolation (canon 934, § 2). Hence, for example, indulgences are not acquired if, in sung litanies of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Kyrie eleison is sung only once, nor if after each title Ora pro nobis is not recited.⁴ But the custom of announcing before each decade the mystery to be meditated upon does not seem to harm, since in the case there is no interpolation in the prayers themselves. As regards the practice of recalling the mystery in the middle of the Angelic Salutation, the Sacred Penitentiary, privately asked, declared⁵ that it cannot be kept and propagated while the indulgences remain intact. Nevertheless, the same Congregation judges that by canon 934, § 3 there was in no way revoked the indult by which Pius IX in the year 1859, for places where the custom had already grown up, granted that the faithful reciting the Rosary in such a manner could gain its indulgences; and Benedict XV, at the petition of the Sacred Penitentiary, extended that indult to all who according to the aforesaid custom had been accustomed to recite the Holy Rosary in any places whatever.⁶

c) For the acquisition of indulgences, it is enough to recite the prayer alternately with a companion, or to follow it mentally while it is recited by another (canon 934, § 3).

d) Mutes can gain indulgences attached to public prayers if, together with the rest of the faithful praying in the same place, they lift up their mind and pious sentiments to God; and if the matter concerns private prayers, it is enough that they recall them mentally, or express them by signs, or merely run through them with the eyes (canon 936). Finally, by concession of Benedict XV, maimed persons can gain indulgences for the gaining of which the recitation of prayers together with some bodily act which they are unable to perform is enjoined, by pouring forth prayers alone.⁷

Finally, I note that by the faithful enrolled in some sodality, indulgences granted to the sodality can be acquired even if they do not observe the statutes of the society,⁸ provided they fulfill the works imposed for the indulgences.

Question. Whether one who performs the enjoined works more perfectly, for example with greater fervor, becomes a participant in the indulgence in a greater measure than one who acts less perfectly.

Response 1. Of itself, no; because the Church is content with common fervor, and in applying the indulgence does not take account of that which is performed beyond what is due.

Response 2. Incidentally, it will easily happen that one who performs beyond what is due participates more in the indulgence, insofar namely as contrition, and therefore remission of guilt, is more universal.

¹ The Supreme Pontiff intends the prosperity and exaltation of the Church, the extirpation of heresies, the conversion of sinners, and finally the peace of the Christian people.

² Cf. Benedict XIV, Constitution Inter praeteritos, § 83.

³ A.A.S. XVI, p. 343, to IX; Sacred Penitentiary, January 30, 1930 (A.A.S. 1930, p. 43).

⁴ Sacred Penitentiary, July 21, 1919.

⁵ July 27, 1920.

⁶ Sacred Penitentiary, January 22, 1921 (A.A.S. 1921, p. 163).

⁷ Sacred Penitentiary, October 22, 1917 (A.A.S. 1917, p. 539).

⁸ Sacred Congregation of Indulgences, January 25, 1842 (Decreta authentica, n. 298, to II); cf. canon 692.

Prayer.—Prayer can be taken in various senses. (a) Thus, in the widest sense prayer is any act of religion or a holy life. St. Augustine says that a good life is the best of all prayers, and the command of Christ that we pray always has been understood to mean that we should always follow good. (b) In a less wide sense, prayer is the raising of the mind to God, in order to praise, adore, thank Him, etc. The motive of veneration here present distinguishes prayer from mere thoughts about God as when one studies or discusses theological subjects to satisfy curiosity or to impart information.

(c) In its strict sense, prayer is the asking for suitable things from God. By suitable things are meant such as are lawful and becoming, and hence it would not be a prayer, but a mockery, to ask God for help to accomplish sin or for miracles in trivial matters. We are now considering prayer in its strict and less wide senses.

The Psychology of Prayer.—(a) Prayer in its nature is an act of the reason, for it is a conversation or communication with God. It belongs, however, not to the speculative, but to the practical reason, since it is not a mere process of apprehension, judgment or reasoning, but the arrangement and presentation of requests, plans, etc., before God with a view to their acceptance by Him. By prayer, then, we do not understand thinking on God, as in meditation and contemplation (though these are known as mental prayer), but speaking to God.

(b) Prayer in its origin is an act of the will, for the practical reason presents before God only such things as are desired by him who prays. Prayer is the interpreter of desire. Indeed, God may take the will for the request and grant what has not yet been asked: “The Lord heard the desire of the poor” (Ps. ix. 17); “Before they cry I shall hear them” (Is., lxv. 24). Moreover, prayer should spring out of an inclination towards God Himself and a desire for union with Him (Ps. xli. 1. 2; Ps. xxvi. 4).

The Necessity of Prayer.—(a) Prayer is not necessary on God’s account, as though He needed to be informed of our wants, or could not be happy without our homage, or might be induced to change His plans; (b) it is necessary for our own sakes, for, although God could and sometimes does grant favors unasked, He wishes that ordinarily we should have the double benefit of the prayer and of the favor given in answer to the prayer. God could grant the crops of the fields without human cultivation, or even tools and finished articles without human invention or labor, but man would then lose the fruits that belong to labor of mind and body. Prayer is most beneficial, even when unanswered: it attracts man to perform his basic duty of honoring his Creator, to keep in use his spiritual powers, and to exercise the necessary virtues of faith, hope and charity; it gives him the privilege of speaking directly with God and with Christ and of asking for what he desires—an intimacy that must in time correct and elevate man’s whole spiritual life; then prayer is a pouring out of the heart to God the Heavenly Father, and this will afford relief in times of misfortune or peril.

The Duty of Prayer for all Adults.—(a) Prayer is necessary from divine precept, as is declared in many passages of Scripture. Thus, we are commanded to watch and pray (Matt, xxvi. 41), to pray always and not to faint (Luke, xviii. 1), to ask and to knock (Matt., vii. 7 sqq.), to pray without ceasing (I Thess., v. 17), to watch in prayers (I Peter, iv. 7). In the Mass the Lord’s Prayer is prefaced with the words: “Commanded by salutary precepts and admonished by divine instructions, we make bold to say: Our Father, etc.” There is, however, no divine precept of vocal prayer or as to the use of the form of words given by Christ, but one must pray at least mentally and in the manner indicated by Christ.

(b) Prayer is also necessary as a means (see 360), at least generally speaking; not that God could not save man without prayer, but that He has made it an indispensable condition, as is true also of Baptism, without which salvation is not conferred. This is the common opinion and it rests on strong arguments. Thus, there are certain necessary goods (such as perseverance) that cannot be had except through prayer, and there are certain necessary duties (such as the acts of faith, charity, and religion) that are not exercised apart from prayer. Then, there is the teaching of the Church and of the Fathers and Doctors that prayer is needed in order to observe the Commandments (Council of Trent), that no one is assisted who does not pray (Gennadius), that prayer is to the soul what breath is to the body (St. Benedict), that he who prays will certainly be saved, while he who prays not will surely be lost (St. Alphonsus).

Times and Frequency of Prayer.—As to the times and frequency of prayer, in fulfillment of the obligation, there are the same opinions and conclusions as for the acts of faith, hope, and charity (see 929 sqq., 1095-1097, 1593 sqq.). On this point we may conclude as follows:

(a) directly, or by reason of the precept of prayer itself, there is a duty to pray at the beginning of the moral life, frequently during life (whether daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc. cannot be precisely determined; but there is no practical difficulty, since those who devoutly hear Mass at the times commanded comply with the duty of prayer), and also in danger of death. At the outset of the moral life the reason and will should turn to God, and this is prayer at least in the widest sense; during life prayer should be frequent and continuous according to the words of Scripture; at the hour of death, prayer is necessary, since we are specially bidden to ask for perseverance till the end;

(b) indirectly, or by reason of some precept distinct from that of prayer, prayer is necessary whenever one needs to have recourse to God to fulfill some command or avoid something prohibited. Thus, one should pray at Mass, for according to church law Mass must be heard devoutly; one should pray when a dangerous temptation assails one, or when there are great calamities, especially of a public character, for according to the precept of charity one must help oneself and others in difficulties.

Practical Corollaries about Prayer with Reference to Confession.—(a) Practical Catholics, that is, those who comply with the precepts of the Church, but who accuse themselves of neglecting morning and evening prayers or grace at meals, cannot be judged guilty of sin, even of venial sin, on account of this neglect; for there is no common precept directly obliging to such prayers. But there may often be a venial sin for other reasons, as when the omission is due to a spirit of lukewarmness, or when indirectly there is a duty to pray at those times for special reasons, such as daily needs or temptations. We do not agree, then, with the opinion that omission of morning and evening prayers, especially when it is habitual, is never sufficient matter for absolution.

(b) Unpractical Catholics, that is, those who have been away from Mass or the Sacraments contrary to the laws of the Church as habitual transgressors, and who say nothing about their neglect of prayer, should be questioned whether in all the years of absence from their duties they have also omitted all prayers. For, if this be the case, they have sinned against the duty of prayer. Morning and evening prayer and grace at table should be earnestly recommended to all, because these are customs that have come down from the earliest times, and also because those who disregard them often come to neglect all prayer, or at least expose themselves to dangers or to the loss of precious graces.

To Whom May Prayer Be Offered?—Only God may be addressed as the Bestower of favors (“The Lord giveth grace and glory,” Ps. lxxxiii. 12), but the Saints may be prayed to as intercessors before God (“The smoke of incense of the prayers of the saints ascended up before God from the hands of the angel,” Apoc., viii. 4). Hence, the Church asks God to have mercy on us; it asks the Saints to pray for us. It is lawful privately to invoke the prayers of an infant who died after baptism, of a soul in Purgatory, and one may ask the prayers of those who are still alive, as St. Paul frequently does in his Epistles. There is no command that we pray to the saints, and hence one who did not pray to them would not be guilty of grave sin per se; but there would be grave sin, if their intercession was neglected on account of contempt, and venial sin, if one failed to call on them (especially on the Blessed Virgin, the Mediatrix of all graces) on account of negligence about one’s own spiritual good.

The Persons for Whom Prayer Is Offered.—There is an obligation of charity to pray for ourselves and also for others, for we should ask for the things that we are obliged to desire (see 2161). This duty is taught in Holy Scripture (e.g., Our Lord prayed for Peter; St. Paul asks for the prayers of his Churches; St. James, in v. 16, admonishes us to pray for one another that we may be saved); also in the creed and liturgy of the Church, for we profess belief in the communion of saints, and offer Masses and suffrages for the living and the dead. One should pray for enemies in common prayers that are offered for all, and in special prayers for them in particular, when there is a special reason, such as their grave necessity or the scandal that would be given if one refused to join in a special prayer for one’s enemy (Matt., v. 44); but one may not pray for the success of the evil projects of an enemy, and one is not obliged to make special prayers for him apart from necessity (see 1151). For the excommunicated one should pray in private prayers and also in public prayers, when this is permitted by the law, as in the services of Good Friday and under certain conditions in Masses (Canon 2262). For sinners prayers should be said, unless they are already lost. The souls in Purgatory are also to be prayed for, although the obligation does not seem grave, since it is not certain as to any particular soul that it is in need of our prayers. As to the blessed, one may pray for their canonization or accidental glory, not for their essential glory, which they already possess.

Things that May Be Prayed for.—(a) Evils.—One may never pray for moral evil, even of the slightest kind, and it would be a grave irreverence to beseech God to become our helper in the commission of sin. As to physical evils, one may not ask them as evils or for their own sake; but it is lawful to pray for them in the larger sense in which they are goods. Thus, for oneself one may ask from God sickness, poverty or death, in so far as these ills are means of correction, improvement, merit, penance, or escape from sin; for an enemy one may ask that God restrain him, even by the use of temporal misfortunes, if this be necessary to keep him from sin.

(b) Indifferent Things.—One may not desire an indifferent thing, if there is no moral purpose to justify it (see 83). Hence, one may not ask God for the gratification of idle wishes (e.g., that one win a game in which the only purpose in gain), but it does not seem that there is grave irreverence in so doing.

(c) Temporal Goods.—These may not be asked for from a primary intention, since we must seek first the kingdom of God and His justice (Matt., vi. 33), which are more important; neither may we ask for any determinate temporal thing unconditionally, since we are uncertain whether it will prove beneficial or harmful. But temporal things may be asked for from a secondary intention (that is, in so far as they are means that assist us to attain spiritual goods) and conditionally (that is, under the proviso that they will prove spiritually beneficial). Thus, the Church prays for protection against storms and disturbances, and asks for good weather, abundant harvests, peace, etc.

(d) Spiritual Goods.—Eternal salvation and the means thereto we should pray for as the principal objects of our desire and should ask for them unconditionally; for God is our true End, and the things that lead to Him cannot be harmful to us. Miracles may be asked for, but it is wrong to beg God for privileges that are reserved for others (e.g., to sit at the right hand of Christ in glory).

The Qualities of Prayer.—(a) As to its manner, prayer is either unaccompanied or accompanied by external acts of worship, such as bodily gestures or speech. But not infrequently the thoughts are voiced in words, and we then have what is known as vocal prayer. Prayer made by a private person for himself or others may be internal; but public prayer that is offered by the ministers of the Church in the name of the Church should be vocal, since it should be manifested to the people for whom it is being offered. But the use of words or other external signs is advantageous even in private prayer, since it excites greater devotion in a person and is a help to attention.

(b) As to persistence, prayer is continuous or interrupted. Prayer should be continuous if there is question of its cause, which is prayerfulness of spirit, or desire of salvation; and in this sense may be understood the words of Scripture that command us to pray always (Luke, xviii. 1; Eph., vi. 18; I Thess., v. 17 ), But if we speak of prayer itself, it is impossible to pray unceasingly in this life, as there are many other things that have to be done and rest is a necessity.

(c) As to quantity, prayers are lengthy or brief. Our Lord rejected the belief of the pagans that the efficacy of prayer depends on many words (Matt, vi. 7), but He did not forbid long prayers, since He often spent nights in prayer. The rule about the length of private prayers is that one should pray for such a space of time as is favorable to devotion, and should cease from prayer as soon as it becomes tedious; similarly, public devotions should not be so lengthened out that those present become wearied and inattentive. The Fathers of the Desert were wont to offer many brief but ardent ejaculatory prayers, fearing that prayer long drawn out would fall away from the fervor of intention with which it began. But, if devotion continues, prayer should not easily be broken off.

The Confidence Requisite for Successful Prayer.—(a) Confidence must exclude doubt or distrust in reference to God or prayer itself: “How shall they call on Him whom they have not believed?” (Rom., X. 14); “Let not that man (that wavereth) think that he shall receive anything of the Lord” (James, i. 6, 7).

(b) Confidence does not exclude doubt about one’s own dispositions (“It is not for our justice that we present our prayers before Thee, but for the multitude of Thy tender mercies”); on the contrary, the prayer of the Pharisee was not heard, because he trusted in himself (Luke, xviii. 9). Neither does confidence in prayer mean that one may ask unconditionally for temporal things (see 2161 c).

Intention and Attention.—Attention is the voluntary application of the mind to that which is done, or the consideration or advertence of the mind given to an act. It differs from intention, which is an act, not of the reason, but of the will, consisting in the purpose to perform an act. Prayer requires both intention and attention.

(a) There must be intention, for prayer in its origin is an act of the will and it pertains to religion only because of the devotion by means of which it is elicited. A man who, while reading aloud from a novel, recites the words of a prayer contained in the novel, does not pray, for his intention is pleasure or instruction, not worship. And even one who says or answers prayers attentively during services does not really pray if his motive is not one of religion. (b) There must be attention, for prayer is of its nature an act of the mind (see 2154). A parrot or a phonograph is not said to pray when it repeats the words of the Our Father or Hail Mary.

The Intention Required in Prayer.—(a) An actual intention is had when one either expressly or implicitly wills to offer a prayer, as when one says internally; “I will now say a prayer,” or when without such express act one deliberately performs that which is a prayer, making internal acts of faith, reciting the Rosary, reading from a prayer-book, etc. This kind of intention is necessary at the beginning of prayer, and is the best that may be had during the course of prayer.

(b) A virtual intention is had when one is occupied in prayer on account of an actual intention previously formed and not retracted, but here and now, on account of human weakness, one is thinking of indifferent things impertinent to the prayer and its purpose. This kind of intention continues unless withdrawn directly by contrary intention or indirectly by the performance of acts inconsistent with prayer. Virtual intention suffices during the course of prayer, for a continuous and uninterrupted actual intention is humanly impossible. The more the mind struggles to keep the thought fixed on one object alone, the more do other thoughts arise to distract, as experience proves.

(c) An habitual intention is had when one is occupied in prayer, not on account of any actual intention previously formed, but on account of a propensity or inclination resulting from previous acts. This is not properly an intention and it does not suffice for prayer, since with it the acts performed do not proceed actually or virtually from any determination of the will. Thus, a person who is asleep or intoxicated is not said to pray when he mechanically repeats well-known words of prayer, for his will has no part in those words, any more than the will of the somnambulist has part in the dangerous walks he takes.

The Attention in Prayer.—(a) By reason of its object, attention is external or internal, according as the mind is taken up only with the externals of prayer (i.e., the exclusion of external acts inconsistent with prayer and the proper bodily posture) or with the things internal to prayer (i.e., the words, sense and purpose of the prayer). Internal attention is called verbal or superficial when it is directed only to the words, as when a person who does not understand the meaning of a prayer says it carefully so as not to mispronounce the words; it is literal, when it is directed only to the sense, as when a person who says a very obscure prayer pays close attention so as to follow its meaning; it is spiritual, when it is directed to the purpose of prayer (i.e., the worship of God by an act of religion), or to the objects of prayer (i.e., eternal salvation or the means thereto, such as grace and the virtues, the mysteries of religion, etc.).

(b) By reason of its subject, attention is either perfect or imperfect. Perfect attention excludes every distracting thought, even such as are involuntary; imperfect attention excludes voluntary but not involuntary distractions.

Acts that Exclude External Attention.—What external actions are inconsistent with external prayer and exclusive of external attention?

(a) Those acts exclude external attention which either from their nature (on account of the great mental application they demand) or from the weakness of a person’s mind (for it is not everyone who can like Julius Caesar think on several things at the same time) make it impossible to have recollection in prayer when those acts are being performed. Acts of this kind are reading about other matters, painting, writing, carrying on conversation with those around, boisterous laughing, etc. But if the one who prays engages in these acts inadvertently (e.g., if a person reciting the Breviary does not notice that he is giving considerable attention to an inscription or advertisement on an adjacent wall), the distraction is merely involuntary and inculpable.

(b) Those acts do not exclude external attention that either not at all or only in slight measure interfere with internal recollection in prayer. Such acts are slow walking, riding, looking about at the scenery, picking a flower now and then, dressing, undressing, bathing, combing the hair, etc, The Church prescribes certain prayers to be said while the priest vests for Mass, and it was an old rule among the monks to join labor and prayer.

When External Attention Is Sufficient.—Is external attention sufficient in prayer when internal attention is voluntarily excluded?

(a) In public prayers external attention is sufficient as to a number of effects. Thus, in the administration of the Sacraments the want of internal attention in the minister does not make the Sacrament invalid, since the Sacraments produce grace ex opere operato; in public suffrages the indevotion and distraction of the priest do not deprive the beneficiary of the impetratory fruit, since the public prayers are offered in the name of the Church itself; in the Divine Office merely external attention suffices to fulfill the positive obligation, according to many, because it is not certain that the Church requires more.

(b) In all prayers mere external attention is insufficient for the personal effects of impetration, merit and satisfaction. For to pray with willful indevotion is not an act deserving of remission, reward and a favorable answer, but rather of punishment (“Before prayer prepare thy soul and be not as a man that tempteth God,” Eeclus., xviii. 23); it is disrespectful to God and therefore cannot claim the benefits of an act of worship.

The Kind of Internal Attention Required in Prayer.—(a) The minimum that suffices for the personal benefits of merit and impetration is the verbal or the literal attention, and the imperfect attention that is mixed with some unwilled distractions or mind wanderings. Indeed, a person who intends to pray well, but whose whole prayer is a continual distraction in spite of his efforts to be recollected, does not lose, but rather by reason of his good will and effort increases, his merit. But for spiritual refreshment there must be freedom from distraction; for, just as a student gets no mental nourishment from a lesson if his mind is many miles away, and a listener gets no instruction from a discourse spoken in a foreign language (I Cor., xiv. 4), so one who prays with an absent mind loses the devotion and joy that are afforded by actual communion with heavenly thoughts.

(b) The maximum that should be aimed at in prayer for the greater blessing it brings is the spiritual attention fixed on the presence of God and the perfect attention that keeps away as far as possible the interruption from any vain, perverse or extraneous thoughts.

Distractions.—Just as certain external acts exclude external attention, so also certain internal states exclude internal attention. These latter are known as distractions, and may be defined as internal acts or omissions opposed to the nature or purpose of prayer, but performed during prayer.

(a) Distractions are either acts or omissions. Thus, a person who slumbers lightly or is partly asleep during prayer is inattentive or wanting by omission; while the person who thinks out plots for stories or plays during prayer time is distracted or wanting by commission.

(b) Distractions are sometimes opposed to the nature of prayer. To the nature of vocal prayer belong the words and the sense, and hence, even though one is rapt in meditation, there is no vocal prayer if words are mispronounced or left out or so changed or transposed as to make nonsense or no sense, though negligence about a word here and there does not necessarily exclude superficial attention. Those who from long familiarity with forms of prayer are able to repeat them automatically, with no thought about the words or their meaning, direct or mystical, are not distracted if their thoughts are on the motive of prayer. But it would not be fitting to observe no order in these matters, for example, to dwell always on the glorious mysteries during passiontide prayer and on the sorrowful mysteries during paschal prayers.

(c) Distractions are sometimes opposed to the purpose of prayer. The purpose of prayer itself is the union of the mind with God, while the purpose of the one who prays is the special good to which he directs his prayer. Union with God is necessary above all in prayer, and though it need not be expressly thought on, as was said above (2169), yet there must be no thought in the mind contrary to it. Thoughts, desires and imaginations are contrary to the end of prayer when they are not means to that end (e.g., sinful thoughts, idle thoughts, thoughts on lawful occupations or affections that have nothing to do with the prayer), or when they are means to that end but are perverted to a purely natural use (e.g., when verbal attention is made an exercise in voice culture, or literal attention a grammatical study, or attention to the purpose of prayer means that one is speculating on foolish questions about divinity or thinking on the money, food, or clothing, for which one is praying as if they were the ends of prayer). Scrupulous persons make attention itself a distraction, for they worry all during prayer lest their thoughts be wandering, and so they are thinking about themselves rather than about the words, meaning or purpose of prayer.

(d) Distractions occur during prayer. Hence, an interruption is not a distraction, as when one who is praying is called to attend to some business or leaves off prayer for the moment to make a note of some important thought that came to mind. Neither is the breaking off of prayer a distraction, as when one starts to pray but feels so distracted or unwell as to give over for the time being the attempt to pray.

Voluntary and Involuntary Distractions.—(a) Voluntary distractions result in the first place from purpose, as when one who is praying deliberately dozes at intervals when he feels drowsy, or deliberately turns over in his mind the points of an address he intends to give; they result in the second place from negligence, as when the person who is praying does not expressly wish to be inattentive, but hurries through his words with no pains to keep his thoughts on what he is doing or why he is doing it. Those who rarely speak or read about divine things, but give themselves much to foolish reading or talk, prepare for themselves many distractions, unless they counteract this by special aids to recollection, such as pictures or prayer books.

(b) Involuntary distractions are those that result neither from purpose nor from carelessness, but from human weakness. Thus, a person who is troubled with scruples or with a severe headache or nervous strain, who is worn out bodily or much worried mentally, or who is surrounded by noise or disturbance, is often physically unable to concentrate his mind for any length of time, no matter how much he may desire to do so. Indeed, St. Thomas says that it is hardly possible for anyone to say an Our Father without some distraction, and many persons are distracted against their will by every slight sound or movement that falls under their notice.

Sinfulness of Distraction in Prayer.—(a) Involuntary distractions are not sinful, since one is not bound to the impossible. Hence, a penitent who has nothing except these distractions to confess may not be absolved, since there is no matter for absolution in his confession.

(b) Voluntary distractions are sinful, since, though one is free to address God at any time, one is bound to do this in a respectful manner and in spirit and in truth, as God requires. Communion with God is by means of the mind, and it is disrespectful to turn the mind away to other things when the communion has been sought. Besides, lip service is displeasing to God, just as burnt offerings were not acceptable when made without love. But the sin is of its nature only venial; for the intention to pray, together with the essential moral goodness of the act, is retained, and the defect consists in the circumstance that the intention is executed remissly (see 78).

Distractions during Divine Office are the absence of the attention which the Church requires under grave sin for satisfaction of the canonical obligation. There are two opinions about the kind of distractions that make recitation insufficient and gravely sinful.

(a) According to the older opinion, internal attention is required, but it seems that generally those who maintain this view do not hold that internal distractions alone deprive the Office of its sufficiency. Thus, they state that one who has had voluntary distractions may consider that he has fulfilled his duty, unless he is certain that he also adverted to his state of distraction and did nothing to end it.

(b) According to the opinion of many modern authors, external attention suffices. Hence, in this view mortal sin is incurred by notable defect in external, but not in internal attention.

Do importunate prayers constitute grave fear? - "Pontius, etc., affirms. But more truly it must be denied, unless the prayers are added to fear of reverence toward a superior; thus Sanchez, etc. And Sanchez well notes that not all assiduous prayers are called importunate, but only those which are most urgent and very often inculcated." L. 1. 2. n. 717.

As to the Lord's Prayer. - All must know under grave sin that God is to be prayed to with hope and confidence, and that all goods both of soul and of body, and graces for fleeing the evils of the soul, must be sought from him. In it God is believed as provident, helper, forgiving, rewarding. Likewise there is an obligation, at least under light sin, of reciting it sometime, according to the common opinion. - Lugo, d. 13, n. 133; Suarez, d. 13, s. 4, n. 12; L. 3.

What is the first precept of the Decalogue? - The first precept of the Decalogue is: I am the Lord thy God... Thou shalt not have strange gods. Exod. 20:2, 3. - This precept, as affirmative, prescribes first of all acts of the virtue of religion; as negative, it prohibits vices opposed to religion. But religion is the moral virtue which exhibits due worship to God as the first principle of all things. Hence after the theological virtues it obtains the first place, and accordingly the sins opposed to it are most grave and mortal from their genus. Worship imports honor and reverence. Worship generally, besides honor, or the external signification of excellence, imports submission to the person who is worshiped. Therefore honor comprehends worship, yet honor conversely does not involve worship, "because reverence and worship add above honoring a testification of internal submission." Lugo, de Iust. et Iur., d. 14, s. 1, n. 3. Therefore worship owed to God includes service. "But by the same act man serves God and worships him; for worship regards the excellence of God, to whom reverence is owed; but service regards the subjection of man, who from his condition is obliged to exhibit reverence to God. And to these two things pertain all acts which are attributed to religion, because through all of them man professes the divine excellence and his own subjection to God, either by exhibiting something to him, or also by assuming something divine." S. Th. 2. 2. q. 81, a. 3 ad 2.

Some acts of religion are internal, others external. St. Thomas posits two internal acts: devotion and prayer. He makes the remaining external acts: adoration, sacrifice, offering of first-fruits and gifts, offering of tithes, vow, oath, adjuration, praise; to these below he joins the sanctification of feasts and the use of the sacraments, insofar as through this we profess God to be the author of grace, by which he affects our mind and soul so that he may subject them more and more to himself. Besides, absolutely all sacred observances and ceremonies ordained by the Church to the worship of God can be added, such as the erection of churches and altars, the use of things blessed by the Church, etc., which from the motive of religion are determined and prescribed by the Church.

But the acts opposed to religion are some such by excess, as superstition with its species, others by defect, as irreligiosity with its species. To superstition pertain idolatry, divination, vain observance; to irreligiosity, temptation of God, perjury, infidelity in promises, blasphemy, sacrilege, simony. In the present treatise we will speak only of those acts of religion and opposed sins which regard this first precept of the Decalogue; concerning the remaining things there will be speech in the two following precepts and in other proper places. For the first three precepts concern acts of religion; and in this first precept of the law the worship of God, the one true God, is commanded, and the worship of false gods is excluded; and besides idolatry, all other superstitions are excluded; consequently also dishonoring God is excluded. Cf. 465. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 81 seqq.; q. 122, aa. 1, 2; 1. 2. q. 100, aa. 4-8; L. init.; Struggl 8, 9; tr. 5, q. 1, nn. 4, 5, 6; Lessius, de Virt. relig., c. 1, dd. 1, 2.

What is devotion, and is it necessary? - Devotion is a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God. Therefore devotion imports a certain special act of the will, namely of handing oneself over to God's service, and a certain special quality of this act, namely the aforesaid promptness. But there is a distinction between the handing over of self which is had through charity, and the handing over of self which is had through devotion. For through charity man hands himself over immediately to God, adhering to him through a certain union of spirit. But through religion man hands himself over immediately to works of divine worship. The object of charity and love is good; but the object of honor or reverence is something excellent. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 81, a. 4 ad 3; q. 82; q. 83, a. 15 c.

But devotion is altogether necessary, for it is impossible to execute those things which pertain to divine worship or service, which properly pertains to religion, without a prompt will of doing them. Whence, since it pertains to the same virtue to will to do something and to have a prompt will for doing it, devotion pertains to religion, and its first act is necessary for all following acts. Therefore devotion is a certain special act of religion by which someone promptly offers and hands himself over to divine worship; and at the same time it is a universal act insofar as it moves toward all acts of the service of God. But devotion can also be taken for habitual addiction to divine worship, in which sense a man is said to be truly devout. Likewise devotion can be taken not for the act, but for the quality of the act, namely for the very promptness and fervor by which devotion is manifested. And in this sense prayer is called devout. The aforesaid promptness consists in a determined and absolute affection which conquers every difficulty, so that the will is not delayed in the execution of divine worship when the occasion offers itself; but fervor is the intensity and vehemence of pious affection in divine worship. Devotion also signifies the whole pious manner of acting, and thus a life is called devout. And peculiar pious exercises are called devout exercises, in which sense there is often speech about this or that devotion, about these or those devout exercises, which are the matter of devotion, namely about which devotion is concerned. The extrinsic and principal cause of devotion is God; the intrinsic cause disposing us to it is meditation on divine goodness and divine benefits and at the same time consideration of our infirmity and need. Spiritual joy, gladness, sweetness, facility follow devotion per se. Whence devotion is also taken for this spiritual sweetness. S. Th. 2. 2. q. 82, aa. 3, 4; Lessius, de virt. relig., c. 2, d. 1.

What is prayer, and how many kinds are there? Prayer is taken here insofar as it signifies a certain deprecation or petition, according as Augustine says that prayer is a certain petition, and Damascene says that prayer is the petition of fitting things from God. Therefore prayer can be defined: a certain, as it were, conversation of our mind with God, in which we make known to him the desire of obtaining some thing. - Prayer is mental or vocal, according as it is carried out by mind alone, or the concepts of the mind are also expressed by the mouth. It is private or public, according as it is done by a private person and in a private name, or by the community, or by a minister of the Church in the name of the Church, in the mode prescribed by her. To this public prayer chiefly pertain the Mass and the canonical hours, concerning which we will speak specifically where there will be speech about the sacraments and about particular precepts. "Common prayer is that which is offered to God through the ministers of the Church in the person of the whole faithful people; and therefore it is necessary that such prayer become known to the whole people for whom it is uttered, which could not happen unless it were vocal. And therefore it has reasonably been instituted that ministers of the Church also pronounce prayers of this sort in a loud voice, so that they can come to the knowledge of all. But singular prayer is that which is offered by a singular person, of anyone praying either for himself or for others; and concerning the necessity of prayer of this sort, it is not necessary that it be vocal." S. Th. 2. 2. q. 83, a. 12.

Concerning public prayers, two things generally are to be attended to from Benedict XIV: 1. that these prayers and their formulas are not to be indicated and designated by private persons, but by Ecclesiastical authority, C. Quemadmodum, 23 Mar. 1743. 2. that in sacred rites no others are to be used except those which have been received by the Church, C. Inter omnigenas, 2 Feb. 1774, § 8. - Struggl 21; S. Th. 2. 2. q. 83; Suarez, de Relig., tr. 4, l. 1, c. 3 seqq.; Bouquillon, de Virt. relig., l. 2, p. 1; E. M. Therefore public prayers have their chief value from the dignity and sanctity of the Church, which principally prays, but not from the sanctity and dignity of the persons through whom the Church prays. Lugo, de Euch., d. 19, nn. 124, 125. And in this prayer a threefold fruit can be distinguished: general, which by the intention of the Church is applied to all the faithful; particular, which is applied to the one praying himself; and special or middle, which is applied to him for whom the one praying specially intends to pray. Private and public prayer can be taken in another way, according as it is not exhibited before others, or only before a few; or, on the contrary, as it is exhibited openly and manifestly before fairly many others. And in both senses worship generally can also be taken as private and public.

Is there a precept of prayer? - R. Affirmative. It is proved: 1. because very frequently in Sacred Scripture, both by Christ and by the Apostles, prayer is commanded as necessary for salvation. 2. Because, on God's part, God ordinarily is accustomed to bestow his graces upon us, if you except a few, for example, the beginning of faith, only under this condition, that we ask for them by prayer; therefore it is read: You have not, because you ask not.

Jas. 4:2. And Augustine on Ps. 39: "God wishes to give, but he does not give except to one asking." Ordinarily, since again and again God from his infinite mercy also confers his graces upon those who do not ask. And in this sense more probably and commonly they teach that prayer is necessary for adults also by necessity of means for salvation. For that can truly be said to be of necessity of means without which, considering the ordinary divine order of providence, salvation ordinarily cannot be obtained. Trid. sess. 6, c. 11. But on man's part, his need is supreme, so that each one by full right ought to cry out with the Prophet: Deliver me, because I am needy and poor. Ps. 108:21, 22. Therefore the Angelic Doctor says: "Every man is bound to prayer for procuring spiritual goods, which are not given except divinely; whence they cannot be procured in another way, unless they are asked from him." In 4, D. 15, q. 4, a. 1^†; 3 p., q. 39, a. 5; L. init.; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 2; Struggl 22-24; E. M.

When does the aforesaid precept bind? - The precept of prayer binds frequently. It is proved. For it is the precept of Christ and of the Apostles that we always, at every time, without intermission pray; these words do not prove that one must pray at each physical moment, which would be impossible, but that one must pray frequently, at a suitable time. Luke 18:1; 1 Thess. 5:17. Moreover this precept obliges per se: 1. when a man obtains the use of reason; for then he is bound to turn himself to God, and to acknowledge him as the fountain of all goods and to subject himself to the supreme Lord of all things, for which prayer serves wondrously. S. Th. 1. 2, q. 89, a. 9. 2. at the time of death; for then final perseverance is especially necessary, and prayer is necessary for obtaining it. "Since it is established," Augustine says, "that God has prepared some things to be given even to those not praying, as the beginning of faith; others not except to those praying, as perseverance unto the end; surely he who thinks that he has this from himself does not pray that he may have it." Lib. de Don. Persev., c. 16, n. 39. 3. "At certain intervals of hours and times," as the same Augustine says, Ep. 130. Moreover some teach that one must pray under grave obligation at least once a year; others every six months; others nearly every month; others absolutely every month, in nearly the same manner as the precept of faith, hope, and charity is to be observed. But it obliges per accidens: 1. whenever some precept presses which cannot be fulfilled without prayer; for he who is bound to the end is also bound to the means. 2. When a grave temptation presses which cannot be repelled in another way. 3. Generally, whenever some special divine assistance seems necessary to us, as in some grave calamity, whether private or public.

For laymen and for simple clerics no precept is given for performing certain prayers. But for clerics constituted in sacred orders, for beneficiaries, and for religious destined for choir, there is present the precept of the Church of reciting the canonical hours. He who omits morning or evening prayers, per se, does not sin, if he omits them only sometimes. The reason is that there is no law which commands determined prayers on single days and at fixed hours. Yet the doctors warn that some fault of negligence and sloth is rarely absent. Moreover, in practice those cannot be excused altogether from some fault who omit them rather often, both because perhaps they scarcely pray at another time or in another way, and thus at some point they will fail in the precept of prayer, and because on account of the dangers which occur daily, prayer being neglected, they will fall into many sins. Roman Catechism, p. 4, c. 1; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 2; L. init.; Lessius, de Virt. rel., c. 2, d. 2, 3; E. M.

What are the conditions of prayer? - In order that prayer be made legitimately, it ought to be made with attention, humility, confidence, and perseverance. The first part is proved. Prayer is an act of the worship of God, and exterior worship cannot exist without interior worship. Therefore attention at least concomitant with the first intention is required on the part of the very nature of prayer. But he who is voluntarily distracted in mind, in the act by which he prays, incurs that rebuke of God: This people honors me with their lips, but their heart is far from me. Matt. 15:8. How indeed does he demand to be heard who does not hear himself? But per se he sins venially who without a just reason is voluntarily distracted; and this holds even if prayer is made without obligation, because he inflicts some irreverence upon God. The second part is proved. Humility is necessary on the part of the very petitioner, because he recognizes his need. It is written: He has regarded the prayer of the humble, and has not despised their petition... The prayer of him who humbles himself will pierce the clouds. Ps. 101:18; Ecclus. 35:21. The third part is proved. Faith is necessary on the part of God, whom we pray; namely, that we believe that we can obtain from him what we ask, by reason of the divine omnipotence and mercy, from which prayer obtains what it asks. All things whatsoever you ask when praying, believe that you shall receive them. Mark 11:24; Jas. 1:6. The fourth part is proved. Perseverance is required on the part of the effect of obtaining; for as need is shown more by it, so one is moved more to mercy. Yet prayer has the efficacy of obtaining from the grace of God, whom we pray, who also induces us to pray. But it ought to be persevering, as to the desire of praying, continuously; and as to prayer itself, by not interrupting it at appointed times. "Some things are not denied, but are delayed so that they may be given at a fitting time. Yet this can be impeded if they do not persevere in asking." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15. Be instant in prayer, watching in it. Col. 4:2; Luke 11:8.

Does one pray who pronounces the words correctly and outwardly devoutly, if he voluntarily wanders in mind? Certainly; otherwise neither would he pray who wanders unwillingly, concerning which no one doubts; then, because prayer is petition, and only words and intention are necessary for petition. Therefore attention in the first intention suffices. As to outward devotion, external attention is had if one attends to pronouncing the words correctly, and is not occupied with a thing which cannot coexist with prayer, as if someone were listening to the conversation of others; not likewise if he clothes himself. Attention to God or to the sense of the words is internal attention. In vocal prayer the words are to be pronounced duly and correctly, not by syncopating or mutilating them, nor by corrupting their meaning, and they are to be pronounced so that, unless something obstructs, noise, deafness, one can hear himself. One can use a companion, and then it is necessary to hear him, namely, so that he communicates to him and makes his own what he hears from the companion, and thus the whole will be his, because hearing is in place of pronouncing. In order that prayer be profitable, the state of grace is not absolutely necessary. Therefore prayer also profits a sinner asking for things necessary to salvation. Struggl 27 seqq.; Elbel 419; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, aa. 13-16; Quodl. 3, aa. 8, 9; L. 1. 4, n. 176; Suarez, de Relig., tr. 4, l. 3, c. 4; E. M.

Whom besides God can we pray? - The Blessed Virgin Mary, as our mediatrix; the Angels, as guardians of men; all the Saints and friends of God, as our intercessors before God. Baptized infants, who died before the use of reason, can also be invoked privately, since they are saints and reign with Christ; and according to many the same is more probably to be said of the Souls detained in Purgatory. And indeed they are friends of God. Nor is it repugnant that those who need our prayers can usefully pray for us, just as the living usefully pray for one another, although they too need prayer to be made for them. More probably; for others deny it, chiefly because our necessities and prayers are hidden from them. But invocation of the Saints is of counsel, not of precept, since Trent, sess. 25, says only that it is good and useful to invoke them. Yet they commonly say that he is not to be excused from venial sin who would never invoke the Blessed Virgin, mediatrix of graces for us before God. Trent, sess. 25, de Invocatione, etc.; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, aa. 4, 11; Gur., Comp. 262, Cas. 247; Struggl 31; Del Vecchio, v. 1, n. 663; E. M.

For whom can we pray? - We must pray neither for the Saints nor for the damned. For the former possess beatitude in heaven which will never be lacking; but the latter have already been immutably handed over to eternal punishments in hell. But it is honorable to pray for the just who are detained in the fire of purgatory. It is a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins. 2 Mach. 12:46. Likewise it is permitted and we ought to pray for ourselves and, if the discussion is about private prayer, for all who dwell on earth, whether faithful, whether just or sinners, whether excommunicated or not, whether friends or enemies; namely, we must pray for all those whom we are commanded to love according to that saying of Christ: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. Matt. 22:39. Hence the Apostle says: I urge first of all that supplications, prayers, petitions, thanksgivings be made for all men... for this is good and acceptable before God our Savior, who wills all men to be saved. 1 Tim. 2:1 seqq. If the matter is of private prayer, etc.; for as to public prayer, see the exception in the treatise on Censures, n. 1111.

But this duty of praying for all is satisfied if someone, although he makes no special mention of others, nevertheless excludes no one in those prayers which are not poured forth for himself alone, such as the Lord's Prayer and the Angelic Salutation. For one must pray for all others to the extent that charity requires this, namely, in common. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 37, aa. 7, 8; Struggl 32; E. M.

What ought and can we ask when praying; what are the fruits of prayer, and are they certain? - R. To the first. First we ought to ask for spiritual goods, and these absolutely, because it is certain that we cannot abuse them: Seek first the kingdom of God and his justice. Matt. 6:33. But we can also ask for temporal goods, and for evils of temporal punishment, such as humiliation, poverty, etc., but conditionally; for they can sometimes help us toward salvation. Struggl 25; S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, aa. 5, 6, 9.

R. To the second and third. Prayer, insofar as it is a free, good, supernatural work, is meritorious, and profits the one praying, and him alone, by condignity, namely if he is in the state of grace. Insofar as it is a laborious work, at least not lacking inconvenience, it is satisfactory, and can profit the one praying and others living by way of payment, and therefore more probably infallibly, by force of the communion of Saints; and the dead by way of suffrage, if and insofar as it has pleased divine Mercy. Prayer which is made for the dead, more truly from S. Thomas, Suppl., q. 71, a. 12, "as to the remission of punishment, avails him for whom it is made," although the measure of assistance furnished through our suffrages is unknown to us; but it depends on divine acceptance. For prayer profits them insofar as God, merciful and kind, accepts the satisfaction offered by us through it for the dead. But precisely insofar as prayer is prayer, it is impetratory, and profits oneself and other living persons and the dead. For prayer in obtaining does not rest upon the merit of the one praying, but upon divine mercy, which extends even to the evil, either on account of the salvation of him who prays, or also on account of the salvation of others and the glory of God. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 178, a. 2 ad 1. One undoubtedly receives what he duly asks. "And therefore four conditions are set down, with which concurring someone always obtains what he asks: namely, that he ask for himself, things necessary to salvation, piously and perseveringly," S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15. "Pray for one another, that you may be saved; for the continual prayer of a just man avails much." Jas. 5:16 seqq. The prayers of many are more easily heard. S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 7 ad 3.

That he ask for himself; "because man cannot merit eternal life for another by condignity, therefore consequently neither can someone sometimes merit by condignity for another the things which pertain to eternal life. And on account of this he who prays for another is not always heard." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15 ad 2. "For it happens sometimes that prayer made for another does not obtain, even if it is made piously and perseveringly, and concerning things pertaining to salvation, on account of an impediment which is on the part of him for whom prayer is made." S. Th. l. c., a. 7 ad 2.

Things necessary to salvation; for the merit of prayer is principally ordered to beatitude. Therefore, if that which is asked is not necessary to salvation, nor manifestly contrary to salvation, then although the one praying can by praying merit eternal life, nevertheless he does not merit to obtain that which he asks. For what is more useful to the sick man, the physician knows better than the sick man. But if that which is asked is useful to salvation, he merits it not only by praying, but also by doing other good works; and therefore he undoubtedly receives what he asks, but at a fitting time, when he ought to receive it. S. Th. l. c., a. 15 ad 2.

Piously, that is, from the habit of virtue and grace, from charity, from religion, with humility, with faith. "Prayer, besides the effect of spiritual consolation which it presently has, has a twofold power with respect to a future effect, namely the power of meriting and the power of obtaining. But prayer, as also any other act of virtue, has efficacy for meriting insofar as it proceeds from the root of charity, whose proper object is the eternal good, the fruition of which we merit. Yet prayer proceeds from charity through religion as mediator, of which prayer is an act, with certain other virtues also accompanying, which are required for the goodness of prayer, namely humility and faith. For it pertains to religion to offer prayer itself to God; but it pertains to charity to desire the thing whose completion prayer asks. Faith, however, is necessary on the part of God, whom we pray, namely that we believe that we can obtain from him what we ask. Humility, however, is necessary on the part of the petitioner himself, because he recognizes his need. Devotion also is necessary, but this pertains to religion, of which it is the first act necessary for all consequent acts. But it has the efficacy of obtaining from the grace of God, whom we pray, who also induces us to pray. Whence Augustine says: He would not exhort us to ask, unless he wished to give. And Chrysostom says: He never denies benefits to the one praying, who by his goodness stirs them so that they do not fail to pray." S. Th. 2. 2, q. 83, a. 15.

Perseveringly: for since the force of prayer in impetration is from divine grace and mercy, it would be irrational always to be heard immediately, namely so that that grace and mercy may appear well. Nor indeed is it expedient for our salvation that we always be heard immediately, and therefore one must pray perseveringly, lest we impede grace if we do not persevere in prayer.

But God hears not only the prayer of the just man, but also that of the sinner "proceeding from a good desire of nature, not as though from justice, because the sinner does not merit this, but from pure mercy, the four conditions premised nevertheless being observed, namely that he ask for himself, things necessary to salvation, piously and perseveringly." S. Th. l. c., a. 16. The prayer of a sinner, although it does not proceed from sanctifying grace, nevertheless is made from actual grace, and is pious insofar as it asks something pertaining to piety. S. Th. l. c., a. 15 ad 1, a. 16 ad 2. Indeed prayer made with due conditions, that is, if it asks fitting things from God, with faith, with humility, with perseverance, is infallible by reason of Christ's promise, which pertains not only to the just, but also to sinners, and whether one prays for himself or for others, as is clear from the text of Jas. 5:16 seqq. "It is certain that prayer has a peculiar promise of God, by reason of which this obtaining is in its own way certain and infallible... Further, it is certain that this promise is not altogether absolute, but under certain conditions; these being posited, obtaining will be infallible, but not without them... It is certain that the state of grace is not simply necessary for obtaining... There is no reason why we should deny that the prayer of a sinner, which is apt to be heard, has an infallible promise... Everyone who asks receives... Everyone who asks, whether just or sinner... Whatever you shall ask in my name, this I will do... On account of this, the opinion which asserts that the promise is universal, whether one prays for himself or for others, seems sufficiently pious and probable... This infallible obtaining is not from justice, but principally from mercy, and also from simple fidelity." Suarez, de Relig., tom. 2, lib. 1, c. 23, nn. 2, 3; c. 25, nn. 2, 3; c. 27, nn. 1, 2, 4. Roman Catechism, de Poenit., p. 2, nn. 74, 76, p. 4, c. 2; S. Th., Quodl. 8, aa. 8, 9; C. G. l. 3, c. 158; Lugo, de Poenit., d. 26, s. 1; Suarez, de Poenit., d. 48, s. 3; Bellarmine, de Indulg., c. 13; E. M. 452.

259. • DEFINITION. Prayer, taken more broadly, is the elevation of the mind to God, or any pious affection of the soul toward God and toward supernatural things. But in the stricter sense it is a petition of fitting things from God. - St. Thom. 2. 2. qu. 83. art. 1. - St. Lig. at the beginning of this Treatise.

DIVISION. It is 1º mental or vocal, according as it is performed by the mind alone, or the concepts of the mind are also expressed by the mouth; - 2º private or public, according as it is done by a private person and in a private name, or in community or by the authority and in the name of the Church.

Principles. - I. Prayer is necessary for all adults by necessity of precept, indeed more probably by necessity of means. - 1º This is proved from innumerable passages of Sacred Scripture, for example Matt. 14. 38: Watch and pray. - Luke 18. 1: It is necessary always to pray and not to faint. - 2º Because prayer is the ordinary means established by God for obtaining necessary graces: Ask, and you shall receive. John 16. 24. - St. Lig. l. 3. n. 1.

II. The precept of praying obliges frequently, as is clear from the cited texts, yet not without interruption, which is impossible to human weakness. Therefore the words, It is necessary always to pray, according to the common interpretation of the Doctors, signify that one must pray frequently at an opportune time, and that one must never cease from weariness, torpor, or dejection of soul; or also that our actions generally must be directed to God.

III. Prayer furnished with the due conditions has infallible efficacy from the promise of Christ. Luke 11. 10: Everyone who asks, receives, etc. - John 16. 25: If you ask the Father anything in my name, he will give it to you.

But the conditions required are that it be 1º pious, devout, and attentive; - 2º with perseverance; - 3º with humility and confidence; - 4º concerning necessary or useful things.

Temporal things ought not to be asked except with at least an implicit condition, namely insofar as they can contribute to the salvation of the soul.

260. • Q. 1º When does the precept of prayer urge?

Resp. 1º It urges per se frequently, so that it cannot be omitted for a notable time without sin; according to the common opinion, the time of one month is reputed notable. - Suarez, Lessius, etc. The stricter say that a week suffices for grave fault. But the more lax require a whole year ¹. For the rest, the Confessor, as the Doctors have it, Resp. 2º It urges per accidens 1º in grave temptation, which cannot easily be repelled in another way; 2º in manifest danger of death; 3º in public calamities; 4º whenever another precept must be fulfilled for which prayer is necessary, for example, if Sacraments are to be received; 5º whenever some special divine help seems necessary to us.

¹ One must distinguish when a man is bound to pray by force of another precept, for example if it is necessary for conquering temptation, for disposing himself to justification, etc., and when he is obliged from natural right alone or from the precept of religion.

As to the first, from common doctrine, whoever, then noticing the necessity of praying, neglects prayer, sins; yet this omission does not have a malice distinct from that sin into which he falls, and this from the general principle concerning the guilt of an omitted means which was necessary for avoiding some sin.

As to the other, however, although all the Doctors affirm that from natural right one must pray at some time, nevertheless nothing among them is more uncertain than the time for fulfilling this precept. Most acknowledge frankly that the time of frequency cannot be determined sufficiently, as is also customarily said concerning the precepts of charity or penance (See Struggl, Tr. 5 q. 1. n. 23., who says this opinion is common among Theologians). - Some, besides the time of the first use of reason and the article of death, require that one pray at least once in the year. Thus with others the Salmanticenses (Tr. 21. cap. 9. n. 17.). Some think this obligation urges every month, yet adding nothing concerning the lightness or gravity of this obligation. Thus Bonacina (De Hor. Can. Disp. 1. q. 2. p. 1. n. 12.), Suarez (De Orat. lib. 1. cap. 30. n. 16.), although he speaks doubtfully (for he says: the delay of one year is not to be permitted, nor perhaps of one month), and Lessius (De Iust. et Iur. Lib. 2. cap. 37. n. 12.), who nevertheless is not firm in it, when he writes, to one month or another; and John of St. Thomas (2. 2. q. 83. art. III. n. 6.) called the opinion of these (Suarez and Lessius), conceived in the aforesaid words, sufficiently reasonable. - Progressing further, Palaus called this monthly obligation grave (Tr. 7 Disp. 1. p. 8. n. 3.), to whom the Salmanticenses (l. c.) wrongly joined John of St. Thomas; and Roncaglia (Tr. 7. Q. 1. cap. 1. q. VII.) followed him by way of opinion (I would think, he says); although the opinion of Palaus scarcely pertains here, since he expressly discusses prayer necessary for conquering temptations. Finally certain others said that this precept urges every week, thinking, that is, that the precept of hearing Mass can scarcely be satisfied unless some prayer is added: which opinion, besides the fact that it does not bear upon the matter, because it discusses prayer as a means for observing another precept, is commonly rejected both as to itself and as to the reason brought forward.

Let us conclude by recalling here the principle admitted by all, namely that a grave fault or obligation is not to be asserted unless a manifest and evident reason demands it; but it is manifestly clear that a reason of this kind is lacking with regard to grave weekly or monthly obligations, since no one has yet been able to see it. Add also the very tangled question afterward, what is necessary for avoiding grave fault, whether it is enough to have said once: God, help me, or something else. Therefore A. deservedly warns that the Confessor ought to insist more on inculcating the necessity of praying frequently than on determining the gravity of the omission. ought to be more solicitous in inculcating the necessity of praying frequently, than in determining the grave fault of omitted prayer.

261. • Q. 2º Does one sin who omits morning or evening prayers?

Resp. Neg. precisely per se, if they are only sometimes omitted. The reason is that there is no law which commands determined prayers on individual days and at certain hours. Yet some warn that rarely is some fault of negligence and acedia absent.

For the rest, in practice, those who more often omit them cannot be entirely excused from some fault, both because perhaps they pray very little at another time, or in another way, and thus at some time they will fail in the precept of prayer; and because, on account of the dangers which occur daily, when prayer is neglected, they will fall into many sins.

Q. 3º In what way does one sin who is voluntarily distracted in prayer?

Resp. Per se he sins venially, whenever without a just reason he is voluntarily distracted; and this holds even if prayer is made without obligation, because he inflicts some irreverence upon God. - Elbel, n. 419.

262. • Q. 4º For whom must one pray?

Resp. 1º For ourselves (according to the first rule of Charity); 2º for all wayfaring men, even infidels; 3º for souls detained in purgatory. It is drawn 1º from the general law of Charity; 2º from the words of St. Paul, 1 Tim. 2. 1: I beseech therefore first of all that supplications, prayers, petitions, thanksgivings be made for all men, for kings, etc.; nor are enemies to be excepted, as is clear from the words of Christ, Matt. 5. 44: Pray for those persecuting and calumniating you ².

² He satisfies this duty of praying for all, who, although in praying he employs no memory of others, nevertheless in prayers which are not poured forth only for himself, of which kind are the Lord's Prayer, the Angelic Salutation, etc., positively excludes no one.

Q. 5º Whom besides God can we pray to?

Resp. The Blessed Virgin Mary, as our mediatrix; Angels, as guardians of men; all the Saints and friends of God, as our intercessors before Him. Privately there can also be invoked baptized infants who died before the use of reason, and according to Less., Bellarm., Bonac., Elbel..., the same must more probably be said concerning souls detained in purgatory.

But invocation of the Saints is of counsel, not however of precept, since Trent, sess. 25., says only that it is good and useful to invoke them. Yet he who never invokes the Blessed Virgin Mary will seem very careless of his salvation, since by a peculiar and marvelous providence she has been constituted our mediatrix.

861. Notion and species. Prayer, in the broad sense, is a pious elevation of the mind to God; it is distinguished from study, by which we think of divine things without pious affection. Under this respect it embraces the principal acts of religion, namely adoration, thanksgiving for benefits received, penance for sins, meditation on divine things, petition for spiritual goods, etc. - In the strict sense, it is commonly defined as the petition of fitting things from God. That this petition, when it is made with due submission, is truly an act of religion is easily understood: for it proceeds from an intimate sense of our need, and is at the same time a practical acknowledgment of divine excellence and goodness; for we do not ask graces from God unless we are inwardly persuaded that He is the fountain of goods, and at the same time full of mercy, so that He can and wills to help us.

Prayer is mental when it is performed by the mind alone, namely by the intellect and will: by the intellect, namely, we think of God, of the things to be asked, and of the motives on account of which it is expedient to obtain them; by the will, we desire that such or such a grace be granted to us by God. - It is called vocal, or oral, when it is performed not only by the mind, but by the mouth, by words or other signs. - Again, vocal prayer is private if it is made by the one praying in his own name; public if it is made in the name and authority of the Church, by a minister deputed for this; thus the recitation of the divine office is public prayer: of this we treat in the Treatise on the Various Obligations of States, n. 132-160.

879. In order that prayer be truly efficacious, certain conditions are required on the part of the object which is asked, of the subject praying, and of those for whom one prays.

(A) On the part of the object, the things which are asked ought to be such that they conduce to eternal salvation: for prayer, like other supernatural goods, ultimately tends to eternal beatitude.

Wherefore, if there is question of supernatural goods, namely salvation and the means necessary or truly useful for it, they can be asked absolutely, but not against or beyond the order of divine Providence. Thus graces by which all difficulties and temptations are removed, which in the present life are necessary for our probation, ought not to be asked; nor, without condition, graces gratis given, as the gift of prophecy or miracles, since from these pride is not rarely nourished.

Natural goods, as knowledge, prosperity, health, riches, honors, can be asked only conditionally, namely insofar as God foresees that they will profit us; for not rarely these are harmful to us. Say the same concerning the removal of certain evils, which can be useful for our sanctification. Hence it is not becoming to ask things altogether indifferent to salvation, for example, gain from a game. But to ask things morally evil, for example help for stealing or for killing an enemy, is in itself a grave sin, both because it involves desire of an evil thing and because a grave injury is inflicted upon God by asking that He cooperate in an evil action.

880. (B) On the part of the subject praying, the state of grace, humility, confidence, and perseverance are desired:

(a) The state of grace; for although the prayers of sinners are often heard, when otherwise they will to do penance, as is clear from the examples of the publican and the thief alleged above, nevertheless a special infallibility is attached to the prayers of the just, as is clear from many words of Scripture: "The eyes of the Lord are upon the just: and His ears unto their prayers";¹ - "If you abide in Me, and My words abide in you, you shall ask whatever you will, and it shall be done unto you";² - "If our heart do not reprehend us, we have confidence toward God; and whatsoever we shall ask, we shall receive of Him, because we keep His commandments and do those things which are pleasing before Him."³ And deservedly: for those who enjoy the state of grace are the friends of God, keep His commandments, and strive to please Him; therefore it is not wonderful that their prayers are more easily heard by God.

¹ Ps. 33:16.

² John 15:7.

³ 1 John 3:21-22.

881. (b) Humility, by which, conscious of our weakness and misery, we lean not upon our merits or strength, but upon the divine mercy. Thus indeed Abraham, who prayed thus:⁴ "I will speak to my Lord, whereas I am dust and ashes"; and thus Daniel:⁵ "For it is not for our justifications that we present our prayers before Thy face, but for the multitude of Thy tender mercies"; thus also the publican, humbly beseeching God, was heard, while the proud Pharisee, who trusted too much in his own justice, by no means pleased God.⁶ On the other hand it is openly said:⁷ "God resisteth the proud, and giveth grace to the humble." The reason is that God does not will to give His glory to another, and therefore refuses grace to those who abuse it in order to exalt themselves against Him.

⁴ Gen. 18:27.

⁵ Dan. 9:18.

⁶ Luke 18:9-14.

⁷ James 4:6.

(c) Confidence, which altogether trusts in the merits and promises of Christ. For this honors God, and sweetly disposes Him to hear us:⁸ "Because he hoped in Me, I will deliver him: he shall cry to Me, and I will hear him." Wherefore Christ required confidence of those whom He cured: "Have confidence, son, thy sins are forgiven thee."⁹ Hence also James said:¹⁰ "But let him ask in faith [confidence], nothing wavering. For he that wavereth is like a wave of the sea, which is moved and carried about by the wind. Therefore let not that man think that he shall receive anything of the Lord." Truly, if someone lacks confidence, by that very fact he doubts the goodness and promises of God, and therefore does not deserve to obtain mercy. "Let us go therefore with confidence to the throne of grace."¹¹

⁸ Ps. 90:14-15.

⁹ Matt. 9:2.

¹⁰ James 1:6-7.

¹¹ Heb. 4:16.

882. (d) Perseverance, because, while God grants certain goods at once, namely those which are necessary here and now, He does not usually give certain others except after assiduous prayers, so that meanwhile we may be better disposed for receiving graces. Christ teaches this by various parables and examples: thus the importunate friend finally obtains the loaves which first had been denied him;¹² thus the Canaanite woman, first repulsed, and indeed several times, on account of perseverance in prayer, obtains the healing of her daughter.¹³ - And indeed it is not rarely expedient that only after long and fervent prayers do we obtain what we desire; for thus we more vividly conceive our unworthiness and inability, and esteem more highly what is obtained with more difficulty.

¹² Luke 11:5-8.

¹³ Matt. 15:21-28.

883. (C) On the part of those for whom one prays. It is controverted among theologians whether prayer made for others is infallibly efficacious or not.

Many with St. Thomas respond negatively:¹⁴ "For it happens sometimes that prayer made for another does not obtain, even if it is made piously and perseveringly, and concerning things pertaining to salvation, because of the impediment which exists on the part of him for whom one prays, according to that saying:¹⁵ If Moses and Samuel shall stand before Me, My soul is not toward this people. Nevertheless prayer will be meritorious for the one praying, who prays from charity." Yet not a few, after Suarez,¹⁶ hold the affirmative opinion; for the words of Christ "Whatever you shall ask" are altogether universal; besides, prayer for others is not only commended, but is declared efficacious: "He that knoweth his brother to sin a sin which is not to death, let him ask, and life shall be given to him who sinneth not to death";¹⁷ - "Pray for one another that you may be saved; for the continual prayer of a just man availeth much."¹⁸

¹⁴ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 83, a. 7, ad 2.

¹⁵ Jer. 15:1.

¹⁶ Suarez, De religione, Tr. IV, lib. I, c. 27.

¹⁷ 1 John 5:16.

¹⁸ James 5:16.

In our judgment, the matter can be composed thus: prayer made for others is infallibly efficacious in the sense that it obtains some effect of grace; but those for whom one prays are sometimes badly disposed and pertinaciously resist the grace offered to them. - Whatever may be the case, to pray for others is a most excellent work of charity.

884. Corollary: concerning the Lord's Prayer. Among the prayers which we are accustomed to recite, the Lord's Prayer stands forth, which Christ Himself taught the apostles as the norm of other prayers. In it indeed, as St. Thomas rightly says,¹⁹ "not only are all things asked which we can desire, but also in that order in which they ought to be desired; so that this prayer not only instructs us to ask, but is also formative of our whole affection."

¹⁹ St. Thomas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 83, a. 9; many Fathers explained this Lord's Prayer, such as Tertullian, St. Cyprian, and, after them, the Catechism of the Council of Trent, p. IV. Cf. Hurter, Patrum opuscula selecta, t. II.

In the preface, very brief indeed but full of mysteries, filial confidence is stirred by these words: Our Father, who art in heaven. If He is Father, in Him shine forth charity, indulgence, kindness, mercy; if He is in heaven, His power is great and infinite; and therefore He can and wills kindly to hear our prayers. By the word our, the faithful are taught that they are brothers to one another and ought to pray for one another.

Moreover the petitions are ordered according to the order of charity, so that we attend first to God, then to ourselves. In relation to God, we ask that the sanctity and glory of the divine name be increased: Hallowed be Thy name; then, moreover, that the kingdom of God be extended, or the preaching and practice of the Gospel: "Thy kingdom come"; and therefore that the will of God be fulfilled on earth, His laws diligently observed and commandments kept, so that He may be able to reign in the minds of men: "Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." - In relation to ourselves, we ask first "our daily bread," that is, not only the supports of material life, but also and especially spiritual food, namely the word of God, the eucharistic bread, and the other graces by which the soul is nourished; afterwards, that the impediments to eternal beatitude be removed, namely sins: "And forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors"; from which we are powerfully moved to forgiving others, since the remission of sins depends upon the condonation of injuries; and consequently that we may overcome the temptations by which we are allured to sin: "And lead us not into temptation." Finally, as in a brief compendium, we ask that we be delivered from evil, not indeed from all evils, but only from those which can bring no utility to the soul; and that the evils by which we are sometimes pressed, we may bear with a patient, indeed even willing, soul.

885. Note. Thus far concerning prayer which is directed to God Himself. And indeed God alone is to be prayed to as the first and principal author and giver of goods. Since Christ is the God-Man, our prayers can and ought also to be directed to Him; besides, as man, He is the most perfect mediator, "always living to make intercession for us";²⁰ and therefore our prayers, offered through Christ, obtain greater efficacy.

²⁰ Heb. 7:25.

Besides, from what has been said in the Treatise on the Incarnate Word, n. 300-306, it is good and useful to invoke the saints, and especially the Blessed Virgin; for Trent declares:²¹ "that the Saints reigning together with Christ offer their prayers to God for men; that it is good and useful suppliantly to invoke them: and, in order to obtain benefits from God through His Son Jesus Christ our Lord, who alone is our Redeemer and Savior, to have recourse to their prayers, assistance, and help." From these things it is clear: (a) that the invocation of the saints is indeed good and useful, but not necessary for salvation; (b) that graces are to be expected not from the saints themselves, but from God; (c) that the intercession of the saints rests upon the merits of Christ, who alone is our Savior and Mediator properly so called, while the saints are mediators only improperly and secondarily.

²¹ Trent, sess. XXV, apud Denzinger, n. 860.

1. NATURE OF PRAYER.—Prayer (εὐχή, προσευχή, oratio) may be broadly defined as the act of raising the mind to God. All intelligent creatures are bound to think of God now and then and hold converse with Him in order to exercise their faith, hope, and charity.¹ This converse may be mental (verbum mentis) or vocal, i.e., expressed in words (verbum oris).²

¹ St. Augustine, Enchiridion, c. 7: “Faith believes; hope and charity pray. But without faith they cannot exist, and by this very fact faith also prays.” (Migne, P. L., XL, 234).—IDEM, Epist., 130 (al. 121), c. 9, n. 18: “In faith, hope, and charity themselves, we always pray with continual desire. But for this reason, at fixed intervals of hours and times, we also ask God in words, so that by signs of things we may admonish ourselves, may make known to ourselves how much progress we have made in this desire, and may stir ourselves more ardently to increase it. For a more worthy effect will follow when a more fervent affection precedes it.” (P. L., XXXIII, 501).

² Ps. XXIV, 1.—St. John Chrysostom, Homil. in Gen., XXX, c. 7: “Prayer is discourse with God.” (Migne, P. G., LIII, 280).—St. John Damascene, De Fide Orth., l. III, n. 24: “Prayer is an ascent of the mind to God or a request of fitting things from God.” (P. G., XCIV, 1089).—St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps., LXXXV, n. 7: “Your prayer is speech to God: when you read, God speaks to you; when you pray, you speak to God.” (P. L., XXXVII, 1086).—Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., Vol. I, n. 250: “Prayer, taken broadly, is an elevation of the mind to God, or any pious affection of the soul toward God and supernatural things. In the stricter sense, however, it is a request of fitting things from God.”—A. Poulain, S.J., The Graces of Interior Prayer, 2nd ed., pp. 1 sqq.

Prayer in all its forms—adoration, praise, petition, thanksgiving—constitutes an act of divine worship, because when a man prays he honors and reveres God and acknowledges Him to be the author of all goodness. Prayer is, therefore, not merely man’s voluntary acknowledgment of his entire dependence on God, but likewise the first and most immediate act of worship, and consequently an essential element of that natural religion which is found among all nations, even the most degraded savages.³

³ E. v. Lasaulx, Studien des klassischen Altertums, Ratisbon 1854, pp. 137 sqq.; J. Döllinger, Heidentum und Judentum, Ratisbon 1857, pp. 199 sq., 369, 526 sq.; W. Schneider, Die Naturvölker, Vol. II, pp. 269 sq., 347 sqq.; C. Ausfeld, De Graecorum Precationibus, Leipsic 1903.

Prayer attains its highest and most perfect development in the Catholic Church, which teaches that we must “adore the Father in spirit and in truth,”⁴ and assures us that we have in Christ a Mediator through whom we shall receive whatever we ask for in His name.⁵

⁴ John IV, 24.

⁵ John XV, 16; cfr. Matt. VI, 9; Mark I, 35; Luke XI, 1 sqq.; John XIV, 13 sq.; XVI, 23; Heb. V, 7; VII, 25.

In Gen. IV, 26 we read that Enos, the son of Seth, “began to call upon the name of the Lord.” This rather obscure text can not mean, as some pretend, that Enos invented prayer or was the first to introduce public worship. The former hypothesis is unlikely on a priori grounds, while the second is refuted by the fact, attested by the same holy Book, that long before Enos was born, Cain and Abel publicly “offered gifts to God.” As to what the passage does mean, exegetes are not agreed. Some think it marks the institution of solemn public sacrifice. Others regard it as a testimony to the ancient use of the name “Yahweh,” thinking that Enos began to worship God by that name. A third group maintains that in the days of Enos the pious Sethites began to be known as children of Yahweh, in opposition to the wicked descendants of Cain, who called themselves “sons of men.” The last-mentioned assumption derives plausibility from the fact that in Gen. VI, 2 the Sethites are called simply “sons of God.” However, we rather incline to the opinion that Gen. IV, 26 was originally a gloss, explaining that before Enos it was forbidden to pronounce the name of God, and that this gloss, through an error made by some careless copyist, slipped into the sacred text.⁶

⁶ Cfr. A. B. Ehrlich, Randglossen zur hebräischen Bibel, Vol. I, Leipsic 1908, pp. 25 sq.

2. EFFICACY OF PRAYER.—Christ said: “Your Father who is in heaven, [will] give good things to them that ask him.”⁷ This oft-repeated promise can have but one meaning, namely, that the right kind of prayer is sure to be heard by God. Prayer, in other words, is absolutely certain in its effects. Moreover, it strengthens man’s friendly relations with God, confirms faith, invigorates hope, kindles love, enlightens the intellect, steels the will, purifies the heart, and thus disposes the soul for the fruitful reception of grace.⁸

⁷ Matt. VII, 11; cfr. XVIII, 19 sq.; Jas. V, 16.

⁸ Ps. XLIX, 15; John XVI, 24; cfr. Tertullian, De Orat., c. 24: “Prayer alone is what conquers God. . . . Prayer is the wall of faith, our arms and weapons against the man who watches us from every side. Therefore let us never walk unarmed. By day let us remember our station, by night our vigil. Under the arms of prayer let us guard the standard of our emperor; let us await the angel’s trumpet while praying.” (Ed. Leopold, P. II, 16).—St. John Chrysostom, Homil. in Gen., XXX, n. 5: “For prayer is truly a great thing, a great security, a great treasure, a great harbor, an inviolate place.” (Migne, P. G., LIII, 279).—Pseudo-Augustine, Append. Serm., 47 (al. 226 de Temp.): “The prayer of the just is the key of heaven. Prayer ascends and God’s mercy descends. Although the earth is low and heaven high, God nevertheless hears the tongue of a man, if he has a clean conscience.” (Migne, P. L., XXXIX, 1838).—Serm., 55 (al. 4 ex Homil., 50), n. 1: “He truly knows how to live rightly who knows how to pray rightly.” (P. L., XXXIX, 1849).—On Luther’s teaching concerning the efficacy of “right prayer” (oratio vera) see Denifle, Luther und Luthertum, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 109 sqq. (Eng. tr. by R. Volz, Luther and Lutherdom, Vol. I, Part I, Somerset, O., 1917, pp. 113 sqq.)

Besides these general effects, prayer has a very special one, namely, to obtain for us the things for which we ask, provided, of course, we pray in the right spirit, i.e., with due regard to God’s honor and the salvation of souls. It is in this sense that Christ says: “All things whatsoever you shall ask in prayer, believing, you shall receive.”⁹

⁹ Matt. XXI, 22; cfr. Matt. VI, 5 sqq.; VII, 7 sq.; XVIII, 19 sq.; XXVI, 39, 42; Mark XI, 24 sq.; John XIV, 13 sq.; XV, 7, 16; XVI, 23; cfr. 1 Kings III, 18.—F. Schmid, Die Wirksamkeit des Bittgebetes, Brixen, 1895.

When St. Monica grieved for her wayward son Augustine, a bishop advised her “to pray for him to the Lord” and consoled her with the assurance: “It is impossible for a son of so many tears to be lost.”¹⁰

¹⁰ “It cannot happen that the son of so many tears should perish.” St. Augustine, Confessiones, III, c. 12 (Migne, P. L., XXXII, 691).

The objections usually made against the efficacy of prayer are inspired by Pantheistic or Deistic prepossessions and cannot stand the clear white light of Christian revelation.¹¹ Prayer is not incompatible with belief in God and the immutability of His Providence. We do not appeal to God to tell Him our needs, which He knows better than we, but to recall to our own minds the truth that He is the Author of all goodness and that we depend entirely on His bounty.¹² When we pray we do not mean to persuade God to change His eternal decrees; on the contrary, our prayers have entered into those decrees, as secondary causes, from all eternity.¹³

¹¹ Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 2.—IDEM, Contra Gentiles, III, c. 95 sq.—V. Cathrein, S. J., Moralphilosophie, Vol. II, 4th ed., pp. 36 sq.

¹² Matt. VI, 8, 32.—St. Augustine, Serm., 56 (al. 48 de Divers.), c. 3, n. 4: “Lest perhaps someone say here: If [God] knows what is necessary for us, why do we say even a few words? Why do we pray? He Himself knows what He knows to be necessary for us. But for this reason He wished you to pray, that He might give to one who desires, lest what He gives be held cheap, because He Himself has inspired the desire itself.” (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 379).—IDEM, Epist., 130 (al. 121), n. 17: “What reason He does this, who knew what was necessary for us before we ask Him, can stir the mind, unless we understand that our Lord and God wishes our will, which He cannot be ignorant of, to become known to ourselves, but our desire, by which we may be able to receive what He prepares to give, to be exercised in prayers.”—IDEM, ibid., n. 18: “Hence also that which the Apostle says (Phil. IV, 6) is not so to be understood as though [our petitions] became known to God, who indeed knew them before they existed, but that through patience they should become known to us before God, not through boastfulness before men.” (P. L., XXXVIII, 500 sq.).—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 2, ad 1: “It is not necessary for us to address prayers to God so that we may manifest our needs or desires to Him, but so that we ourselves may consider that in these matters recourse must be had to divine aid.”—IDEM, ibid., ad 3: “God out of His liberality bestows many things upon us even when not asked, but He wills to bestow certain things upon us when we ask, and this is for our benefit, namely, that we may acquire a certain confidence in having recourse to God and that we may recognize Him as the author of our goods.”—Catech. Rom., P. IV, c. 2, qu. 7.

¹³ Matt. XXIV, 20.—Conc. Vatic., Sess. III, c. 1: “This one true God, by His goodness and almighty power . . . by a most free counsel, at once from the beginning of time fashioned out of nothing both creatures, the spiritual and the corporeal. . . . But all things which He created, God by His providence protects and governs, reaching mightily from end to end and ordering all things sweetly. For all things are naked and open to His eyes (Heb. IV, 13), even those which will come to pass by the free action of creatures.”—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 2: “By divine providence it is disposed not only which effects shall occur, but also from which causes and in what order they shall proceed. Now among the other causes the causes of certain things are human acts. Hence men must do certain things, not that by their acts they may change the divine disposition, but that by their acts they may fulfill certain effects according to the order arranged by God; and the same is also true in natural causes. And it is similar also regarding prayer; for we do not pray in order to change the divine disposition, but that we may obtain that which God disposed to be fulfilled through prayers.”

St. Thomas says: “All mistakes in this matter arise from failing to note the difference between the system of the universe and any particular system (universalem ordinem et particularem). There is nothing to hinder any particular system being changed, whether by prayer or by any other means; for there is that existing beyond the bounds of the system which is capable of changing it. But beyond the system that embraces all things nothing can be posited whereby such system could possibly be changed, depending as it does on the universal cause. Therefore the Stoics laid it down that the system established by God could nowise be changed. But they failed in a right appreciation of this general system in supposing that prayers were useless, which was taking for granted that the wills of men, and their desires whence their prayers proceed, are not comprehended in that general system. For when they say that the same effect follows whether prayers are put up or not,—follows, that is, as part of the universal system of things,—they manifestly reserve and except prayers as not entering into that general system. Supposing prayers included in the system, then effects will follow from them by divine appointment as from other causes. One might as well exclude the effects of other every-day causes as exclude the effect of prayer. And if the immutability of the divine plan does not withdraw the effects of other causes, neither does it take away the efficacy of prayer. Prayers, then, avail, not as changing a system arranged from eternity, but as being themselves part of that system. And there is no difficulty in the efficacy of prayer changing the particular system of some inferior cause, by the doing of God, who overpasses all causes, and who consequently is not bound by the necessity of any system depending on any cause; but, on the contrary, every necessity of system dependent on any inferior cause is checked by Him, as having been instituted by Him. Inasmuch, then, as pious prayers avail to alter some points of the system of inferior causes that was established by God, God is said to ‘turn’ or ‘repent.’ Hence St. Gregory says that God does not change His counsel, though He sometimes changes His sentence,—not the sentence which declares His eternal arrangements, but the sentence which declares the order of inferior causes, according to which Ezechias was to die, or some nation to be punished for its sins. Such change of sentence is called in metaphorical language ‘repentance,’ inasmuch as God behaves like one repentant, to whom it belongs to change what He has done. In the same way God is said metaphorically to be ‘angry,’ inasmuch as by punishing He produces the effect of anger.”¹⁴

¹⁴ Summa contra Gentiles, III, c. 96 (Rickaby, God and His Creatures, pp. 258 sq.). In the above passage, according to Fr. Jos. Rickaby, S.J., whose free translation we have adopted (God and His Creatures, London 1905, p. 259), St. Thomas admirably, though perhaps inadvertently, “hits off the real meaning of what he and Aristotle called ‘contingent’ in reference to a ‘particular system,’ but (apart from the doings of free will) every event is ‘necessary’ in the ‘general system,’ on the hypothesis of that system being. The killing of a sheep by lightning is a contingency unprovided for in the ovine economy, but pre-arranged in the general economy of the universe, in which general system it is an hypothetical necessity: it must be, if the system is to stand as it is.”

3. THE OBJECT OF PRAYER.—Whatever man may legitimately desire, he may also pray for. “It is permitted to pray for what it is permitted to desire.”¹⁵ The opinion that we are permitted only to pray in a general way that God’s “will be done on earth as it is in Heaven,” is contrary to Revelation. Both the Old and the New Testament, especially the Epistles of St. Paul, contain numerous instances of prayer offered for specific objects. Christ Himself prayed not only for the salvation of mankind in general, but for particular favors, of which the very prayer He taught His disciples enumerates no less than seven. St. Paul says: “Be nothing solicitous, but in every thing,¹⁶ by prayer and supplication, with thanksgiving, let your petitions¹⁷ be made known to God.”¹⁸

¹⁵ St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 6.—St. Augustine, Serm., 56 (al. 48 de Div.), n. 2: “Many ask for what they ought not to ask, being ignorant of what is expedient for them. Therefore he who invokes must guard against two things: lest he ask for what he ought not, and lest he ask it from one from whom he ought not.”—IDEM, ibid., n. 4: “The words which our Lord Jesus Christ taught in the [Lord’s] Prayer are a form of desires. You are not permitted to ask for anything other than what is written there.” (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 378, 379).—IDEM, Epist., 130 (al. 121), n. 23: “Therefore let there at least be shame in asking for things which one is not ashamed to covet.” (P. L., XXXIII, 503).

¹⁶ ἐν παντί.

¹⁷ τὰ αἰτήματα ὑμῶν.

¹⁸ Phil. IV, 6; cfr. Matt. VI, 9 sqq.; Luke XXII, 32; XXIII, 34.—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 5.

a) Unconditionally we should pray for the supernatural graces of the moral order and for sanctification, i.e., eternal beatitude and whatever is required to attain it,—sufficient and efficacious grace, the gifts of the Holy Ghost, and the higher graces of the interior life. Conditionally we may pray for such favors and blessings as do not immediately serve the purpose of self-sanctification, e.g., the charismata, visions, miracles, revelations,—provided, namely, that the circumstances of the case are not such as to render our prayer a tentatio Dei. Conditionally we may and should also petition God for the good things of the natural order. The condition is that we do not desiderate these temporal blessings inordinately, i. e., for their own sake, but with due subordination to our supernatural destiny and the kingdom of God. A superabundance of temporal goods entails many temptations and dangers, and therefore, generally speaking, man should not desire or pray for wealth unless it is probable that he will employ it well, and even in that case he should exclude all inordinate desire by adding to his prayer the condition: “Provided it will help me to save my soul.”¹⁹

¹⁹ Prov. XXX, 8 sq.; Matt. VI, 33; XIII, 22; XXIV, 20; 1 Tim. VI, 8–10; Jas. IV, 3, 15; V, 17 sq.—Prop. Damnat. Mich. de Molinos, n. 14 sq. (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1234 sq.).

b) It is wrong and strictly forbidden to pray for anything that would surely prove detrimental to one’s own salvation or the salvation of others (mala ordinis moralis), e.g., for the withdrawal of some indispensable grace, or that some one might sin, even if it were only as a means of humiliation and reform.²⁰

²⁰ Cfr. Rom. III, 8; Gal. II, 17.—St. Augustine, Serm., 56 (al. 48 de Div.), n. 3: “In the holy Psalms you have read that the one who speaks in the Psalms seems to call down many evils upon his enemies. And indeed, someone says, the one who speaks in the Psalms is just; why, then, does he wish such evils upon his enemies? He does not wish them, but foresees them: it is the prophecy of one who foretells, not the desire of one who curses. For in the spirit they knew to whom evil was to happen and to whom good; and through prophecy they spoke as though they wished for what they foresaw. But you, how do you know whether the one upon whom you now call down evil will not become better than you? But I know that he is wicked, you say. And do you know that you are wicked? Although perhaps you dare to judge concerning another’s heart, which you do not know, yet you do know that you are wicked.” (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 378).

Evils of the natural order (mala physica), on the other hand, may be made the object of prayer in so far as they are licit means for the attainment of a higher end.

READINGS.—Bl. Albertus Magnus, Tract. de Forma Orandi, ed. A. Wimmer, Ratisbon 1902.—St. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, P. V., c. 10 (ed. 2a, Vicetia, pp. 434 sqq.).—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83.—St. Alphonsus de’ Liguori, Prayer, the Great Means of Salvation, tr. by J. B. Coyle, C.SS.R., London 1922.—G. Tillmann, Das Gebet nach der Lehre der Heiligen, Vol. I, Freiburg 1874.—A. Stöckl, Das Christentum und die modernen Irrtümer, Mayence 1886, pp. 140 sqq.—J. B. Wirthmüller, Die moralische Tugend der Religion, pp. 31 sqq.—L. Lemme, Die Macht des Gebetes, Barmen 1887.—O. Lefranc, La Prière, Paris 1904.—I. M. L. Monsabré, La Prière. Paris 1906.—S. Schiffini, S.J., Tractatus de Virtutibus Infusis, pp. 574 sqq.—H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. II, 11th ed., pp. 151 sq., 157 sqq.—Thos. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 209 sqq.—Ad. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol. Mor. et Pastoral., Vol. II, pp. 497 sq., 505 sqq.—A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. I, 11th ed., pp. 269 sqq.—J. J. Wynne, S.J., in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XII, pp. 345 sqq.—Fisher, A Treatise on Prayer, London 1885.—Jos. Egger, S.J., Are Our Prayers Heard? London 1910.—Aug. Poulain, S.J., The Graces of Interior Prayer (tr. by L. Yorke Smith, 4th ed., London, s. a.).—Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, 5th ed., St. Louis 1924, pp. 43, 91, 127 sqq., 133, 142 sq., 266 sqq., 431, 433, 435.—C. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. IX.

The distinction between different kinds of prayer is based partly on their form and partly on their substance.¹

¹ 1 Tim. II, 1.

1. With regard to substance we distinguish prayers of adoration or praise, prayers of thanksgiving, and prayers of supplication or petition. However, this distinction is a purely abstract one; in reality each of these species of prayer presupposes or includes the others, because, on the one hand, all prayer per se serves to praise or glorify God, while, on the other, no prayer is offered to Him, at least here on earth, that does not somehow partake of the character of a petition.

a) The prayer of those who enjoy the beatific vision of God (the angels and saints) consists in adoration (adoratio, laudatio) and thanksgiving (gratiarum actio).² These two kinds of prayer are the most perfect and the sublimest of all. Through adoration, in particular, the Church Militant unites herself by anticipation with the Church Triumphant.

² Is. VI, 1 sqq.; Deut. VII, 10; Apoc. IV, 7 sqq.—St. Augustine, Serm., 159 (al. 17 de Verbis Apost.), n. 1: “In the [heavenly] fatherland there will be no place for praying, but only for praising. Why will there be no place for praying? Because nothing is lacking. What is believed here is seen there; what is hoped for here is possessed there; what is asked for here is received there.” (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 868).

The prayer of thanksgiving flows naturally from the heart of man as he perceives God’s favors and graces.³ Christ frequently gave thanks to His Heavenly Father.⁴ Prayers of thanksgiving were inculcated and practiced by the Apostles.⁵ The Church offers such prayers to God particularly through the Mass, which is essentially a sacrifice of thanksgiving.⁶

³ Rom. XI, 36; XVI, 25–27; Gal. I, 4 sq.; 1 Tim. I, 17; 2 Tim. IV, 18.

⁴ Matt. XV, 36; XXVI, 26; Mark VI, 41; VIII, 6; Luke IX, 16; XXII, 19; John XI, 41; 1 Cor. XI, 24.

⁵ Acts IV, 24–31; Eph. V, 20; Col. I, 12; II, 6 sq.; III, 15, 17; IV, 2; 1 Thess. V, 18.

⁶ “It is truly worthy and just, right and salutary, that we should always and everywhere give thanks to Thee. . . .” Cfr. 1 Thess. I, 3; II, 12.

b) Petition (precatio, postulatio, preces) is preëminently the prayer of those who believe and hope as wayfarers. It is an expression of bodily and spiritual indigence and may therefore be fitly termed “the prayer par excellence.”⁷ As long as man has not yet attained the object of his hope, his prayer is necessarily one of petition, and the more clearly he perceives his helplessness in this “vale of tears,” the more readily will he direct his eyes towards Heaven and beg God to deliver him from evil and bless him.⁸ Ps. XXX, 1, 2: “I have lifted up my eyes to the mountains, from whence help shall come to me. My help is from the Lord, who made heaven and earth.”

⁷ Cfr. St. John Damascene, De Fide Orth., l. III, c. 24: “Prayer is . . . the asking from God of those things which it is fitting to ask.” (Migne, P. G., XCIV, 1089).

⁸ Matt. VII, 13; Jas. I, 17; cfr. Tillmann, Das Gebet, Vol. I, pp. 62 sqq.

c) Special kinds of petition are the prayer for forgiveness of sins (deprecatio) or propitiation, and the prayer of intercession (intercessio), in which man asks God’s grace for others.

The prayer of intercession is founded upon the divine economy of salvation. Man stands before God not as an isolated individual, but as part of an organism, viz.: humanity and the Church (communio sanctorum). To pray for our fellowmen is an important duty which we owe alike to those who are members of the mystical body of Christ, and to those who are destined and able to become such. Christ and His Apostles admonish us to pray for all men without exception,⁹ but especially for our superiors, our brethren in the faith, and our enemies.¹⁰

⁹ Matt. VI, 9 sqq.; Luke XXIII, 34; John XVII, 20 sq.; 1 Tim. II, 1–5; Jas. V, 16.

¹⁰ Matt. V, 44; Luke VI, 28; Eph. VI, 18 sq.; Col. IV, 2 sq.; 1 Tim. II, 2.—Cfr. St. Augustine, Epist., 231, n. 6 (Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 1026).—Gury, Compendium, Vol. I, n. 254: “It is asked, for whom must one pray? Answer: 1. For ourselves (according to the first rule of charity);—2. For all men who are wayfarers, even unbelievers;—3. For souls detained in Purgatory. This is inferred, first, from the general law of charity;—secondly, from the words of St. Paul (1 Tim. ii, 1–2). . . . Nor are enemies to be excepted, as is clear from the words of Christ, Mt. v, 44.”

To pray for others is a duty prescribed by the law of charity, which varies in proportion to the needs of our fellowmen and our individual relations to each.¹¹

¹¹ Cfr. St. Augustine, Epist., 130 (al. 121), c. 12, n. 23: “These things must be prayed for both for ourselves and for our own and for strangers and for enemies themselves, without any wavering of doubt, although for one person one affection and for another another affection may arise or excel in the heart of the one praying, according as relationships are near or remote.” (Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 503).

The “poor souls” in Purgatory have a special claim to our intercession because they need prayer most of all and are unable to help themselves.¹² After them come the impenitent sinners and those who are separated from the Church of Christ.

¹² 2 Tim. I, 16–18.

Our social relations oblige us to pray, first of all for parents, children, brothers and sisters; secondly, for more distant relatives, friends, and benefactors, and thirdly, for those in authority in Church and State.

To pray for our enemies is an act of heroic virtue and therefore specially meritorious. Generally speaking it is only a matter of counsel, but there are times when it becomes a strict duty.

The above enumeration shows that we are bound to pray for all men without exception, unless indeed God should manifest to us by a private revelation that some particular person was irretrievably lost.¹³

¹³ Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 8: “To love enemies in general is under precept, but to love them in particular is not under precept, except according to the preparation of the mind, so that, namely, a man would be prepared even in particular to love an enemy and to help him in an occasion of necessity or if he were to ask pardon. But to love enemies absolutely in particular and to help them belongs to perfection. But similarly it is of necessity that we not exclude enemies in our common prayers which we make for others. But that we pray for them in particular belongs to perfection, not necessity, except in some particular case.” (Cfr. art. 7, ad 3).—A. Lehmkuhl, S. J., Casus Conscientiae, Vol. I, 3rd ed., n. 390 sqq.

The opinion that “the world,” or certain individuals, may be excluded from our intercessory prayers, is untenable. Yahweh’s command to Jeremias,¹⁴ which is sometimes quoted in support of this view, does not refer to eternal salvation, for which man may and should always pray, but to the prophet’s petition that God might avert the temporary punishments He was about to inflict upon the Israelites for their sins.

¹⁴ Jer. VII, 16.

When Our Lord said to His disciples: “I pray not for the world, but for them whom thou hast given me,”¹⁵ He merely meant to assure His disciples that they were the particular object of His solicitude. This interpretation is borne out by verse 20 of the same chapter of St. John’s Gospel, where Christ says: “And not for them [the disciples] only do I pray, but for them also who through their word shall believe in me, that they all may be one, as thou, Father, in me, and I in thee; that they also may be one in us; that the world may believe that thou hast sent me.”¹⁶

¹⁵ John XVII, 9.

¹⁶ John XVII, 20 sq.; cfr. Matt. 5, 44; Luke XXIII, 34. See, however, J. McRory, The Gospel of St. John, 4th ed., Dublin 1914, p. 286; J. Knabenbauer, S.J., Commentarius in Evang. sec. Ioannem, 2nd ed., Paris 1906, pp. 505 sq.

A difficulty might arise from 1 John V, 16, were it not evident from the context that the Apostle means to say, not that it is useless to intercede for those who commit mortal sin, but merely that prayers said for them are not easily heard.¹⁷

¹⁷ J. B. Wirthmüller, Die moralische Tugend der Religion, pp. 62 sqq.

d) As it is permissible to ask the saints in Heaven to intercede for us, provided, of course, that our confidence in their help does not become to us an occasion of sloth or false security,¹⁸ so it is entirely in accord with the dogma of the Communion of Saints to ask the living faithful for their intercession here below. St. Paul repeatedly requests his fellow-Christians to pray for him and assures them that he will pray for them.¹⁹

¹⁸ St. Jerome, Contra Vigilant., n. 6: “If the apostles and martyrs, while still constituted in the body, can pray for others, when they must still be solicitous for themselves, how much more after crowns, victories, and triumphs?” (Migne, P. L., XXIII, 344).—St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 11: “Since prayer made for others proceeds from charity, the more perfect in charity the saints who are in the fatherland are, the more they pray for wayfarers who can be helped by prayers; and the more closely they are joined to God, the more efficacious their prayers are. For the divine order has this, that the excellence of superiors should flow down into inferiors, as the air is illuminated by the brightness of the sun.”

¹⁹ Rom. XV, 30 sqq.; 2 Cor. I, 11; Eph. I, 15 sq.; VI, 18 sq.; Phil. I, 19; Col. IV, 2 sqq.; 1 Thess. I, 2; 2 Thess. I, 11; III, 1 sq.; cfr. Heb. XIII, 18 sq.

2. In regard to its form, prayer may be either vocal (oratio vocalis) or mental (oratio mentalis).²⁰

²⁰ G. Tillmann, Das Gebet nach der Lehre der Heiligen, Vol. I, pp. 73 sqq., 85 sqq.; Vol. II, pp. 6 sqq., 203 sqq. Cfr. Poulain, The Graces of Interior Prayer, pp. 7 sqq.

A man prays orally when he expresses his interior devotion by means of words or formularies. The essential thing, of course, is the interior devotion, for purely external or vocal prayer without a corresponding interior disposition would be no prayer at all.²¹

²¹ Is. XXIX, 13; Matt. XV, 7 sq.; Mark VII, 6.—St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps., CXIX, s. 29, n. 1.

In vocal prayer at Mass, as prescribed by the Church, the words should be uttered so that the one who is praying can hear them, unless there be an obstacle.²² Each word must, moreover, be pronounced correctly and according to the manner prescribed (rite ac recte). If one syncopates or mutilates his words, or corrupts their meaning, he does not satisfy his obligation, unless there be a parvitas materiae.²³ It is not regarded as a corruption to swallow the final syllables.²⁴ Those who suffer from a defect of speech or who have unfortunately contracted a habit of inattention, are obliged to do the best they can and should try to correct their evil habit.²⁵ In saying the Divine Office or any other prescribed prayer in common with others, it is sufficient to listen with attention to those parts which are recited by others.²⁶

²² V. Croix, Theol. Mor., IV, 1294, who calls this opinion “communis.” (Cfr. Bonacina, De Hor. Can., P. I, qu. iii, P. 2, § 1, n. 24; Salmant., XVI, 3, 5).—St. Alphonsus seems to contradict this view when he says that one who is unable to hear himself can satisfy this obligation. But the contradiction is apparent only. The Saint does not mean one who cannot hear himself because the sound his vocal organs make is inaudible, but for some other reason, e. g., because of great noise or deafness. (St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., IV, 163; VI, 414).

²³ St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., IV, 165.

²⁴ Croix, Theol. Mor., IV, 1302.

²⁵ St. Alphonsus, op. cit., IV, 165.

²⁶ Laymann, De Hor. Can., c. V, 8; Salmant., XVI, 5, 6.

In order that vocal prayer be meritorious, it is necessary that it be recited in the state of grace, for if one is in the state of mortal sin, prayer can bring him only the graces absolutely necessary for conversion.²⁷ The theologians distinguish a threefold power of prayer: that of acquiring merit (meritoria), that of making satisfaction for sin (satisfactoria),²⁸ and that of procuring favors for others (impetratoria). In as far as it is meritorious, prayer is based upon justice; in as far as it is impetratory, it is based upon the divine mercy;²⁹ in as far as it is satisfactory, it is based upon justice in regard to the living and mercy in regard to the dead.³⁰ In as far as it is based upon justice, it produces its effects infallibly; in as far as it is based upon the divine mercy, it produces its effects conditionally, i. e., if and in as much as it pleases God. Prayer, in as far as it is meritorious, profits only the person who prays, whereas impetratory and sat- isfactory prayer may also profit others. Satisfactory prayer profits the living per modum solutionis, and therefore infallibly;³¹ the dead, per modum suffragii, i. e., by the power of impetration,³² if and to the extent in which it pleases God to grant the favor requested.³³

²⁷ Cfr. Jas. V, 16; St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 16.

²⁸ St. Thomas, Suppl., qu. 15, art. 3, ad 1.

²⁹ IDEM, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 16, ad 2.

³⁰ Suarez, De Poenit., dist. 23, sect. 1; De Lugo, De Poenit., disp. 26, sect. 1; Cat. Rom., “De Sacr. Poenit.,” n. 51.

³¹ Suarez, l. c., and De Lugo, l. c.

³² Cfr. Leo X, Bull “Exsurge Domine.”

³³ S. R. C., July 28th, 1840.—Cfr. J. D’Annibale, Summula Theol. Mor., Vol. II, 5th ed., Rome 1908, pp. 17 sq.

Interior prayer is a devout communion of the soul with God effected without the aid of external words or formularies. Vocal and interior prayer do not exclude, but, on the contrary, include each other, as the former is the beginning and foundation of the latter and can never be entirely dispensed with even in the highest stages of the spiritual life.³⁴

³⁴ St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83, art. 12: “The voice is joined to prayer for a threefold reason: first, indeed, to arouse interior devotion, by which the mind of the one praying is raised to God, because through exterior signs, whether of voices or even of certain deeds, the mind of man is moved according to apprehension and consequently according to affection. Hence Augustine says [Epist., 130 (al. 121), c. 9, n. 18], ‘that by words and other signs we arouse ourselves more keenly to increase holy desire.’ And therefore in private prayer voices and signs of this kind should be used only so far as they help to arouse the mind interiorly. But if the mind is distracted by this or hindered in any way, such things should be discontinued; this happens especially in those whose mind without signs of this kind is sufficiently prepared for devotion. . . . Secondly, vocal prayer is joined as though for the payment of a debt, so that, namely, man may serve God according to the whole of that which he has from God; that is, not only with the mind, but also with the body, which especially belongs to prayer insofar as it is satisfactory. . . . Thirdly, vocal prayer is joined from a certain overflow from the soul into the body arising from vehement affection, according to Ps. xv, 9.”

Interior prayer in its higher forms is called meditation and contemplation.

a) Meditation may be defined as the application of the three powers of the soul to prayer— the memory proposing a religious or moral truth, the understanding considering this truth in its application to the meditating individual, the will forming practical resolutions and asking for grace to keep them.³⁵

³⁵ Addis and Arnold, Catholic Dictionary, 9th ed., London 1917, p. 573.

Meditation differs from the theoretical consideration of religious truths or the study of theology in this, that it aims at the immediate application of the truths perceived by the understanding to one’s personal needs and strives to elicit the corresponding religious emotions.³⁶

³⁶ Pseudo-Augustine, Append. Serm., 302 (al. 112 de Temp.), n. 3: “Let there be no delay in doing what you understand inwardly by comprehending. And he is most blessed who turns the divine Scriptures into works.” (Migne, P. L., XXXIX, 2324).

The essential constituents of meditation are the preparatory prayer, realization of the divine presence, a lively consideration of the truths proposed, application of the same to one’s personal needs, the making of practical resolutions with regard to them (e. g., to apply them to-day, or in this or that concrete case, etc.), and the final prayer (colloquium), which should include thanksgiving, self-oblation, and a petition for the graces necessary to keep the good resolutions made.

Meditation is an important means of moral perfection, and though not strictly necessary for salvation, is indispensable to all who wish to lead a truly spiritual life, especially those who are called to a state of higher perfection.³⁷

³⁷ Cfr. Pius X’s Encyclical Letter to the Catholic Clergy.

Which litanies are common

90. 1. The most ancient and common litanies are the Litanies of All Saints¹ and the Litanies of the Dying.

Litanies of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus

2. To the Litanies approved by the Holy See must now be ascribed the Litanies of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, which by decree of April 2, 1899, were approved for the whole Church.

Force of episcopal approval

3. The other Litanies which only a Bishop has approved can have only private use, so that publicly, even without the intervention of a sacred minister, they are prohibited from being recited in Churches or public oratories.

What if litanies are published without approval

4. Yet if the necessary approval is lacking, the use of a sheet or writing exhibiting Litanies is not prohibited. The general reason already repeated more than once returns. Thus the common opinion. But booklets or books of litanies which lack approval incur the reprehension of the immediately following article 20.

¹ These, with a few changes, recur in various sacred ceremonies, as in the Office of Holy Saturday, in Rogations, in sacred Ordination, etc.

I. Notion. 1. A twofold description of prayer is proposed: the ascent of the mind to God; the petition of fitting things from God. The former is drawn from the praying subject and from the term of the motion, the latter from the object; the former sets forth more the dignity and sublimity of the action, the latter more its utility and the divine goodness; the former is more eternal, the latter more practical now and accommodated to our present state.

Each notion is well joined by Damascene ¹, since there is no ascent to God without petition, no petition made to God without an ascent of the mind to God. For, our present condition considered, our perpetual need of goods which we cannot receive except from God brings this about, that every formal approach of ours to God contains a formal or virtual petition. Indeed, in the perpetual thanksgiving of the heavenly citizens there is had a virtual supplication for perpetual divine possession; nor is conversation with God conceived where the creature (not a being in itself) does not receive, and God (infinite being, incapable of reception) does not give.

2. Prayer is distinguished as formal and virtual or vital. The former, from a suppliant intention, approaches God; the latter consists in good works, since good works have impetratory force.

It is also distinguished as mental and vocal: not because the former excludes words or exterior signs, but because it is not, as the latter is, bound to words. Vocal prayer is rendered in exterior words by intention; whether the one praying here and now finds words which he utters with a loud or low voice, or whether he follows a formula written at another time by himself or by another. Concerning the essence of vocal prayer cf. III, 39. - Mental prayer is so completed in the mind that there is no professed use of voices or exterior signs. Mental prayer in turn is divided into meditation and contemplation. Meditation strictly is discursive prayer; contemplation, as the fruit of meditation, is a simpler and affective intuition of truth. Contemplation itself can be either ordinary or extraordinary, or mystical. The latter has as its proper note that it takes place with a certain sense of the divine presence: it is the fruit of a new divine grace, distinct from the grace which makes an act supernatural and salutary. From this we pronounce nothing concerning the frequency or rarity of that grace. Cf. our work Quaestiones de Virtute religionis, etc., q. 1, c. 2.

3. Their own parts in prayer belong to the intellect and to the will. Yet because prayer pertains to the genus of a certain speech, and by persuasion orders God toward doing something in favor of the one praying, prayer is formally an act of the intellect.

¹ De fide orthodoxa III, 24, P.G. 94, 1090.

The Parts of Complete Prayer. From the occasion of the words of St. Paul, "I beseech therefore first of all that supplications, prayers, intercessions, thanksgivings be made for all men" (1 Tim. 2:1), St. Thomas, 2, 2, q. 83, art. 17, finds in every perfect prayer four parts: approach to God through a certain dutiful salutation, which he calls prayer strictly so called; formal petition, which is designated by the name of postulation; exposition of reasons and sacred contestation, which is called obsecration; and thanksgiving for benefits already received, which disposes toward new ones to be granted. These parts are easily distinguished in several prayers of the Church, for example in the prayer of the Most Holy Sacrament: "O God (prayer), who under a wonderful sacrament hast left us a memorial of Thy Passion (thanksgiving), grant graciously, etc. (postulation), graciously, who livest and reignest (obsecration)."

II. The Praying Subject. Christ never prayed servilely, as creatures do who cannot provide for themselves the things which they seek; but dispensatively, by voluntary lowering of Himself, which, by no means repugnant to His human nature, was at the same time an example to us. In heaven, however, He is presented to us by the Apostle as "always living to make intercession for us" (Heb. 7:25). But since He is now in the glory of the Father, and all things have been handed over into His hands, even as man, this is better understood, rather than of formal prayer, of the title of every grace to be obtained, which we perpetually have in His wounds and in His humanity.

That the Blessed Virgin Mary is, for us, by her prayer, the universal Mediatrix of grace, is a persuasion which is more and more rooted in the souls of the faithful, confirmed by several pontifical documents, expressed almost authentically by the proper Mass itself granted, nourished by the studies of theologians, so that the sweet hope grows day by day that at some time this truth will be proposed to the faithful as a dogma of faith to be believed. The peculiar force which, as Mother of God and our Mother, Mary has for interceding for us is so well known that therefore she has been called suppliant Omnipotence.

The Saints themselves can seek for themselves both the glory of the body and the accidental glory of honors or worship. For us they can obtain every genus of goods, according to the order of divine Providence.

The souls of purgatory, even if they do not know our petitions (which St. Thomas thinks, but it is not certain), seem at least able to pray for the living in common, and especially for those joined to them. Indeed, although they cannot satisfy, they can usefully pray to God that they may as quickly as possible obtain beatitude, by asking some remission of punishment or a certain divine motion by which God may move wayfarers to pray and satisfy for them. Cf. Suarez, De Religione, Tract. IV, Lib. I, c. 10, n. 25-28.

Every wayfarer can pray not only for himself, but also for his neighbor, of whom, on account of the bond of charity, he is in some way said to be one.

III. Object. All things are to be sought by us in order to salvation. Therefore an indifferent thing, as such, cannot be the object of an honorable petition. Yet those alone seem objectively to sin who, while asking temporal things, formally exclude the right use of the temporal good. For a thing indifferent from its object can be referred to divine glory. But whoever acts with an honorable intention tacitly does not seek a thing that is indifferent except insofar as it is lawful for him to seek the same. Therefore, rather than that we stir up scruples concerning the thing sought as indifferent, it will be much better that we inculcate the Lord's counsel: "Seek first the kingdom of God and all these things shall be added to you" (St. Luke 12:31); lest, from scant success of prayers, Christians begin to scrape away in their souls concerning prayer and to lead a languid spiritual life. Therefore they should also be admonished that temporal goods are not granted by God except in order to aiding salvation; and that by an excessive affection by which temporal things are sought before other goods, prayer itself is partly vitiated.

Things, however, can be sought determinately, which aids our fervor, or indeterminately, as when we confidently say: "He whom Thou lovest is sick" (Gospel of St. John 11:3).

IV. Terms. 1. Prayer is properly made to God, from whom we expect all goods. In a secondary way, the worship of suppliant prayer is directed to the Saints, that they may pray for us, and on account of their merits God may hear us. Because formal invocation of them is less essential, there is nothing wonderful in the fact that it must be referred to an age of developed Christian religion. But in the present state entirely to neglect it would savor of a certain pride and irreligiosity. Therefore c. 1276 opportunely commands these things: "Before the rest, let all the faithful pursue the Blessed Virgin Mary with filial devotion."

2. The pious work of aiding souls detained in purgatory is not doubted to contribute greatly to obtaining graces: pious alms are thus joined with prayer.

St. Thomas, 2, 2, q. 83, art. 11 ad 3, denies that the souls of purgatory are to be invoked, because they do not know our petitions and are rather in need than themselves helping (cf. n. 181). Yet these are not certain arguments. Nor does it appear why they cannot pray for the living in common and for those specially joined to them. Cf. Suarez, Relig. tr. IV, L. 1, c. 10, 25-28. And without doubt, once received into the eternal tabernacles, they will be grateful to their benefactors.

V. Efficacy. 1. From the divine promise, which is contained in manifest places of Sacred Scripture, prayer, made in the due manner, possesses an infallible efficacy of obtaining. "Ask and it shall be given you" (St. Matt. 7:7; St. Luke 11:9). "All things whatsoever you shall ask in prayer, believing, you shall receive" (St. Matt. 21:22). That it may be made in the due manner, there is required humility, by which, subject to God the Supreme Lord, we desire goods for ourselves according to the order pre-established for us by divine Wisdom; faith, by which we believe God's omnipotence and promises; confidence, by which we do not doubt concerning divine fidelity; perseverance, by which our virtue, especially humility, is exercised, and the defect of individual prayers is supplied; at least initial conversion to God, so that our petition may be sincere. Therefore, since God destines no goods for us as indifferent to salvation, and wills us to be subject to the laws of His supreme and universal Providence, all and only those things can be infallibly obtained by us which are necessary or useful for attaining the degree of heavenly glory predestined for us.

2. It is less established that prayer poured forth for others is of infallible efficacy. Yet the universal force of the words of Sacred Scripture seems to prove this, especially since they expressly commend prayer for others, for example Eph. 6:18, 19; 1 Tim. 2:1-4. But the necessary disposition can be lacking in him for whom we pray. And because the application of prayer to the souls of purgatory seems to be subject to other things than their present disposition, for example to the mercy by which they themselves were commendable while they lived on earth, therefore suffrages for the souls of purgatory do not always free them.

3. Aids of efficacy. Since divine Providence has brought us to our state and has prepared for us various conjunctions with others, the more we seek those things which are according to our condition, and the more the persons for whom we pray are joined to us, the more easily we shall be heard. Moreover, that the sanctity of the one praying contributes to the efficacy of prayer is not to be doubted.

4. Utility of imperfect prayer. Although a prayer in which some required condition is lacking cannot rest upon the divine promises, nevertheless it is not made useless, since the benignity of God preserves for it some impetratory force ¹, and repeated prayers can supply the defect of individual prayers.

¹ Cf. Aertnijs, I, 414, V; Tanquerey, II, 872.

— You ask concerning the necessity of attention and concerning distractions. A certain attention or application of mind is necessarily had, from the fact that someone, from a formal or virtual intention, pronounces prayerful words. Therefore distraction usually signifies not so much alienation of the mind from God as a division of the mind among several things. But the reverence owed to God demands that at least when we pray by profession, the mind be morally wholly turned to Him. But a just proportionate cause, whether of labor through which at the same time we desire to pour forth some prayer, or of the importance of the business itself whose thought comes upon the mind, or of the very utility of the distraction, can take away that irreverence, and therefore the venial sin. Cf. the things said, III, 39, where the threefold attention is also explained, or Tanquerey, II, n. 872.

VI. Necessity. 1. That prayer is necessary to us at least by necessity of precept is certain by faith. For this is demonstrated to us by very clear places of Sacred Scripture, by the word and example of the Lord, and by the exhortation of the Apostles. And the Scriptures so join prayer with necessary goods that they already inculcate a necessity of means, which is more clearly preached in Tradition and admitted by the more common opinion. Yet it is a diminished necessity of means, insofar as it presses, not strictly upon all, but upon most by ordinary law; i.e., according to the doctrine received in the schools, grace immediately sufficient for fully believing or for overcoming grave temptations is available to many by no other way than that of prayer. But who, without great temerity, could presume that he will be immune from great difficulties or temptations?

2. That one must pray frequently in life is effected from the same places of Scripture. For the sacred texts will that in every necessity, concerning every matter, we confidently have recourse to God. How often, however, cannot be defined. The theologians who demand monthly prayer do not demonstrate their intention. Therefore it must be said that this precept is more determined by the laws of the Church concerning hearing Mass, concerning receiving the sacraments, and is abundantly fulfilled by the various offices of Christian life.

3. The same precept obliges accidentally: a) when grave temptations are foreseen or must be overcome: the omission will be one sin, in number and species, with the sin which ought to have been avoided through prayer. For prayer was not prescribed except for avoiding that, so that one precept of not committing such a sin has been violated; b) when, in danger of death, pardon from mortal sin must be obtained; c) when, in a grave calamity of the public or of those joined to us, prayer is shown to be an efficacious remedy which others will neglect (when will these things be established?); d) from an imposed office: the pastor of souls is obliged to prayer by the office itself; those ordained in sacred orders, beneficed persons, together with the office imposed on them by the Church, have the obligation of reciting the divine hours.

For the most part, from a less right cause, the omission of every morning prayer, evening prayer, and prayer before and after bodily refreshment will be venial, although these are not prescribed. Catholic families are very opportunely admonished that these prayers, commended by the pious custom of the Church, not gradually be neglected and passed over. When refreshment is taken in a public place, our regions being considered, it is becoming that a priest or religious not omit prayer. And per se it is also to be recommended to lay persons that, in a manner which is free at the same time from timidity and from arrogance, they preserve the custom. What Mohammedans and many Protestants dare, will Catholics no longer dare?

— You ask, what prayer is to be preferred, whether mental or vocal. Mental prayer does not differ from vocal precisely in this, that the former excludes the parts of voice and body, while the latter excludes interior discourses and affections. For one who prays in the mind is accustomed to show himself praying by the whole habit of the body, and not rarely to break forth into words. Again, without some attention of the mind there would not be vocal prayer. But both prayers are separated by this distinction, that vocal prayer is bound to a definite form of words, while mental prayer is released from this bond.

These things presupposed, vocal prayer alone is adapted to public prayer; and the loftiest thoughts can be revolved in vocal prayer. Therefore, in the first place, each one ought to place before others that prayer by which he himself is more aided. Yet that prayer which is directed by the mind is preferable and per se more useful: it permits to the nobler faculties an unimpeded abundance of explaining themselves; it is prayer in which the voices serve the affections of the mind, and have only that use which agrees with the present desire or need of the soul, rather than a manner of praying which follows an exterior norm, fixes the acies of the intellect at least in part upon words, so that the superior faculties can give themselves less fully to their acts, and in some way join themselves to the words as attendants; or are easily impeded by the pronunciation of the words. Add that mental prayer is accustomed to be more laborious, so that the merit of greater bodily affliction is added.

Concerning Mystical Prayer. 1. Notion. Mystical prayer denotes contemplation of God or of heavenly things, full of affection, extraordinary and ineffable, with a certain sense of the divine presence, and indeed an intimate one. Although not all require this sense as essential, nevertheless in that sense by which mystics are said to experience divine things, we think there is a specific note by which mystical contemplation is proved to differ from common contemplation.

It is commonly known that mystical contemplation itself is distinguished by various degrees, of which the supreme is spiritual marriage. Moreover, mystical facts or phenomena which accompany that contemplation are called, some exdeic, insofar as they have as term something created, such as visions themselves, revelations, ecstasies; others are endeic, which attain God Himself or a closer conjunction with Him. The former pertain to graces gratuitously given, which are neither the object of merit nor contribute to sanctity; while the latter, in some degree, are offered as a sufficiently common reward of peculiar fidelity and are very useful for sanctity. Therefore the former are neither to be sought nor desired, but rather humbly to be fled. Nor must one strive indiscreetly for perfect contemplation ¹; yet for this a man can laudably dispose himself by great purity of heart, profound humility, and ardent charity.

Every mystical state indeed is the fruit of its own grace, distinct from the grace which effects a supernatural and salutary act; but a remote general aptitude, not to say universal, for obtaining that state in some degree seems rather to be admitted.

Let it be enough to have intimated these things concerning prayer; for more, cf., for example, in Quaestiones De virtute religionis et pietatis.

¹ Alvarez de Paz, De inquisitione pacis, b. 5, p. 2, c. 13.

I. Concerning worship. By the general name of worship all acts of the virtue of religion are designated, since by them the service of God is integrated. The worship of latria is distinguished, which is proper to the divine Majesty; of hyperdulia, which is rendered to the Blessed Virgin Mary; and of dulia, by which the Saints are commonly honored. Except sacrifice, which pertains to public latreutic worship alone, other external acts, according to the intention and circumstances of the one honoring, can manifest latria or dulia.

Worship is interior and exterior. Exterior worship can be private and public: public worship is rendered in the name of the Church, by persons legitimately deputed for this, or by acts which from the institution of the Church can be exhibited only to God, the Saints, and the Blessed (c. 1256). Public worship is called liturgical when it is rendered by a rite or ordered mode prescribed by legitimate power (by Christ or by the Church). The norms of the material execution of sacred rites are called rubrics. The liturgical spirit, or the study of accommodating personal devotion to the properly social devotion which belongs to liturgy, is greatly to be commended, yet so that it not be preached as exclusive, and not depress private devotion. Finally, he leads a liturgical life who is assiduous in celebrating liturgical acts and girds himself for them by private spiritual exercises.

With public worship today only these can be honored who, being prior to Alexander III, have been described in the martyrology, or who by decree of the Holy See have been numbered among the Saints or Blessed. Yet the immemorial worship rendered to Servants of God who died before 1534 can remain in its state. (That time is not taken mathematically or rigorously, but morally.)

Only those Servants of God can be called Venerable whose martyrdom or heroicity of virtues has been proved. Private worship is honorably attributed by someone to him whose sanctity is morally certain to that person. Canonization, but not beatification, contains an infallible decree. Therefore the worship of the Blessed is circumscribed by place and mode. Absolute worship is terminated at persons; relative worship at things which, on account of connection with persons, participate their sanctity. Such are relics and images: these we can immediately honor on account of the person; just as we can, without any honor rendered to the image itself, merely use the image for honoring the person.

To the Ordinary belongs the delegable power of solemnly blessing an image which is honored with public worship; nor can an unusual one be placed in sacred places without the license of the Ordinary of the place. Per se, without an authentic document, relics cannot be honored with public worship in churches, unless they have been endowed with ancient veneration and it is not established that they are false.

Worship is distinguished as latria, which is exhibited to the divine majesty alone, and dulia, which is exhibited to the Saints. The singular dignity and sanctity which divine maternity conferred upon the Virgin Mother of God gives place to the worship of hyperdulia. Except sacrifice, which is proper to the worship of latria, the other external acts, according to the intention and circumstances of the one honoring, can manifest latria or dulia.

II. Concerning the acts in species. 1. Devotion is defined as a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God.

2. Adoration, taken strictly, is the formal exhibition of supreme reverence; by a broader use of the word, creatures also are adored. Taken adequately, it is interior and exterior: this agrees with our nature and is sometimes prescribed by the necessity of social worship.

3. Praise, by which we profess, internally or externally, the beneficent perfection or goodness of God, is a part of gratitude owed to God. Expressed by chant, it aids the devotion of the weak. By a broader use of the word, the greatest praise accrues to God from the promoted perfection of the rational creature.

4. Prayer. a) From the subject and term it is called: the ascent of the mind to God; from the object: the petition of fitting things from God. It is distinguished as formal, by which, from a suppliant intention, God is approached, and virtual or vital, which the good works of him who does not refuse to pray contain; mental, which is not bound to words, and vocal, which is rendered in exterior words by intention.

Mental prayer is divided into discursive meditation and intuitive contemplation, which can be ordinary or extraordinary, or mystical: mystical is with some sense of the divine presence. Vocal prayer is divided into private and public. - Although intellect and will intervene in prayer, prayer is nevertheless formally an act of the intellect. - Distraction, insofar as it merely denotes division of the mind among several things, does not take away the substance of prayer, at least of vocal prayer; yet if it is voluntary, it derogates venially from the reverence owed to God, unless a proportionate cause excuses it. - Because in moral estimation attention is judged to persevere, he who is involuntarily distracted is sometimes, rather improperly, said to be virtually attentive. Nor for vocal prayer is it necessary that the one praying be able to hear himself.

b) Since prayer contains confession of one's own subjection and recognition and praise of divine excellence, it is of itself a meritorious act of religion.

c) Complete prayer contains approach to God (prayer more strictly so called), postulation, obsecration or contestation of motives, and thanksgiving for benefits already accepted (1 Tim. 2:1).

d) Not only wayfarers pray, but also Saints, the souls of purgatory, and, less properly, as it seems, Christ glorious and reigning.

e) The object of prayer. Whatever can pertain to salvation can be sought for us or for others, but not indifferent or temporal things as such. For as such God has by no means ordered them to us.

f) The term from whom it is obtained is God alone; the term through whom is Christ; and, on account of the merits of Christ, also the Blessed Virgin and the Saints.

g) Efficacy. Already honorable per se and of some efficacy, prayer made in the due manner has, from divine promise, a certain infallible efficacy of obtaining for us the things which, according to the ordering of divine Providence, conduce to our salvation. This efficacy seems also to be extended to prayer offered for others who are disposed. Prayer made in the due manner requires humility, faith, confidence, perseverance, and at least initial conversion to God. According to the dignity of the one praying, according to the quality of the prayer, and according to the conjunction of the one praying with him for whom he prays, the efficacy itself of prayer varies in degree.

h) Necessity. By very clear places of Scripture the precept of prayer is so demonstrated that it is certain by faith. And the Scriptures so join prayer with necessary goods that they inculcate at least a diminished necessity of means, which the more common opinion reads in Tradition. That is, grace immediately sufficient for fully believing or for overcoming grave temptations will be able to be at hand for many by the way of prayer alone. Most, however, have great difficulties to overcome, so that prayer becomes for most a means necessary for salvation. How often one must pray cannot be defined; but the precept of frequently praying is abundantly fulfilled by the various offices of Christian life. The precept obliges accidentally when grave temptations are foreseen or must be overcome; when, in danger of death, pardon from mortal sin must be obtained; or, if that is ever established, when a grave necessity of the public or of those joined to us could be averted by the prayer of someone alone; finally, insofar as it enters into the office of one's state. Although morning prayer, evening prayer, and prayer before and after bodily refreshment are not properly prescribed, for the most part, in the concrete, complete omission, on account of a less right motive, will not lack venial fault.

i) For each one the better prayer is that by which he is more aided; yet per se mental prayer is more excellent, insofar as, bound by no words, it permits a freer direction to the superior faculties.

k) The mystical state, which can be called a certain affective suffering or experience of divine things, although it demands a special grace of God, seems, in some degree, less prodigious, remotely offered to most, not to say all; and, because it is very useful for sanctity, it can be piously and humbly sought, and prepared for dispositively by the exercise of virtues. But the added rare graces gratuitously given, which tend not to a closer conjunction with God but to some created thing, as a vision or revelation is, are not to be desired but humbly fled. Moreover, in ecstasy itself, man continues freely to love God and to merit, and implicitly seeks all fitting things from God.

546. DEFINITION. Prayer, taken broadly, insofar as it also comprehends meditation, praise, thanksgiving, etc., is the elevation of the mind to God (IV, 117; Polm., 2.2, n. 819).

Taken strictly, or PETITION, it is "a request for fitting things from God" (St. John Damascene, de Fide orth., l. 3, c. 21; Billuart, de Relig., d. 2, a. 2). Request, that is, the explanation of desire for obtaining something; of fitting things, that is, of things which are honorable, and which it befits God to bestow on us; from God, either immediately, or mediately, namely when our prayer is directed to the Saints. Therefore petition is commanded by hope, elicited by the virtue of religion.

DIVISION. Prayer is distinguished: 1. by reason of mode, into mental and vocal: the former is made by mind alone; the latter is performed by mind and words: for if it is made by words alone, it is not prayer; 2. by reason of the one praying, into public and private: public prayer is that which is made in the name of the Church, for the salvation of the people, by a minister deputed for this; private prayer is that which is made by each one separately, whether for himself or for another (cf. 531, 3).

547. PRINCIPLES. I. Prayer (as petition) is necessary for all adults by necessity of precept, indeed also by necessity of means. 1. BY NECESSITY OF PRECEPT. It is established from innumerable places of Sacred Scripture, for example (Mark 14:38): Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation; and (Luke 18:1): It is necessary always to pray and not to faint. Nature itself teaches us to pray when we are in necessity; and therefore he who never prays to God sins against natural law. 2. BY NECESSITY OF MEANS. For, without prayer, according to the ordering of divine Providence, salvation cannot be obtained. For, on the one hand, we can do nothing in the order toward salvation without the help of grace, the Lord saying (John 15:5): Without me you can do nothing; on the other hand, God bestows his graces only when asked, according to that saying (John 16:24): Ask, and you shall receive; and (James 4:2): You have not, because you ask not (Gran mezzo, c. 1 and 3, § 3).

Behold therefore the law and economy OF OUR SALVATION. The first graces (as are the grace of vocation to true faith, the grace of conversion, and the grace itself of praying) are often given without previous petition; but further graces, by which the more difficult precepts of God can be observed and grave temptations overcome, and especially those efficacious helps upon which our final perseverance depends, are conceded only to those praying, and indeed assiduously, perseveringly, and trustingly.

Therefore they err who, with the favorers of Americanism, place all confidence in the virtues which they call active, and despise the passive virtues (prayer, humility, patience, meekness). Cf. Nouv. Rev. Theol., 1899, p. 165.

548. II. Prayer, endowed with the due conditions, has infallible efficacy, from the promise of God. The words of the Lord are clear: Ask, and you shall receive (John 16:24). And similar things occur everywhere. Nor does it matter whether the one praying is just or a sinner: For every one that asketh, receiveth (Luke 11:10). Therefore when sinners are not heard, this happens because they pray badly, that is, with the due conditions passed over. Whence St. James (4:3): You ask, and receive not: because you ask amiss.

But the CONDITIONS required on the part of the one praying are four:¹

1. That he ask for himself; for the Lord says: he will give to you; and the reason is that one praying for himself, by that very fact that he prays well, is already disposed to receiving grace. This cannot always be said concerning neighbor, for whom someone prays. Thus St. Thomas (2.2, q. 83, a. 7, ad 2). Yet many Doctors judge that prayer, even by force of the divine promise, is infallibly efficacious, even if made for sinners, provided they are not so obstinate that they intend to live in sin until death.

2. That he ask things conducive to salvation. For the Lord says: If you shall ask the Father anything in my name... (John 16:23). Moreover, according to St. Augustine (tr. 102 on John, beginning): "Whatever is asked contrary to the account of salvation is not asked in the name of the Savior." It is indeed licit to ask for and desire temporal goods, but conditionally, namely on the supposition that they are salutary for us.²

3. That he ask piously, that is, with humility and confidence. For it is written (James 4:6): God resisteth the proud, and giveth grace to the humble. And (Ecclus. 2:11): No one hath hoped in the Lord, and been confounded. Whence St. Thomas says: Prayer has the force of meriting from charity, but the efficacy of obtaining from faith and confidence (l. c., a. 15, ad 2).

4. That he ask perseveringly; according to that saying (Luke 18:1): It is necessary always to pray and not to faint. And in c. 11:9 we are taught that one must not only ask, but also seek and knock until it is opened. Whence St. Thomas says: "The effect of prayer can be impeded if someone does not persevere in asking" (ibid., ad 2). - Significantly, for obtaining FINAL PERSEVERANCE, perseverance in praying is necessary; because to the chain of graces by which God wills us to become saved, there must respond on our part a chain of petitions.

Two things are to be noted: a) Although fervent prayer is required for obtaining efficacious grace, nevertheless by tepid prayer we obtain the spirit of more fervent prayer (Verita della fede, P. II, c. 17, n. 19). b) A special efficacy is promised to public prayer; for it is said (Matt. 18:20): Where there are two or three gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them.

549. IT IS ASKED. When does the precept of praying oblige?

Resp. Prayer can be considered as an act of a virtue excellent in itself. Yet more often it is considered as an act of a virtue which, in relation to the goods of salvation, is a means constituted by God. Whence we say: 1. It obliges OF ITSELF: a) at the beginning of the use of reason; b) in the article of death; c) more often in the year, indeed frequently; whence St. Alphonsus with Suarez and Lessius estimates that it is a sin grave of itself if someone for a notable time, that is, for one month, or certainly for two months, omits to commend himself to God (Inst. cat., P. I, c. 1, n. 32; Gran mezzo, P. I, c. 3, § 3).

2. It obliges PER ACCIDENS: a) in the state of mortal sin, for obtaining the grace of repenting as one ought; b) when grave temptation rises up, which cannot otherwise be conquered; or if some precept urges, for fulfilling which prayer is necessary; c) in a great calamity of neighbor or of the people (III, in princ.).

Hence it is clear that the omission of morning and evening prayers constitutes no sin of itself, although from the very beginning of the Church this most holy custom of praying has become widespread. Yet pastors of souls ought to confer great diligence upon this, that the Christian faithful be most tenacious of this custom. For unless it is holily retained, it will shortly happen that the soul, destitute of the special help of God, enters the way of perdition. Indeed it would not be free from fault if someone should determine by set purpose to pray neither morning nor evening. For when will such a man pray? Cf. Lehmkuhl, I, 484.

Let the following be noted: 1. The words of the Lord: IT IS NECESSARY ALWAYS TO PRAY, signify that one must pray frequently, at a suitable time, and never cease from dejection of soul; or also, that our actions generally are to be directed to God (cf. n. 307).

2. One voluntarily distracted in prayer sins of himself venially, unless perhaps a just cause excuses. For he conducts himself irreverently toward God (Elbel, de Orat., n. 419). But "there is no sin if someone does not so much intend to pray as to occupy himself in a pious exercise by reciting the words of prayers; because he prays not formally, but only materially: for example, when someone working with his hands recites or sings psalms or other prayers, not with the soul of praying, but of avoiding vain thoughts, or of recreating himself" (V, 84). Nevertheless, since prayer thus made is also a certain exercise of religion, it is clear that it is not destitute of all merit.

3. Besides God, we can pray to the Saints, and very probably privately invoke the souls which are expiated in the flames of Purgatory; for it can piously be believed that our prayers are manifested to them. And likewise baptized infants can be invoked, who, before the use of reason, migrated to the blessed Fatherland (Gran mezzo, P. I, c. 1; work on Trent, Sess. 25, n. 32).

4. Invocation of the Saints is of precept with respect to the community (or the Church), since it is commanded in the public Office and in the Mass. But by no positive law is it prescribed to individual faithful. Yet it is not improbable that it is prescribed by natural or divine law: "because by natural law we are bound to observe that order which God has instituted; but God has constituted that inferiors reach salvation by imploring the help of superiors" (Gran mezzo, l. c.).

5. Invocation of the Blessed Virgin MARY in particular is necessary for each person, not indeed absolutely, but morally, for salvation; because such is the will of God, "who willed that we have all things through Mary" (cf. Glorie di Maria, c. V). St. Alphonsus teaches besides that "it is morally impossible that a soul should progress much in perfection without some particular and tender devotion toward the most holy Mother of God" (H. Ap., App. I, at the end).

6. One must pray, of itself from charity, for all who can be helped by prayer, and whom we are commanded to love (cf. n. 476). Therefore we ought to pray also for the souls which are expiated in the fire of Purgatory. - This obligation is satisfied by praying privately. - As regards public prayer, see the things to be said n. 1600 seqq.

We must treat individually: 1. the notion and division of prayer; 2. its object; 3. its necessity; 4. its efficacy, where its properties also will be discussed; 5. certain particular prayers, and notably the canonical hours.

338. The general rule in this question is a proposition taken, not indeed according to the very words but according to the sense, from St. Augustine: It is lawful to pray for that which it is lawful to desire.⁶⁵

Applications of the rule. a) It is lawful to ask in prayer not only for goods in general, but also in particular. The contrary doctrine proposed by Socrates,⁶⁶ Wycliffe, the Illuminati, and the Quietists is false and contradicts Sacred Scripture, in which we are commanded to ask also for particular goods. The most manifest example is the Lord's Prayer itself, in which seven particular and determinate petitions are contained.

b) It is lawful to ask determinately and absolutely for goods necessary to eternal salvation, such as the required grace and all other means necessary to salvation. The reason is that no one can abuse these goods and that God truly wishes us to ask for them, admonishing us: "Seek ye first the kingdom of God."⁶⁷ Indeed, it is not only lawful but also better to ask for goods of this kind in an absolute manner, because in this manner we pray more attentively and because we are accustomed to pray for and desire goods the more fervently the more particularly they are regarded.⁶⁸ Hence the doctrine of the Quietists is false which teaches that even spiritual goods necessary to salvation are to be asked for only conditionally, namely, under the condition that God has predestined us to eternal salvation, and that man ought to renounce even eternal life if God has thus decreed. The falsity of this doctrine is evident from the fact that God sincerely wishes all men to be saved,⁶⁹ and that no one is reprobated to hell before foreseen demerits. Graces gratuitously given and charisms, e.g., the gift of tongues, miracles, etc., may not be asked for absolutely in prayer, but only conditionally, because these graces are not means directly useful to the eternal salvation of the one possessing them, but rather benefit other men.

c) It is lawful in prayer to ask also for temporal goods, not indeed so that we establish our end in them, but as certain aids by which we may be assisted in attaining eternal beatitude.⁷⁰ This is also confirmed by the practice of the Church, which asks in prayers, e.g., for rain, fair weather, health, etc. But when we ask temporal goods from God, we ought always to add at least the implicit condition that we do not expect our prayers to be heard if the temporal goods are obstacles to our eternal salvation. Since temporal goods in fact are often obstacles to salvation, they are to be sought through prayer cautiously and not too avidly.

d) It is also lawful in prayer to ask for physical evils both for oneself and for another, provided, however, that they are asked for as means of obtaining spiritual goods of great value. Thus St. Paul desired to be dissolved and to be with Christ; thus the saints not rarely asked for poverty, infirmity, persecutions, etc. Nevertheless, prayer of this kind is to be made with great caution, especially if there is question of asking for the physical evil of one's neighbor, because deceptions will very easily be present and because the intention of the one praying is not rarely not so pure.⁷¹

e) It is not lawful in prayer to ask for a morally evil thing, e.g., assistance in perpetrating theft or fornication. For such a prayer would be a grave sin, at least speaking objectively, because he who wished to have the most holy God as a cooperator in a sin, even one light in itself, would commit grave irreverence toward him.⁷²

⁶⁵ This proposition is found according to its sense in Ep. 130 (otherwise 121), c. 12, ad Probam (Migne, Patr. lat. 33, 503).

⁶⁶ In St. Thomas, S. theol. 2, 2, q. 83, a. 5.

⁶⁷ Matt. 6:33.

⁶⁸ Cf. St. Thomas, IV, dist. 15, q. 4, a. 4, quaestiunc. 3.

⁶⁹ Cf. 1 Tim. 2:4.

⁷⁰ S. theol., l.c., a. 6.

⁷¹ Cf. Billuart, De orat. a. 5.

⁷² Cf. Noldin, De praeceptis n. 142.

339. Scholion. On the Lord's Prayer. St. Thomas⁷³ demonstrates excellently that in the Lord's Prayer all things whatsoever which we can lawfully ask from God by praying are contained in perfect order. Since the Lord's Prayer is the best and most frequent among all prayers, it is very expedient that pastors of souls diligently instruct the faithful concerning the beauty and suitability of this prayer. Therefore the Roman Catechism,⁷⁴ intended for parish priests, has an ample commentary on the Lord's Prayer.

⁷³ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 83, a. 9. The source prints q. 82, an evident typographical error.

⁷⁴ Part IV, c. 9.

S. Th. II-II, q. 83, a. 1, 3-6, 10, 11.

661. Prayer is called by St. John Damascene (De fide orth., l. 3, c. 24): "the ascent of the mind to God." Hence:

a) In the broadest sense, it is every ascent or movement of the intellect and will into God, whether it happens by religion or by other virtues, such as the theological virtues, penance, humility; and thus meditation and contemplation are called mental prayer;

b) In a less broad sense, it is that ascent of the mind which happens by religion and by which we praise God and bless Him, give thanks to Him for gifts conferred, or seek His help;

c) This last alone is prayer in the strict sense.

662. Prayer strictly so called is defined by the same St. John Damascene: a pious petition of fitting things from God. It is said:

1. Petition, that is, an explanation or manifestation of our desire made to another for obtaining something by way of favor. Namely, it is a manifestation:

a) Of desire, and thus it is distinguished from command and from the exigency of right;

b) For obtaining something, so that it is speech not simply narrative, but motive, which induces another to grant something;

c) By way of favor, and thus it is distinguished from counsel and exhortation.

2. Of fitting things, that is, of those things which are honorable and which it is unbecoming neither for men to ask from God nor for God to bestow upon men.

3. From God, so that it may be indicated that prayer properly so called is made to God alone, by whom alone it can be fulfilled.

4. Pious, so that it may be indicated that it is an act of religion: for although petition involves some humiliation, and therefore is most apt for expressing the excellence of another and our subjection, nevertheless it does not necessarily include the account of worship; therefore, that in fact it may worship God and be able to be called strict prayer, it must proceed from a pious intention of worshiping God, or from an act of devotion. Yet this intention suffices if implicit, as it is ordinarily had in the prayers of the faithful.

663. Prayer is not an act of the will but of practical reason. It is proved:

To pray bespeaks some ordering; but to order is an act of reason, not of the will; therefore. For:

a) Through practical reason, man disposes and orders something to be done by another, either by morally compelling an inferior and imposing necessity upon him: through command; or by inducing a superior or equal, and by manifestation of desire disposing him toward some effect: through petition or prayer. Therefore, just as command is an act of practical reason, so also is prayer.

b) Prayer is speech to God, as being a manifestation of desire; but speech is an ordering of concepts and an expression of them made to another, either by external or mental words; therefore it is essentially an act of reason (a. 1). But since it is an act of practical reason, it necessarily presupposes an act of the will.

664. Prayer is properly an act of religion. Through prayer man exhibits reverence and honor to God, insofar as he subjects himself to Him and professes that he needs Him as the author of all goods¹ (a. 3). Indeed, after devotion, it is the more principal act, because it is better to offer intellect to God than body or exterior things (ad 1 and 3).

¹ "Therefore when," says Prummer, Th. M. II, n. 332, "someone prays for recovering health, he ought first and more principally to intend divine worship and his subjection under God; secondarily, however, he can desire his own health."

665. Who can pray. Since prayer is an act of reason by which someone entreats a superior, those can pray who have reason and at the same time a superior whom they can entreat; namely: Christ as man (who often prayed on earth, and in heaven is always living to intercede for us), the angels, the saints, and all wayfarers, even the non-predestined or sinners, as is clear from the condemnation of Wycliffe² and Quesnel;³ but not the three divine persons nor irrational creatures (a. 10 and 11).

² Prop. 26.

³ Props. 50 and 59.

Yet de facto demons or the damned do not pray, inasmuch as they do not will to worship God. But whether the souls in purgatory pray for themselves, and especially for others, is disputed: St. Thomas denies that they pray for us, because they are inferior to us as regards the penalties which they suffer, and therefore are not in a state of praying, but rather of being prayed for.⁴ (a. 11, ad 3).

⁴ Their state makes it so that they do not pray from their own office; but it does not impede their being able to pray. But, says Prummer, n. 334, it is difficult to understand that those souls can pray for themselves, or how they know the necessities of men on this earth.

666. Whom we can pray to. Prayer is directed to someone in two ways: in one way, as if to be fulfilled through him, that is, that from him we may obtain what we ask; in another way, as if to be obtained through him, that is, that by his prayers and merits our prayers may obtain their effect (a. 4). In the former way, as the author of every good, we pray to God, that is, either to the divinity abstracting from the persons, or to the three persons together, or to one of the three, and also to the Son as incarnate; and therefore the Church prays to them that they have mercy on us. This prayer is an act of religion. In the other way, we pray as to mediators and intercessors before God: the angels, saints (even baptized infants), and especially the Blessed Virgin Mary; and therefore the Church asks that they pray for us.⁵ This prayer is an act of dulia; but if someone prays to the saints so that through the ministers also he may honor God, it will be an act of dulia commanded by religion.

⁵ Council of Trent, sess. 25.

Christ as man, although He is intercessor for us and primary mediator, in view of whose merits all graces are granted, nevertheless because He is also God, is not accustomed to be prayed to as mediator only, but always as author of goods.

The Church does not pray to the souls in purgatory; but whether they can be prayed to privately is disputed. St. Thomas denies this, because there is no reason for thinking that they know our prayers (ad 3). Hence, for the sake of prudence, it is better to abstain from such devotion to be preached to the faithful.

The just on earth we do not pray to, honoring them as intercessors and mediators: for they are not yet our superiors, because they do not yet possess the eternal life which we seek; nevertheless sometimes we ask that they pray with us (Rom. XV, 30; Jas. V, 16).

667. For whom we can pray. We can pray:

1. For rational creatures alone, for irrational creatures are not for their own sake, but for man;

2. For those alone who can be helped: for ourselves, for the souls in purgatory, and for all wayfarers, not only in general but also in particular,⁶ even unbelievers and enemies, which pertains to the love of charity; but not for demons or the damned, nor for angels and saints who lack nothing (a. 7 and 8).

⁶ Wycliffe, prop. 19 condemned.

Some, however, think that we can ask for an increase of accidental glory for the saints.

668. What we can ask by praying. Since prayer is a petition of fitting things, hence:

1. We can ask for all goods, not only in general but also in particular;⁷ and indeed:

⁷ But since it is not fitting for God to give evils to His children, it is not lawful to ask for evil as such, and indeed:

a) The principal object of prayer is spiritual and eternal goods, whether supernatural or natural, which per se and directly regard the moral perfection of man; and these we can ask absolutely, because man cannot use them badly according to themselves, whence they are sought according to the will of God. Yet they must be sought according to the order established by God, and indeed extraordinary gifts are not licitly sought except with subjection to divine providence (a. 5).

b) The secondary object of prayer is temporal goods insofar as through them bodily life is sustained and insofar as they organically serve the acts of the virtues; and these we can ask under the condition (at least implicit) insofar as they are expedient for salvation: for man can use these goods well or badly (a. 6).

a) Never moral evil: for it would be grave irreverence to ask the help of God even for a venially evil thing, because it is directly repugnant to the holiness of God;

b) But physical or temporal evil may licitly be sought insofar as it is good, that is, on account of an honorable end proportionate to it, for example, tribulations for the exercise of virtue, and the illness of a sinner for his amendment.

2. Thus against Socrates, Wycliffe, the Illuminati, and the Quietists.

S. Th. II-II, q. 83, a. 9, 12, 13, 17.

669. Prayer is one kind internal, another external and vocal. By reason of the mode in which it happens, prayer is distinguished into merely internal, which happens by the mind alone, and external, which is performed at once by mind and by an external act. This latter happens principally by the voice, and then is called vocal; and it is necessary on account of reasons similar to those for external worship (n. 652). Moreover, for the essence of vocal prayer three conditions are required: one exterior, the pronunciation of words; two interior, namely, intention on the part of the will, attention on the part of the intellect.

670. For vocal prayer, first there is required the pronunciation of words. The pronunciation of words requires two things:

1. That the words be truly pronounced by human speech, that is, be emitted by an articulate voice; hence he would not pray vocally who only read the words with his eyes or conceived them in his mind; nor he who, with mouth unmoved, emitted a sound from the throat; nor he who, without expiration or inspiration of air, moved only tongue or lips. And although vocal prayer by its nature is audible, nevertheless it is not required that in fact someone hear himself or be able to hear himself, because it can be so quiet that it is not perceived, and on the other hand the one praying can be certain that he is pronouncing by consciousness of his own inner sense.

2. That the words truly signify the desire of the one praying; hence he would not pray vocally who brought forth incoherent words.

IV. Mental prayer, although it is not necessary for salvation, is nevertheless the most apt means for sanctifying the soul by divine love; for, as St. Alphonsus testifies, Pr. conf., n. 122, "prayer and sin cannot dwell together; but the soul will either leave prayer or sin," cf. Eccli. VIII, 40; Jer. XII, 11. Hence let the confessor induce the pious into the habit of mental prayer, establish for them the time to be spent on this exercise, e.g., half an hour morning and evening, assign to them the truths to be meditated upon, teach them the method of meditating fruitfully, and sometimes, e.g., each month, require an account of this method. - And let him watch that they pass no day without some consideration of truths, that they frequently pour forth pious affections and fervent ejaculatory prayers, and, as far as they can, read attentively and piously in a spiritual book.

Now mental prayer consists of three parts: preparation, meditation, and conclusion.

1. Preparation is contained in three acts, to be elicited briefly: namely an act of faith concerning the presence of God, an act of humility on account of sins committed, and an act of supplication for divine light.

2. Meditation or reconsideration itself, which ordinarily, and always by beginners, is to be instituted from a spiritual book, and concerning matter which seems more profitable to each one, namely with a greater affection of devotion, fruit of virtue, and utility in avoiding defects, such as the last things, the goodness or benefits of God, the malice of sin, and before the rest the life and Passion of Christ. - Moreover the principal part and end of meditation is not the speculative consideration itself of truths by the intellect, but rather is in eliciting affections, making petitions, and strengthening purposes through the appetitive faculties: the meditation itself ought to tend to these fruits and ought to be left behind for their sake when a man perceives himself to be moved in soul. Hence:

a) Affections constitute the fitting response by which the soul addresses God after God has illuminated it and intimately addressed it. In view of various circumstances, acts of faith, confidence, gratitude, adoration, praise, humility, contrition, and especially charity are to be elicited, by which the soul offers itself wholly to God and conforms itself to His holy will, and which it cannot exercise repeatedly enough. Thus it should wish, affectively and effectively, to be led by God and to be submitted to Him.

b) It is helpful to repeat petitions in prayer: for God is not accustomed to grant helps except to those asking, and no time is more opportune for asking than the time of mental prayer. Therefore in this, with humility and confidence, let light, remission of sin, perseverance, etc., be asked for, first of all the gift of holy love; yet all through the merits and Passion of Christ.

c) Purpose is necessary so that the fruit of prayer may endure and the light granted by God may be applied to the directing of life. But purpose, that it may be efficacious, should not be general, e.g., of avoiding any defect whatever or giving oneself wholly to God, but concretely determined and particular, e.g., of avoiding such a defect in such a manner or on such an occasion, of better exercising some virtue by this special means, of tolerating such an annoyance, of obeying such a superior or such a rule, of mortifying oneself in such a thing and at this moment, etc.

3. The conclusion is completed by three acts: a) thanksgiving for the lights received in meditation; b) determination of standing firmly by the purposes formed, and of immediately executing them; and of remembering them rather often during the day, just as the sentence which more strongly moved the soul; c) urgent petition from God for help, to be obtained through Christ and Mary, for executing the purposes.⁴

⁴ Garrigou-Lagrange, L'Oraison commune, in the periodical La Vie spirituelle, t. VIII, can also be compared.

Prayer taken more broadly is the elevation of the mind to God, or any pious affection of the soul toward God and supernatural things. But in the stricter sense it is the petition of fitting things from God. - Cf. St. Thom. 2-2, q. 83, art. 1.

I Say 1st. Prayer is certainly necessary for all adults by necessity of precept, as is proved from many places of Scripture, for example, Matt. xiv, 38: "Watch and pray": and Luke xviii, 1: "It is necessary always to pray and not to fail." Moreover, according to many, prayer is also necessary by necessity of means, because it is the ordinary means established by God for obtaining necessary graces. - Cf. St. Alphonsus, n. 1.

I Say 2nd. The precept of praying obliges frequently, as is clear from the cited texts, yet not without interruption, which is impossible to human weakness. Therefore the words, it is necessary always to pray, by the common interpretation of the Doctors, signify that one must pray frequently at an opportune time, and never cease from weariness, torpor, or dejection of soul; or also that our actions generally are to be directed toward God.

Question 1. When does the precept of prayer press?

Response. It is certain that it often presses by accident, namely whenever some end is to be obtained, for the attainment of which prayer is required as a means. It is also certain that the precept of prayer presses of itself several times in life, or, as was said, frequently; but what the force of these particles may be, nothing is more uncertain among the Doctors. Yet in practice the opinion can be held which teaches that those who pray to God at least once a year are not to be condemned of grave sin, both because it is not disapproved by St. Alphonsus, and because it is more conformable to those things which we said concerning acts of faith, hope, and charity. For the rest, the confessor ought to be more solicitous in inculcating the necessity of frequent prayer than in determining the grave fault of omitted prayer. - Cf. Baller., note (a), p. 228.

Question 2. Does he sin, at least venially, who omits morning or evening prayers?

Response. Negatively, of itself, because there is given no law which prescribes determinate prayers for single days and at certain hours. - I said of itself, because in practice some fault of negligence or sloth is rarely absent.

RATIO here signifies one thing according to the sense of the Church; another according to forensic usage: for the Church always understands by Prayer that act by which we implore something from God, or obtain it: but Rhetoricians indicate by the word every kind of speech, as D. Jerome notes, epist. 139. to Cyprian, cited by Suarez tom. 2. lib. 1 de oratione cap. 1. where he also cites D. Bonaventure in 4. dist. 15. art. 1. quaest. 4. according to whose mind he divides Prayer thus, that one sense is taken most commonly, another commonly, and another properly; he rejects the first acceptation, lest we consent to the heretics, who divide Prayer into Mental, Vocal, and Vital, as in Vvaldensis tom. 3. cap. 1. and 2.; by vital prayer, however, the same sectaries understand the same thing as the Glossa Ordinaria on that text 1. ad Thessal. 5. pray without ceasing, that is, live always justly; for the just man never ceases to pray, unless he ceases to be just. But although there could be the same agreement of both in that sense, in that by pray there is understood there always to act well; yet there is full and complete dissent from the Heretics, who, with Wycliffe as leader, so despise every other Prayer that they trust only in works alone: and since that act is rightly called prayer, by which something is obtained from God, I do not see why at least in that most common sense acting well may not be called praying. Other divisions of Prayer drawn from the Seraphic Doctor I shall indicate below, but first his various definitions must be assigned.

I. Another act of Religion is prayer, which St. Thomas thus defines, from Damascene, II-II, q. 83, art. 1: Prayer is a petition of fitting things from God. The word petition holds the place of the genus; the other clause indicates that fitting things are to be sought in prayer; the last clause, from God, constitutes prayer an act of Religion. For from God both natural and supernatural gifts must be sought. By this petition we confess God the principle of all things, revere his excellence, subject ourselves to him, and implore from him the succors of our need. Prayer is an act of the intellect, although Religion resides in the will.

II. Prayer is one interior, or mental; the other exterior, or vocal. Holy Scripture commends each. Of the former the royal Prophet says, Psalm 38: In my meditation a fire shall flame out. This prayer is by no means placed in a certain mental idleness, or in a mere suspension of the intellect and in a certain passive inertness, as the Quietists contended; but in acts of the intellect and of the will, by which we recall with fervent zeal the divine attributes — his goodness, clemency, justice, and the infinite benefits which God confers upon us — and by which we weigh our own weakness, need, and poverty: in acts of love, desire, confidence, and other pious affections by which we long for heavenly things, it shines forth entire. The other prayer is vocal, which is accomplished by mind and words together. Of this St. Paul speaks, Hebrews 13: By him therefore let us offer the sacrifice of praise always to God, that is to say, the fruit of lips confessing to his name. Although words are not absolutely necessary, since nothing is hidden from God, and he knows our weakness; nevertheless these exterior signs are necessary — both because man consists of mind and body, and according to both parts he ought to subject himself to God and serve him; and because not the soul alone, but the body also, needs divine aids; and finally because these exterior words kindle interior affections the more easily, and foster them, and entice the neighbor's reason to devotion.

III. Question I. Is prayer necessary with the necessity of means? Answer. St. Thomas affirms it, II-II, q. 83, art. 2, ad 1, and on the fourth book, distinction 15, question 4, article 1, to whom the graver Theologians subscribe. The Angelic Doctor drew this doctrine from Gennadius, who, book On ecclesiastical dogmas, chapter 56, says: We believe that no one comes to salvation unless invited by God; that no one who has been invited works his salvation unless God aids him; that no one deserves aid unless he prays. Finally the Council of Trent confirms our opinion, session 6, chapter 11, saying: God commands not impossible things; but by commanding, he admonishes you both to do what you can, and to ask for what you cannot, and he aids you that you may be able.

IV. This necessity is also drawn from the very weakness of human nature. For so great is the rebellion of human appetites against reason, and so great the struggle, that without grace we can scarcely fight, much less conquer. Now this is the order instituted by divine providence, that this grace not be granted unless it be entreated by prior prayers. That God can give his gifts to those who do not ask, who is there who could call this into controversy? But at present our discourse is of the necessity of prayer, the order of divine providence being regarded. Does not the very instinct of nature excite both the beggar to the petition of alms, and the sick man to imploring medicine from the Physician? Finally, the conjunction between God and man, and their mutual commerce, proves it. For if God distributed his gifts to the slothful and the mute, men, prone to earthly things, would scarcely remember their divine Benefactor. Wherefore the mercy of God shines forth greatly in this very burden imposed of asking for his gifts, since this burden looks to this end: that men be bound to God by a stricter bond, a perpetual tie, and a mutual conjunction.

V. God forestalled Paul, not praying, but persecuting Christ. What follows from this? We freely confess that God bestows the first illuminations, and the first prevenient and stirring grace, without prayers. But we defend the necessity of prayer for obtaining the second grace, for persevering in it, and for obtaining glory.

VI. Question II. Is there a precept of praying? Answer. All affirm it, and the holy Scriptures show it luminously: Watch ye, and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: Matthew 26 [recte]; and St. Luke, chapter 18: We ought always to pray, and not to faint; and St. Paul: Pray without ceasing: to the Thessalonians [recte], chapter 5; and again to Timothy, chapter 2: I will therefore that men pray in every place ... in like manner women also. This precept St. Thomas thus explains, II-II, q. 83, art. 3, ad 2: Not only to ask what we desire, but also to desire something rightly, falls under precept; but to desire indeed falls under the precept of charity, while to ask falls under the precept of Religion: which indeed is set down, Matthew 7: Ask, and you shall receive. The reason is plain from what has been said. Prayer is necessary with the necessity of means, as has been said; therefore, by a stronger right, it is necessary with the necessity of precept.

VII. Question III. At what determinate time does the precept of prayer press? Answer. All the Fathers, in accordance with the oracles of the divine Scripture, persuade that we pray continually. Not a few recent Casuists, with their petty distinctions, all but take away the precept of praying from the midst. They distinguish an obligation of itself and an obligation by accident; directly, and indirectly. And, that I may not seem to impose upon them, let us hear Tamburini, easily the prince of the more benign Casuists, who, book 2 on the Decalogue, chapter 4, § 2, number 4, writes this: I hold here what I said above, chapter 1, § 1, number 8, concerning the precept of faith, hope, and charity: namely, that there is no certain and determinate time at which it obliges directly; but that it is that time at which it obliges indirectly — namely, when the necessity presses of acquiring some good, or of a threatening evil, or of a temptation to be averted, which we then perceive we cannot acquire or avert without the help of God. The doctrine of this author concerning faith, hope, and charity — to which he refers back this his opinion on the precept of prayer — has been proscribed, unless everything deceives me, by Alexander VII in the first thesis: A man is at no time of his life whatever bound to elicit an act of faith, etc.; and by Innocent XI in the sixth thesis: It is probable that the precept of charity towards God does not, of itself, rigorously oblige even once in every five years. That the obligation of prayer is the same as that of the said precepts, Tamburini himself confesses. The former opinion has been proscribed; therefore so has the second. From this doctrine of Tamburini it follows that Christians are of necessity exempt, of themselves, from the precept of Religion of worshipping God. For the primary act of Religion is prayer. If...

Christians were absolutely, directly, and of themselves not bound to invoke God and to give him thanks for benefits received, it is established that Religion is of itself and directly reduced to nothing: for, the primary act of Religion being taken away, Religion itself must needs fail.

VIII. Setting aside, then, the lax doctrine of Tamburini and of others like him, all the Fathers and the graver Theologians affirm that the precept of prayer obliges of itself. The more recent Theologians are divided in designating the time at which this precept presses. Many defend the position, as do the Salmanticenses and others, that it obliges only once in a year. This opinion I reject as evidently false. Others teach that it obliges once each month — an opinion which the Salmanticenses and others disapprove as harsh and hard. But even in this censure they are shamefully deceived.

IX. These opinions set aside, the doctrine of the divine Scriptures must be kept, which commands us to pray without ceasing. Does he pray without ceasing who prays only once, either in a year or in a month? Continually, then, must we pray — not physically, but morally. This moral continuation consists in this, that we pray frequently. But how great and what kind of frequency is required, that prayer be morally continuous, cannot be precisely defined. I set down what is certain.

X. That the precept of praying presses on every Lord's day is certain to me. For the precept of sanctifying the Sabbath, and now the Lord's day, is divine. It cannot be sanctified without prayer. Therefore, by the same worship with which we ought to honor the Lord's day, we are bound to pray on such a day, since without an elevation of the mind to God, that is, without prayer, the precept cannot be kept. Does the institution of feast days pertain to this — that Christians dissolve in idleness, and devote their effort to vain solaces and recreations? Christians, then, are bound by a twofold precept of praying to God: one natural and divine; the other ecclesiastical, by force of which, on feast days, while they assist at the sacrifice of the Mass, they ought to add their own prayers to the prayers of the Priests, as St. Thomas teaches on the fourth book, distinction 15, question 4, article 1, question 3 [recte]: Prayer falls under precept both determinately and indeterminately. Determinately indeed to certain prayers are bound by precept those who by office are constituted mediators between God and the people, as the ministers of the Church: whence it lies upon them by office to pour forth prayers to God in the person of the Church; and therefore by the statute of the Church they are bound to recite the canonical hours. But indeterminately anyone is bound to prayer from this very fact, that he is bound to procure for himself spiritual goods, which are given only from on high; whence they cannot be procured in another way except by being asked of him: and also from this very fact, that by the precept of charity one is bound to love his Neighbor as himself, he is bound to be beneficent to him in necessity, not only through corporal alms, but also through spiritual ones, of which one is prayer, as has been said before. But upon all, even those who do not exercise the ministry of the Church, a determinate time of praying seems to have been established by the Church, since by the statute of the canons they are bound, on feast days, to be present at the divine offices, that they may conform their intention to that of the ministers praying for the people.

XI. Certain men will obtrude the specter of Rigorism. But that I may stop their mouths, I ask: what burden, I pray, do we impose upon Christians, which in very deed even sinning Christians themselves — not to speak of the well-mannered — do not render? What Christian, illumined by the light of nature alone, would not count it a fault in himself, if on the Lord's day, if throughout an entire week, he poured out no prayers to God? What of the fact that even sinners themselves accuse themselves in sacramental confession, as I have frequently heard, of omitted daily prayers, and reckon themselves guilty of fault, when they do not recite the Lord's prayer and the apostles' creed daily? Christians instructed in the best morals pray to God every day, not once, but at least twice a day. Beggarly, proud, sick, and stupid Christians, who on any given day do not remember God, nor implore the aids by which they might decline the continual floods of temptations, wallow in the continual mire of vices, and frequently violate the precept of praying. For who would not be accused of pride, folly, and blindness, if, pressed by extreme necessity, they were unwilling to open their lips to demand the medicines and aids necessary for relieving their own infirmity?

XII. Hence you may gather that this doctrine contains nothing of severity, but interprets the holy Scriptures sincerely and in their obvious sense. God commands that we pray without ceasing. This continuation of prayer is not physical but moral, as I have said — namely, at a fitting time. This affirmative precept admits the exception of parvity of matter. Wherefore Christians ought not to torment themselves with any scruples as to whether they have gravely offended against the precept of praying; but let them busy themselves in correcting their negligence, and in kindling the fervor of prayer. Nor ought Confessors, if they find some lukewarm and negligent in praying, straightway condemn them of grave fault; but let them instruct them to pray frequently, to raise their mind to God at least twice a day, namely in the morning and in the evening. All the precepts of Christ are most sweet to those who observe them, who in very deed bear the yoke of the Law. But the yoke is rough and hard only to those who are unwilling to carry it, and who, after the manner of beasts, are the slaves of shameful deeds.

XIII. Question IV. Does he sin against the virtue of Religion who, assailed by a grave temptation, neglects to pray to God? Answer. Someone suffers a most grave temptation, for example, against chastity. He neglects to implore divine aid, and consents to the temptation. Does he here perpetrate two crimes — one against chastity, the other against the virtue of Religion? Lessius, Villalobos, Prado, the Salmanticenses, and others deny it. Graver Theologians, with St. Thomas, affirm it. This opinion is more probable to me, and true. For the precept of praying obliges of itself several times at least in a year; and, according to the adversaries themselves, it presses by accident at the time of a most grave temptation. Therefore it is violated when prayer is neglected in such an event. Therefore this Christian commits two sins: one against chastity, the other against the virtue of Religion. The precept of praying to God at a time of grave or most grave temptation regards not only this — that the temptation be overcome — but also that the worship due to God be offered. For this order seems to have been instituted by divine providence for this reason: that the tempests of tribulations, and the floods of temptations, compel us to flee to God, and to worship him, and to call upon him for our help and defense. Would not a poor man be accused of a cruelty of grave fault against himself, if, pressed by extreme misery, he neglected to implore alms from one ready to give them? And will not he be guilty of grave fault who, about to perish eternally, refuses to ask the necessary defense from a God most ready to succor him? For the Lord says: Ask, and you shall receive. Do you multiply sins? you will say. Nay, that sins may not be multiplied, I press the precept of applying the remedies by which sins are prevented. For this is why men frequently fall into sins: because they refuse to apply the remedies of not sinning; because they neglect fervently to ask for the grace by which they may come off victors over temptations. Without a peculiar grace of God we cannot overcome the gravest temptations; therefore the precept of praying is equal to the precept of overcoming temptations. Those multiply sins who whittle down the precept of prayer, who take out of the way the remedies against sins established by the divine Physician, who deny the frequent obligation of praying. Let Confessors, then, admonish their penitents that they fall frequently into shameful deeds for this reason: because they neglect to pray sincerely to God, because they wear away and squander in idle conversations, in vain solaces, the time which they ought to consecrate to prayer. For the life of Christians is a life of prayer, and of perpetual commerce and dealing with God, from whom arms and defenses against the devil, the flesh, and the world must be sought.

I. Question I. What, and how many, are the conditions of prayer? Answer. 1. A condition of prayer is that it be made with deliberate will. This deliberation must be either express or virtual. If you were to read the Psalter merely to study it, you would not be praying. If you take up the Breviary with the intention of paying to God the debt owed, although you lack an express formal intention, a virtual one is present, and suffices. 2. The condition is attention, which likewise must be either express or virtual. The Theologians distinguish a threefold attention: the first to the words, the second to the sense, the third to God. Any one of these suffices. 3. The condition is piety, which looks to this — that pious, honorable, and fitting gifts be sought from God, and for a good end. 4. There is humility, by which the one praying, with lowly soul, presents himself before the divine Majesty, to whom he manifests his extreme poverty. But I am needy and poor: help me, O God, says the royal Prophet, Psalm 69. 5. There is the fervor with which we pour out our prayers to God. For a lukewarm and cold prayer is no prayer at all. The rich themselves disdain the languid prayers of the poor, as signs of a soul that makes little of what it seeks, and cares little to be heard. 6. The condition is faith, by which we firmly believe that we shall obtain what we ask. Whatsoever you ask when you pray, believe that you shall receive. Likewise hope, or confidence, which accompanies faith. 7. There is perseverance, which the Evangelists frequently inculcate, and especially Luke 11 [recte], by the parable, or example, of the friend who at midnight asked three loaves from his friend, and who, though not by the title of friendship, at least on account of importunity, obtained them.

II. Question II. What are the effects of prayer? Answer. Three: merit, satisfaction, and impetration. Merit is owed to it insofar as it proceeds from charity, through the medium of Religion. Satisfaction accompanies any meritorious work. Impetration of the thing we ask is the proper fruit of prayer. This prayer, too, as impetrating, has its efficacy from grace, as the Angelic Doctor teaches, II-II, q. 83, art. 15: But it has efficacy from the grace of God, whom we pray to, who also induces us to pray. Four conditions are necessary for impetration: namely, 1. that one pray chiefly for himself; 2. that he ask things necessary to salvation; 3. that he ask piously; 4. that he ask perseveringly. God hears the prayers of sinners, not from justice, but from mercy, as the same Angelic Doctor says there, article 16.

III. Question III. Is God alone to be prayed to? Answer. St. Thomas affirms, II-II, q. 83, art. 4, that God alone is to be prayed to, and that indeed as triune — in this sense, that God alone is the author of grace, of glory, and the all-powerful maker and preserver of all things. For prayer is an act of Religion. But Religion regards God alone as its end, to whom it exhibits worship.

IV. Question IV. Are the Saints to be invoked? Answer. The Saints are not to be invoked as authors of divine benefits, or of grace, or of glory. Nothing under this respect is to be asked of them, as all Catholics teach. But the Saints are to be invoked that they may pray and intercede for us with God. This is the sense of all Catholics, whatever the Calvinists and the rest of the Protestants fable and calumniate. Wherefore when we sometimes break forth into such words as "St. Peter, save me," we understand nothing else than that by his intercession he may procure our salvation from God. Similarly, when we address the most holy Virgin, "Mary, protect us from the enemy," we invoke her as a mere suppliant and mediatrix. Nay, in this class of intercessors, Christ the Lord is the first and chief, our advocate and intercessor, who alone reconciled the world to God, and alone offered to God a worthy and superabundant oblation for our sins. When, then, we invoke the Saints, we ask that through the merits of Jesus Christ they intercede with God for us, and we ask that they themselves pray for that which we pray for; but because they themselves are nearer to God, and more worthy, therefore we flee to their patronage and intercession.

V. The Council of Trent, session 25, defined that it is pious and useful that the Saints, whether Angels or Men, be invoked. The Theologians dispute whether this invocation is imposed upon Catholics by force of some precept. I have treated this question at length in Tome 2 on the Decalogue, book 2, dissertation 1, chapter 8, and you may read it there.

VI. Question V. Must we pray for all wayfarers, even for the souls detained in Purgatory? Answer. All Catholics affirm it. Of those who dwell on earth, not even the Heretics call this into question. For St. James, chapter 5, says: Pray for one another, that you may be saved; and St. Paul, in 1 Timothy 2, adds: I desire, first of all, that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men. We must pray, then, for all — whether friends or enemies, whether faithful or infidel, whether just or sinners. As Christ died for all, so we too ought to pray for all. We must pray for sinners, that they be converted, and for the just, that they persevere and make progress, says St. Thomas, II-II, q. 83, art. 7.

VII. From our prayers are excluded the Blessed, who are at their term, just as also the damned, who are likewise at the term of damnation, where no hope of salvation is present.

VIII. That we must pray for the souls of Purgatory all Catholics teach, against the Lutherans and Calvinists; and this they draw luminously from the second book of Maccabees, chapter 12. For Judas Maccabeus sent twelve thousand drachmas of silver to Jerusalem to have a sacrifice offered for the sins of the dead, thinking well and religiously concerning the resurrection. To free themselves from this argument, the Lutherans deny that this book is to be reckoned among the divine books. But the catholic Church, led by the Spirit of God, has defined that this book is divine. The catholic doctrine is also confirmed by reason. The Church, whether militant or triumphant, constitutes one body, whose head is Christ. Therefore all the members ought to have communion with one another, and with the head. If, then, the souls of Purgatory are members of the Church, it follows that the living ought to help these same souls, just as a member of one body helps the other members. There is added the perpetual and universal custom of the Church.

IX. Question VI. Do suffrages certainly profit the souls of Purgatory to whom they are applied? Answer. Just as it is held from the divine law that these suffrages profit the departed, so it depends upon the divine will how much, more or less, they bring help to this or that departed soul. This is certain: that suffrages offered for the dead take away, either wholly or in part, the punishment of some departed soul, because God has so disposed it. But that these suffrages bring help to this or that soul — that they take away the whole or part of the punishment — depends entirely upon the divine will.

X. Question VII. Should sinners pray? Are they heard by God? Answer. Sinners who pray in public ministries in the name of the Church are certainly bound to recite the prayers, and to obtain something from God for those for whom they pray. It is likewise certain that private sinners ought to pray. As to impetration, St. Thomas teaches, II-II, q. 83, art. 16, that if a sinner asks something of God according to the desire of sin, he is never heard from mercy, but sometimes unto vengeance. Wherefore David said, Psalm 65 [recte]: If I have looked at iniquity in my heart, the Lord will not hear me. On the contrary, sinners who detest their sins, and are affected with a pious desire, generally obtain what they implore. Thus were heard Manasses, the Publican, the sinful Woman, the Thief, and innumerable others. Nor does it stand in the way that sinners are destitute of sanctifying grace: since from this it is only inferred that their prayer is not meritorious, not that it is not impetratory, as has been indicated above. When it is sometimes said in Scripture that God does not hear sinners, this is understood of sinners insofar as they are sinners, and love sin — not of sinners who detest their sins.

XI. Finally, it is certain that the Angels and Saints reigning in heaven can pray for us, and that in very deed they do pray. They pray both by asking for what they see will profit us, and by offering our prayers to God. All wayfarers, whether just or sinners, can and ought to pray. For we are all beggars, and laboring under extreme want; therefore all of us must of necessity implore from our divine Father the daily aids we need.

Albertus, a priest who knows well the prescriptions of the Church concerning Litanies that must be approved by due authority, is doubtful about the lawfulness of certain Litanies that are found in a book of prayers approved by the bishops of the Province of Westminster, commonly called the Manual of Prayers. The same man found, on the walls of the church whose care he recently undertook, painted images of English martyrs not yet beatified, and beneath them, with the name of the martyr, the inscription—“Martyred”—on such a day and year. He doubts, however, whether due observance toward the Holy See and care for procuring the beatification of those martyrs require that the images be removed. Hence it is asked:

1. What are private prayer and public prayer; private worship and public worship?

2. What is prescribed concerning formulas of public prayer? And what specifically concerning Litanies to be published or recited?

3. What worship of those beatified and of those not yet beatified is lawful?

4. What is to be said of the case?

1. What is public and private prayer, public and private worship ? According to Suarez, in order that prayer may be public in the technical sense, it is necessary that it be offered by a minister duly appointed by the Church to act in her name, that he should have the intention of fulfilling his office, and that he should use the forms approved by the Church for the purpose. Prayer which has not these conditions is private. There is the same distinction between public and private worship.¹

1 Suarez, De Rel., vol. ii, lib. iii, c. 2, n. 2.

2. What is prescribed concerning the forms of public prayer, and what especially about publishing or saying Litanies?

Only those forms must be used in public prayer which are approved for the purpose by the Church. The right of ordering the liturgy belongs to the Pope, whose approbation is required in the Latin Church for the Breviary, Missal, Pontifical, Ceremonial of Bishops, and the Ritual. Bishops may approve forms of prayer for public use outside the strictly liturgical functions of the Church. Only those Litanies may be publicly said in churches and public oratories which are in the Breviary or in the later editions of the Roman Ritual approved by the Holy See, and no others may be printed even for private use without the approbation of the Ordinary.²

2 S. R. C., Nov. 28, 1895; Const. Leo XIII, Officiorum, n. 19.

3. What worship may be paid to beatified saints and to the non-beatified ?

Private worship may be paid to such as have died by those who have moral certainty that they are with God. In order that public worship may be paid to them they must at least be beatified by the Pope, and even to the beatified only those signs of worship may be paid which the Church expressly permits in the brief of beatification.

4. The case. Albert, a priest, is doubtful about the lawfulness of certain Litanies to be found in the “Manual of Prayers” approved by the English bishops. It follows from what has been said that only the Litanies of the Saints, of the Holy Name, of the Sacred Heart, of the Blessed Virgin, and of St. Joseph, may be said publicly; the other Litanies in the “Manual” may be used for private devotion. Albert finds in his church pictures of English martyrs not yet beatified with the inscription “Martyred” on such a day, in such a year. If the pictures have no signs of religious worship about them, such as an aureole or rays, and they are not placed over the altar, they are permitted. The inscription would only mean that the person represented was put to death for the Faith, but would not be intended to forestall the judgment of the Church on the fact of martyrdom.

Case.—James, who confesses about once a month, repeatedly accuses himself of omitting his morning and evening prayers on at least twenty days of the month. This has gone on for about two years; for despite renewed promises, there has been no improvement. The confessor is in doubt as to whether James fulfills his obligation of prayer.

Question.—What should be the confessor’s attitude?

Solution.—There is of course an obligation to pray and to persevere in prayer. Our Lord said we should always pray and never grow weary. But how should we interpret this command of Our Saviour? There can be no doubt that for adults prayer is an essential means to salvation. Without it we cannot save our souls. The reason for this is that God has determined not to give His efficacious graces to those who do not ask for them. It is clear that people who do not ask for grace, are not much concerned about their ultimate perseverance. They are indifferent alike to God’s rights and their own eternal welfare. In this neglect is involved a breach of God’s Law commanding men to pray. For there existed under the Old Law an obligation to address God in prayer even as such an obligation exists under the New Law. How often then should we pray in order to do justice to God’s decree? While no definite determination can be given on this point, it is certain in the minds of theologians that we do our duty essentially by frequent prayer. Hence our Lord’s words as given by St. Luke are to be interpreted in this sense. It is evident then that the omission of daily morning or evening prayer is not necessarily sinful, There are many ways of praying frequently other than by our night or morning prayers.

It remains true, nevertheless, that he who constantly neglects morning and evening prayer will eventually lose the habit and spirit of prayer, and so in time will not pray frequently. By this sinful negligence he will surely jeopardize his soul’s salvation. We can safely say that while per se the omission may not be sinful, the motive behind the neglect may be. Hence confession of the omission is to be permitted. The confessor should urge the penitent to use more care in the matter of daily prayer, not on the ground of the proximate prevention of sin, but on the usual theological basis, pointing out the necessity of prayer, its usefulness and so on. He should strongly encourage his penitent to form the habit of frequent and brief ejaculatory prayers; as these consume no time and can be made anywhere and at any hour, he can hope for a good measure of success, while by this practice he is making it easier for the penitent to get back into the Christian habit of morning and evening prayer.

ACCORDING to Sir J. G. Frazer, some consolation and even some hope and encouragement may be drawn from the melancholy record of human error and folly which he has given to the world in the Golden Bough. He thinks that, on the whole, in the history of mankind among the highest minds, there has been an upward movement from magic through religion to science.

In the stage of magic man imagines that he can manipulate the forces of nature and make them subservient to his own ends by means of magic and spells. When he finds out his mistake he goes to the opposite extreme and throws himself humbly on the mercy of certain great and invisible beings who, he thinks, dwell behind the veil of natural phenomena. Magic is thus superseded by religion, which explains the phenomena of nature as being regulated by the will, passion, or caprice of spiritual beings like man in kind, but vastly superior to him in power. Religion assumes that natural phenomena are not regulated by immutable laws, but that to some extent they are variable and irregular. This is not borne out by observation. Wherever investigation can be applied we find every detail governed by a rigid uniformity, and we are justified in concluding that the same rigid uniformity rules throughout nature. Hence the keener minds pressing onwards towards a solution of the mysteries of the universe come to reject the religious explanation in favour of an inflexible regularity. It is thus that religion is displaced by science: instead of praying for rain, science teaches man to supply himself with a storage of water which can be used as it is needed.

Sir J. G. Frazer makes it quite clear that by religion he understands all forms of religion, the highest as well as the lowest. For him Catholicism and Christianity belong to the same category as the idolatry of Central Africa. He does not offer us any bright or consoling hope. His universe is governed by inexorable regularity and uniformity. All that happens is inevitably determined by pre-existing conditions. The universe is one vast machine. Man himself is a part in it, and all his activity of mind and body alike is determined and limited by antecedent conditions. There is regularity and uniformity everywhere. There is no room in such a universe for design and free will. Minds may be oppressed with anxious fears and hearts may be crushed with sorrow, but there is no one who can pity or help in heaven or on earth. What was inevitable has happened, and it will happen again; there is no remedy to be found anywhere.

That is not a conclusion of hope and encouragement; it is a gospel of despair. But it is not even consistent with itself. The advantage of it, according to Sir J. G. Frazer, is that taught by science we can anticipate the future, and make provision against disaster by adopting suitable means beforehand. If a drought is foreseen we can provide for it by storing up a supply of water. In other words, we have the faculty to design and the free will to adopt remedies for future evils. If this be so, everything that happens is not inevitably determined by antecedent conditions. We can save ourselves if we choose to do so. If we do not choose to save ourselves, things will take their course to our disadvantage. We can choose to store the water or not, as we like. In other words, and the conclusion is most important, all that happens is not the product of inexorable necessity and uniformity. Design and freedom have a place in the life of man, matter and force are not the only things in the universe—there is mind and spirit as well. And if there is mind and spirit and freedom in man, there is in the universe and beyond it a mind and spirit who freely created man and the universe. “Understand, ye senseless among the people, and you fools, be wise at last. He that planted the ear, shall he not hear? Or, he that formed the eye, doth he not consider ?” The argument is so simple, and yet so profound. It is not contradicted by science; it is peremptorily demanded by science, as the late Lord Kelvin said and wrote. It is only denied by the determinists of science; the Psalmist called them by a shorter name.

The terms in which Sir J. G. Frazer describes religion in general are applicable only to the religion of rather low and degraded savages. The Christian religion does indeed teach that God dwells in and behind the veil of nature, but it denies that God regulates the phenomena of nature by passion or caprice. By his will he created nature and, being a wise God of law and order, he made nature subject to natural law. God sustains nature and concurs with its activity according to the laws which he has given it. The Christian does not admit that God, having once made the universe, retires into a dignified repose and thenceforth leaves his creation to itself. Such an idea is unworthy of the All-Father. Nor, on the other hand, does the Christian believe that God is constantly interfering with the laws of nature. That idea would be repugnant to his wisdom.

The Christian position, in this as in so many other questions, lies between two false extremes. God, the Creator and Ruler of the universe, is not debarred from the house that he has built for us; he is always there and always active, but he is not always manifesting his presence and activity, he does not meddle; if he does occasionally interfere openly, it is always for a good and adequate cause. We know that we are in his presence, we are sure that he loves us, we are convinced that he can and is willing to help us. He not only permits us to think of him, love him, and speak to him; he has imposed on us a strict command to do so. That is one ground of prayer, and another is our absolute need of him. He has promised to hear our prayers and he keeps his promise.

The way in which God answers our prayers will depend partly on the nature of the object for which we pray, partly on his own good pleasure. If we ask for grace to overcome some vicious habit, he will enlighten our minds so that we see more clearly the baseness of the habit into which we have fallen, the sad plight to which it has reduced us, and the danger of continuing in it. When we see clearly the necessity of overcoming our bad habit, God will give strength to our wills so that we form a fixed determination to overcome it. There is always something to do for ourselves with God’s help. He made us without our co-operation, but he will not save us without our co-operation. If we pray for rain or other physical blessings, in all probability God will answer our prayers if it seems good to him by guiding the forces of nature. The driver of a motor-car who sees an obstacle in the way quietly brings other forces into play and his car avoids the obstacle which would have wrecked it and killed the driver if he had not intervened. The driver does not suspend the laws of nature, he only brings new laws into play. God can do with his universe what the driver does with his car.

There is, however, an important difference in the two cases. The driver acts on the spur of the moment, when he sees the obstacle. God is omniscient as well as all-powerful. He has seen every detail of the whole course of history from all eternity. He has decreed what he would do in answer to the prayers which he foresaw from all eternity. So that when the time comes, and when he answers the prayers for rain, the answer is part of the order which God has arranged and decreed from all eternity. There is no passion, no caprice here, there is the all-wise and beneficent guidance of divine Providence.

God is not a prisoner in his own universe. He reserves to himself a certain freedom of action, when it seems good to him. He who raised the dead to life, who gave sight to the blind, who by a word or touch healed the sick, and calmed the winds and the waves, still on occasion and for good reasons works similar wonders in answer to prayer. The lives of the saints, the events which happen at Lourdes and elsewhere, show abundantly that “the hand of the Lord is not shortened that it cannot save; neither is his ear heavy that it cannot hear.” But these miracles do not disturb the orderly course of the universe, they do not upset the calculations of science and make them uncertain; they only give food for reflection, even to scientists if they will accept it.