§ 2. On Prayer

I. Notion. 1. A twofold description of prayer is proposed: the ascent of the mind to God; the petition of fitting things from God. The former is drawn from the praying subject and from the term of the motion, the latter from the object; the former sets forth more the dignity and sublimity of the action, the latter more its utility and the divine goodness; the former is more eternal, the latter more practical now and accommodated to our present state.

Each notion is well joined by Damascene ¹, since there is no ascent to God without petition, no petition made to God without an ascent of the mind to God. For, our present condition considered, our perpetual need of goods which we cannot receive except from God brings this about, that every formal approach of ours to God contains a formal or virtual petition. Indeed, in the perpetual thanksgiving of the heavenly citizens there is had a virtual supplication for perpetual divine possession; nor is conversation with God conceived where the creature (not a being in itself) does not receive, and God (infinite being, incapable of reception) does not give.

2. Prayer is distinguished as formal and virtual or vital. The former, from a suppliant intention, approaches God; the latter consists in good works, since good works have impetratory force.

It is also distinguished as mental and vocal: not because the former excludes words or exterior signs, but because it is not, as the latter is, bound to words. Vocal prayer is rendered in exterior words by intention; whether the one praying here and now finds words which he utters with a loud or low voice, or whether he follows a formula written at another time by himself or by another. Concerning the essence of vocal prayer cf. III, 39. - Mental prayer is so completed in the mind that there is no professed use of voices or exterior signs. Mental prayer in turn is divided into meditation and contemplation. Meditation strictly is discursive prayer; contemplation, as the fruit of meditation, is a simpler and affective intuition of truth. Contemplation itself can be either ordinary or extraordinary, or mystical. The latter has as its proper note that it takes place with a certain sense of the divine presence: it is the fruit of a new divine grace, distinct from the grace which makes an act supernatural and salutary. From this we pronounce nothing concerning the frequency or rarity of that grace. Cf. our work Quaestiones de Virtute religionis, etc., q. 1, c. 2.

3. Their own parts in prayer belong to the intellect and to the will. Yet because prayer pertains to the genus of a certain speech, and by persuasion orders God toward doing something in favor of the one praying, prayer is formally an act of the intellect.

¹ De fide orthodoxa III, 24, P.G. 94, 1090.

The Parts of Complete Prayer. From the occasion of the words of St. Paul, "I beseech therefore first of all that supplications, prayers, intercessions, thanksgivings be made for all men" (1 Tim. 2:1), St. Thomas, 2, 2, q. 83, art. 17, finds in every perfect prayer four parts: approach to God through a certain dutiful salutation, which he calls prayer strictly so called; formal petition, which is designated by the name of postulation; exposition of reasons and sacred contestation, which is called obsecration; and thanksgiving for benefits already received, which disposes toward new ones to be granted. These parts are easily distinguished in several prayers of the Church, for example in the prayer of the Most Holy Sacrament: "O God (prayer), who under a wonderful sacrament hast left us a memorial of Thy Passion (thanksgiving), grant graciously, etc. (postulation), graciously, who livest and reignest (obsecration)."

II. The Praying Subject. Christ never prayed servilely, as creatures do who cannot provide for themselves the things which they seek; but dispensatively, by voluntary lowering of Himself, which, by no means repugnant to His human nature, was at the same time an example to us. In heaven, however, He is presented to us by the Apostle as "always living to make intercession for us" (Heb. 7:25). But since He is now in the glory of the Father, and all things have been handed over into His hands, even as man, this is better understood, rather than of formal prayer, of the title of every grace to be obtained, which we perpetually have in His wounds and in His humanity.

That the Blessed Virgin Mary is, for us, by her prayer, the universal Mediatrix of grace, is a persuasion which is more and more rooted in the souls of the faithful, confirmed by several pontifical documents, expressed almost authentically by the proper Mass itself granted, nourished by the studies of theologians, so that the sweet hope grows day by day that at some time this truth will be proposed to the faithful as a dogma of faith to be believed. The peculiar force which, as Mother of God and our Mother, Mary has for interceding for us is so well known that therefore she has been called suppliant Omnipotence.

The Saints themselves can seek for themselves both the glory of the body and the accidental glory of honors or worship. For us they can obtain every genus of goods, according to the order of divine Providence.

The souls of purgatory, even if they do not know our petitions (which St. Thomas thinks, but it is not certain), seem at least able to pray for the living in common, and especially for those joined to them. Indeed, although they cannot satisfy, they can usefully pray to God that they may as quickly as possible obtain beatitude, by asking some remission of punishment or a certain divine motion by which God may move wayfarers to pray and satisfy for them. Cf. Suarez, De Religione, Tract. IV, Lib. I, c. 10, n. 25-28.

Every wayfarer can pray not only for himself, but also for his neighbor, of whom, on account of the bond of charity, he is in some way said to be one.

III. Object. All things are to be sought by us in order to salvation. Therefore an indifferent thing, as such, cannot be the object of an honorable petition. Yet those alone seem objectively to sin who, while asking temporal things, formally exclude the right use of the temporal good. For a thing indifferent from its object can be referred to divine glory. But whoever acts with an honorable intention tacitly does not seek a thing that is indifferent except insofar as it is lawful for him to seek the same. Therefore, rather than that we stir up scruples concerning the thing sought as indifferent, it will be much better that we inculcate the Lord's counsel: "Seek first the kingdom of God and all these things shall be added to you" (St. Luke 12:31); lest, from scant success of prayers, Christians begin to scrape away in their souls concerning prayer and to lead a languid spiritual life. Therefore they should also be admonished that temporal goods are not granted by God except in order to aiding salvation; and that by an excessive affection by which temporal things are sought before other goods, prayer itself is partly vitiated.

Things, however, can be sought determinately, which aids our fervor, or indeterminately, as when we confidently say: "He whom Thou lovest is sick" (Gospel of St. John 11:3).

IV. Terms. 1. Prayer is properly made to God, from whom we expect all goods. In a secondary way, the worship of suppliant prayer is directed to the Saints, that they may pray for us, and on account of their merits God may hear us. Because formal invocation of them is less essential, there is nothing wonderful in the fact that it must be referred to an age of developed Christian religion. But in the present state entirely to neglect it would savor of a certain pride and irreligiosity. Therefore c. 1276 opportunely commands these things: "Before the rest, let all the faithful pursue the Blessed Virgin Mary with filial devotion."

2. The pious work of aiding souls detained in purgatory is not doubted to contribute greatly to obtaining graces: pious alms are thus joined with prayer.

St. Thomas, 2, 2, q. 83, art. 11 ad 3, denies that the souls of purgatory are to be invoked, because they do not know our petitions and are rather in need than themselves helping (cf. n. 181). Yet these are not certain arguments. Nor does it appear why they cannot pray for the living in common and for those specially joined to them. Cf. Suarez, Relig. tr. IV, L. 1, c. 10, 25-28. And without doubt, once received into the eternal tabernacles, they will be grateful to their benefactors.

V. Efficacy. 1. From the divine promise, which is contained in manifest places of Sacred Scripture, prayer, made in the due manner, possesses an infallible efficacy of obtaining. "Ask and it shall be given you" (St. Matt. 7:7; St. Luke 11:9). "All things whatsoever you shall ask in prayer, believing, you shall receive" (St. Matt. 21:22). That it may be made in the due manner, there is required humility, by which, subject to God the Supreme Lord, we desire goods for ourselves according to the order pre-established for us by divine Wisdom; faith, by which we believe God's omnipotence and promises; confidence, by which we do not doubt concerning divine fidelity; perseverance, by which our virtue, especially humility, is exercised, and the defect of individual prayers is supplied; at least initial conversion to God, so that our petition may be sincere. Therefore, since God destines no goods for us as indifferent to salvation, and wills us to be subject to the laws of His supreme and universal Providence, all and only those things can be infallibly obtained by us which are necessary or useful for attaining the degree of heavenly glory predestined for us.

2. It is less established that prayer poured forth for others is of infallible efficacy. Yet the universal force of the words of Sacred Scripture seems to prove this, especially since they expressly commend prayer for others, for example Eph. 6:18, 19; 1 Tim. 2:1-4. But the necessary disposition can be lacking in him for whom we pray. And because the application of prayer to the souls of purgatory seems to be subject to other things than their present disposition, for example to the mercy by which they themselves were commendable while they lived on earth, therefore suffrages for the souls of purgatory do not always free them.

3. Aids of efficacy. Since divine Providence has brought us to our state and has prepared for us various conjunctions with others, the more we seek those things which are according to our condition, and the more the persons for whom we pray are joined to us, the more easily we shall be heard. Moreover, that the sanctity of the one praying contributes to the efficacy of prayer is not to be doubted.

4. Utility of imperfect prayer. Although a prayer in which some required condition is lacking cannot rest upon the divine promises, nevertheless it is not made useless, since the benignity of God preserves for it some impetratory force ¹, and repeated prayers can supply the defect of individual prayers.

¹ Cf. Aertnijs, I, 414, V; Tanquerey, II, 872.

— You ask concerning the necessity of attention and concerning distractions. A certain attention or application of mind is necessarily had, from the fact that someone, from a formal or virtual intention, pronounces prayerful words. Therefore distraction usually signifies not so much alienation of the mind from God as a division of the mind among several things. But the reverence owed to God demands that at least when we pray by profession, the mind be morally wholly turned to Him. But a just proportionate cause, whether of labor through which at the same time we desire to pour forth some prayer, or of the importance of the business itself whose thought comes upon the mind, or of the very utility of the distraction, can take away that irreverence, and therefore the venial sin. Cf. the things said, III, 39, where the threefold attention is also explained, or Tanquerey, II, n. 872.

VI. Necessity. 1. That prayer is necessary to us at least by necessity of precept is certain by faith. For this is demonstrated to us by very clear places of Sacred Scripture, by the word and example of the Lord, and by the exhortation of the Apostles. And the Scriptures so join prayer with necessary goods that they already inculcate a necessity of means, which is more clearly preached in Tradition and admitted by the more common opinion. Yet it is a diminished necessity of means, insofar as it presses, not strictly upon all, but upon most by ordinary law; i.e., according to the doctrine received in the schools, grace immediately sufficient for fully believing or for overcoming grave temptations is available to many by no other way than that of prayer. But who, without great temerity, could presume that he will be immune from great difficulties or temptations?

2. That one must pray frequently in life is effected from the same places of Scripture. For the sacred texts will that in every necessity, concerning every matter, we confidently have recourse to God. How often, however, cannot be defined. The theologians who demand monthly prayer do not demonstrate their intention. Therefore it must be said that this precept is more determined by the laws of the Church concerning hearing Mass, concerning receiving the sacraments, and is abundantly fulfilled by the various offices of Christian life.

3. The same precept obliges accidentally: a) when grave temptations are foreseen or must be overcome: the omission will be one sin, in number and species, with the sin which ought to have been avoided through prayer. For prayer was not prescribed except for avoiding that, so that one precept of not committing such a sin has been violated; b) when, in danger of death, pardon from mortal sin must be obtained; c) when, in a grave calamity of the public or of those joined to us, prayer is shown to be an efficacious remedy which others will neglect (when will these things be established?); d) from an imposed office: the pastor of souls is obliged to prayer by the office itself; those ordained in sacred orders, beneficed persons, together with the office imposed on them by the Church, have the obligation of reciting the divine hours.

For the most part, from a less right cause, the omission of every morning prayer, evening prayer, and prayer before and after bodily refreshment will be venial, although these are not prescribed. Catholic families are very opportunely admonished that these prayers, commended by the pious custom of the Church, not gradually be neglected and passed over. When refreshment is taken in a public place, our regions being considered, it is becoming that a priest or religious not omit prayer. And per se it is also to be recommended to lay persons that, in a manner which is free at the same time from timidity and from arrogance, they preserve the custom. What Mohammedans and many Protestants dare, will Catholics no longer dare?

— You ask, what prayer is to be preferred, whether mental or vocal. Mental prayer does not differ from vocal precisely in this, that the former excludes the parts of voice and body, while the latter excludes interior discourses and affections. For one who prays in the mind is accustomed to show himself praying by the whole habit of the body, and not rarely to break forth into words. Again, without some attention of the mind there would not be vocal prayer. But both prayers are separated by this distinction, that vocal prayer is bound to a definite form of words, while mental prayer is released from this bond.

These things presupposed, vocal prayer alone is adapted to public prayer; and the loftiest thoughts can be revolved in vocal prayer. Therefore, in the first place, each one ought to place before others that prayer by which he himself is more aided. Yet that prayer which is directed by the mind is preferable and per se more useful: it permits to the nobler faculties an unimpeded abundance of explaining themselves; it is prayer in which the voices serve the affections of the mind, and have only that use which agrees with the present desire or need of the soul, rather than a manner of praying which follows an exterior norm, fixes the acies of the intellect at least in part upon words, so that the superior faculties can give themselves less fully to their acts, and in some way join themselves to the words as attendants; or are easily impeded by the pronunciation of the words. Add that mental prayer is accustomed to be more laborious, so that the merit of greater bodily affliction is added.

Concerning Mystical Prayer. 1. Notion. Mystical prayer denotes contemplation of God or of heavenly things, full of affection, extraordinary and ineffable, with a certain sense of the divine presence, and indeed an intimate one. Although not all require this sense as essential, nevertheless in that sense by which mystics are said to experience divine things, we think there is a specific note by which mystical contemplation is proved to differ from common contemplation.

It is commonly known that mystical contemplation itself is distinguished by various degrees, of which the supreme is spiritual marriage. Moreover, mystical facts or phenomena which accompany that contemplation are called, some exdeic, insofar as they have as term something created, such as visions themselves, revelations, ecstasies; others are endeic, which attain God Himself or a closer conjunction with Him. The former pertain to graces gratuitously given, which are neither the object of merit nor contribute to sanctity; while the latter, in some degree, are offered as a sufficiently common reward of peculiar fidelity and are very useful for sanctity. Therefore the former are neither to be sought nor desired, but rather humbly to be fled. Nor must one strive indiscreetly for perfect contemplation ¹; yet for this a man can laudably dispose himself by great purity of heart, profound humility, and ardent charity.

Every mystical state indeed is the fruit of its own grace, distinct from the grace which effects a supernatural and salutary act; but a remote general aptitude, not to say universal, for obtaining that state in some degree seems rather to be admitted.

Let it be enough to have intimated these things concerning prayer; for more, cf., for example, in Quaestiones De virtute religionis et pietatis.

¹ Alvarez de Paz, De inquisitione pacis, b. 5, p. 2, c. 13.

I. Concerning worship. By the general name of worship all acts of the virtue of religion are designated, since by them the service of God is integrated. The worship of latria is distinguished, which is proper to the divine Majesty; of hyperdulia, which is rendered to the Blessed Virgin Mary; and of dulia, by which the Saints are commonly honored. Except sacrifice, which pertains to public latreutic worship alone, other external acts, according to the intention and circumstances of the one honoring, can manifest latria or dulia.

Worship is interior and exterior. Exterior worship can be private and public: public worship is rendered in the name of the Church, by persons legitimately deputed for this, or by acts which from the institution of the Church can be exhibited only to God, the Saints, and the Blessed (c. 1256). Public worship is called liturgical when it is rendered by a rite or ordered mode prescribed by legitimate power (by Christ or by the Church). The norms of the material execution of sacred rites are called rubrics. The liturgical spirit, or the study of accommodating personal devotion to the properly social devotion which belongs to liturgy, is greatly to be commended, yet so that it not be preached as exclusive, and not depress private devotion. Finally, he leads a liturgical life who is assiduous in celebrating liturgical acts and girds himself for them by private spiritual exercises.

With public worship today only these can be honored who, being prior to Alexander III, have been described in the martyrology, or who by decree of the Holy See have been numbered among the Saints or Blessed. Yet the immemorial worship rendered to Servants of God who died before 1534 can remain in its state. (That time is not taken mathematically or rigorously, but morally.)

Only those Servants of God can be called Venerable whose martyrdom or heroicity of virtues has been proved. Private worship is honorably attributed by someone to him whose sanctity is morally certain to that person. Canonization, but not beatification, contains an infallible decree. Therefore the worship of the Blessed is circumscribed by place and mode. Absolute worship is terminated at persons; relative worship at things which, on account of connection with persons, participate their sanctity. Such are relics and images: these we can immediately honor on account of the person; just as we can, without any honor rendered to the image itself, merely use the image for honoring the person.

To the Ordinary belongs the delegable power of solemnly blessing an image which is honored with public worship; nor can an unusual one be placed in sacred places without the license of the Ordinary of the place. Per se, without an authentic document, relics cannot be honored with public worship in churches, unless they have been endowed with ancient veneration and it is not established that they are false.

Worship is distinguished as latria, which is exhibited to the divine majesty alone, and dulia, which is exhibited to the Saints. The singular dignity and sanctity which divine maternity conferred upon the Virgin Mother of God gives place to the worship of hyperdulia. Except sacrifice, which is proper to the worship of latria, the other external acts, according to the intention and circumstances of the one honoring, can manifest latria or dulia.

II. Concerning the acts in species. 1. Devotion is defined as a certain will of promptly handing oneself over to those things which pertain to the service of God.

2. Adoration, taken strictly, is the formal exhibition of supreme reverence; by a broader use of the word, creatures also are adored. Taken adequately, it is interior and exterior: this agrees with our nature and is sometimes prescribed by the necessity of social worship.

3. Praise, by which we profess, internally or externally, the beneficent perfection or goodness of God, is a part of gratitude owed to God. Expressed by chant, it aids the devotion of the weak. By a broader use of the word, the greatest praise accrues to God from the promoted perfection of the rational creature.

4. Prayer. a) From the subject and term it is called: the ascent of the mind to God; from the object: the petition of fitting things from God. It is distinguished as formal, by which, from a suppliant intention, God is approached, and virtual or vital, which the good works of him who does not refuse to pray contain; mental, which is not bound to words, and vocal, which is rendered in exterior words by intention.

Mental prayer is divided into discursive meditation and intuitive contemplation, which can be ordinary or extraordinary, or mystical: mystical is with some sense of the divine presence. Vocal prayer is divided into private and public. - Although intellect and will intervene in prayer, prayer is nevertheless formally an act of the intellect. - Distraction, insofar as it merely denotes division of the mind among several things, does not take away the substance of prayer, at least of vocal prayer; yet if it is voluntary, it derogates venially from the reverence owed to God, unless a proportionate cause excuses it. - Because in moral estimation attention is judged to persevere, he who is involuntarily distracted is sometimes, rather improperly, said to be virtually attentive. Nor for vocal prayer is it necessary that the one praying be able to hear himself.

b) Since prayer contains confession of one's own subjection and recognition and praise of divine excellence, it is of itself a meritorious act of religion.

c) Complete prayer contains approach to God (prayer more strictly so called), postulation, obsecration or contestation of motives, and thanksgiving for benefits already accepted (1 Tim. 2:1).

d) Not only wayfarers pray, but also Saints, the souls of purgatory, and, less properly, as it seems, Christ glorious and reigning.

e) The object of prayer. Whatever can pertain to salvation can be sought for us or for others, but not indifferent or temporal things as such. For as such God has by no means ordered them to us.

f) The term from whom it is obtained is God alone; the term through whom is Christ; and, on account of the merits of Christ, also the Blessed Virgin and the Saints.

g) Efficacy. Already honorable per se and of some efficacy, prayer made in the due manner has, from divine promise, a certain infallible efficacy of obtaining for us the things which, according to the ordering of divine Providence, conduce to our salvation. This efficacy seems also to be extended to prayer offered for others who are disposed. Prayer made in the due manner requires humility, faith, confidence, perseverance, and at least initial conversion to God. According to the dignity of the one praying, according to the quality of the prayer, and according to the conjunction of the one praying with him for whom he prays, the efficacy itself of prayer varies in degree.

h) Necessity. By very clear places of Scripture the precept of prayer is so demonstrated that it is certain by faith. And the Scriptures so join prayer with necessary goods that they inculcate at least a diminished necessity of means, which the more common opinion reads in Tradition. That is, grace immediately sufficient for fully believing or for overcoming grave temptations will be able to be at hand for many by the way of prayer alone. Most, however, have great difficulties to overcome, so that prayer becomes for most a means necessary for salvation. How often one must pray cannot be defined; but the precept of frequently praying is abundantly fulfilled by the various offices of Christian life. The precept obliges accidentally when grave temptations are foreseen or must be overcome; when, in danger of death, pardon from mortal sin must be obtained; or, if that is ever established, when a grave necessity of the public or of those joined to us could be averted by the prayer of someone alone; finally, insofar as it enters into the office of one's state. Although morning prayer, evening prayer, and prayer before and after bodily refreshment are not properly prescribed, for the most part, in the concrete, complete omission, on account of a less right motive, will not lack venial fault.

i) For each one the better prayer is that by which he is more aided; yet per se mental prayer is more excellent, insofar as, bound by no words, it permits a freer direction to the superior faculties.

k) The mystical state, which can be called a certain affective suffering or experience of divine things, although it demands a special grace of God, seems, in some degree, less prodigious, remotely offered to most, not to say all; and, because it is very useful for sanctity, it can be piously and humbly sought, and prepared for dispositively by the exercise of virtues. But the added rare graces gratuitously given, which tend not to a closer conjunction with God but to some created thing, as a vision or revelation is, are not to be desired but humbly fled. Moreover, in ecstasy itself, man continues freely to love God and to merit, and implicitly seeks all fitting things from God.