Chapter I: On the Nature and Necessity of Baptism

— The sacrament of baptism is the sacrament of regeneration, through water in the word (Roman Catechism).

This regeneration comprehends the impression of character, by which one becomes a member of the Church and, remotely or proximately, fit for the other sacraments, especially for participating in the sacrifice of the New Law; remission, by way of ablution, of original guilt and of personal sins, made by the infusion of sanctifying grace; condonation of every debt of punishment; adoptive filiation of God; and the special right of the help of actual graces for the profession of Christian life. Regeneration has its beginning from character, but is perfected by the infusion of sanctifying grace.

Water, in the definition, is placed for ablution by immersion; word, for the form which contains the invocation of the Most Holy Trinity over the one to be baptized.

Baptism, besides its essential unity, also has numerical unity in the same supposit, which we profess in the very Apostles' Creed when we say: I believe one baptism.

As to the remission of faults and punishments, observe that not even in baptism is any fault remitted without attrition. But, that attrition being placed as a condition, every fault and every punishment, by force of baptism, is condoned ex opere operato.

In baptism the reality and sacrament, or baptismal character, according to Cardinal Billot (De baptismo, Thesis XXIII), has the account of consecration to the worship of the Most Holy Trinity, according to the rite of the Christian religion, and of passive potency, by which man is made capable of receiving those things which belong to Christian worship. It is the character of the Christian man. But according to R. P. de la Taille (Mysterium Fidei, p. 581 note), it is "the interior consecration by which man is aggregated to the priesthood of Christ in order to offering, through the ministry of priests, the victim of redemption and to participating by communion."

— Analogically, insofar as they in some way supply for the sacrament, a twofold other baptism is distinguished: of the Spirit, or of the Holy Spirit, and of blood.

1. Baptism of the Spirit is an act of perfect charity or contrition, insofar as it contains at least a tacit desire for the sacrament. Therefore it can be had in adults alone. It imprints no character; it does not necessarily take away every venial fault; and, that it take away every debt of temporal punishment, an act is required whose intensity is equivalent to the punishments otherwise to be sustained. But it takes away every mortal fault together with the debt of eternal punishment, according to this: "He who loves me will be loved by my Father" (Gospel of St. John, 14:21).

2. Baptism of blood is martyrdom itself of a non-baptized person. For from a privilege which the Fathers most clearly teach and read as promised in St. Matthew, 10:32 and 39, "He who shall confess me before men, I also will confess him before my Father... He who has lost his life on account of me will find it," every debt of fault and punishment is blotted out by true martyrdom. The chief reason of the privilege seems to be perfect imitation of the death of Christ.

Martyrdom is defined as the suffering of death for the faith or for Christian virtue. The suffering of death is as it were the material element, concerning which the more common opinion holds that it suffices that a lethal wound has been received, or that a cause has been placed which, without miracle, had to bring on death. Thus Benedict XIV, De Beatif., 3, 12 and following, perhaps against St. Thomas, 2, 2, q. 124, art. 4. - The formal element is that one suffer for the faith or for Christian virtue: hence formal heretics cannot be martyrs; but it suffices that death be inflicted in hatred of Christian virtue. Indeed there are those who think it enough that someone, for example while plague rages, as he ministers to the sick from charity, contracts the plague and thus falls for Christian virtue. Cf. St. Alphonsus, l. 6, n. 100.

He dies a martyr who is killed while sleeping, if before, conscious of threats, he persevered in faith or virtue. Nor is an option between life and apostasy necessary, provided the dying person accepts the killing. Probably they are martyrs who, earning stipends for the cause of the Pontiff or of the Church, have been killed while fighting. Indeed probably soldiers can be martyrs who, falling in a just war, refer their devotion to their fatherland to God. For piety toward the fatherland and legal justice are Christian virtues, and "any human good whatever can be a cause of martyrdom, according as it is referred to God" (St. Thomas, 2, 2, q. 124, art. 5 ad 3). But since it is unknown with what soul soldiers died, the Church does not honor them as martyrs.

Martyrdom cannot be denied without rashness to infants who are killed in hatred of Christ; but in an adult there is required: a) consent to death, or acceptance of martyrdom at least habitually; b) if he had been outside the state of grace because of actual sin, a movement of penance. Must this be of contrition, or does attrition suffice? And we judge the effort made to elicit contrition to suffice. Moreover, that the grace of perfect charity or contrition should be lacking in him who gives to Christ the greatest sign of love seems to be a chimerical hypothesis.

Not a few demand, for the true account of martyrdom, that the martyr not resist, so that thus he may perfectly imitate Christ, who was killed as a lamb. Yet more probably force which martyrs have opposed to the impious does not stand in the way of martyrdom, if they defended the cause of Christ more than themselves: for instance, if a missionary wished to protect a Christian people.

That a martyr be increased with the honors of the blessed, miracles properly so called are not required; nevertheless, certain signs are demanded of themselves, so that the martyrdom itself may be certain. Among signs this one stands out: if the blood poured out has been the seed of Christians.

— Comparison of the Three Baptisms. 1. Baptism of water operates ex opere operato; of the Spirit, ex opere operantis; of blood, as it were ex opere operato, and in adults, at the same time ex opere operantis.

2. Baptism of blood excels the others: it equally blots out faults and punishments; it configures more perfectly to the death of Christ (Philippians 3:10). For in martyrdom conformity is had by imitation, in baptism of the Spirit by affection, and in baptism of water by figural representation; it manifests a more splendid efficacy of the power of the Holy Spirit, who operates hiddenly in the sacrament, moves the heart in baptism of the Spirit, and in baptism of blood exhibits the greatest proof of love; finally, it confers the aureole, or the reward, the accidental joy on account of an excellent victory reported over the enemy in this life (St. Thomas, supplement to 3 part, q. 96, art. 1, c.).

Yet baptism of water alone imprints character, renders the baptized person capable of the other sacraments, and confers sacramental graces. Wherefore neither other baptism dispenses from the obligation of receiving, when occasion is given, the sacrament of baptism; just as it does not dispense the baptized from use of the sacrament of penance for mortal sins not yet confessed and committed after baptism of water.

— Remote Matter. 1. Valid matter is every water, in a liquid state, which, according to the common estimation of men, is held as natural⁽¹⁾ and usual. Such is water of a spring, of a well, of rain; water dissolved from snow, hail, ice; distilled water or water chemically made. Nor does an accidental change of color, taste, or odor stand in the way, which is had in sea water or in sulphurous water. It does not harm the value if it has been mixed with another body so moderately that it retains the common use and name of water, for instance lye with a little soap, a broth thinly cooked with meat. For in every liquid of this kind one can truly be reborn from water, which from the Gospel of St. John, 3:5, is necessary.

Inept matter for baptism is saliva, sweat, tears, urine, water expressed from the juice of roses, herbs, plants; beer; water which from mixture is no longer suitable for ablution, nor is named water: for instance mud, broth, wine mixed with water. For in the moral estimation of men, such water is not judged natural and usual.

Doubtful matter is water dissolved from salt, flowing from a vine or trees, physically drawn from wine, flowers, or plants,⁽²⁾ ice itself and snow not dissolved (St. Alphonsus, l. 6, n. 104); very thin broth and beer, lye, indeed rosewater.

2. Licit remote matter is, in private or non-solemn baptism, any natural and pure water, although use of baptismal water is especially to be advised to a priest; in solemn baptism, water blessed for this is of itself to be used.

Baptismal water is to be prepared twice in the year, on Holy Saturday and on the vigil of Pentecost, with oils recently consecrated, if these could be had. Recently, that is, on Thursday, in the Supper of the Lord, which preceded the preparation. If water in the baptistery has diminished so that it does not seem likely to suffice, "other non-blessed water is to be mixed in, even repeatedly, yet in a lesser quantity" (c. 767, §2) than that which remains pure or already once or twice mixed. If the water has entirely failed, the pastor should pour fresh water into the well-cleaned font and bless it with the special rite prescribed in the liturgical books. And to missionaries there is also conceded the faculty of using the shorter formula which has its name from Paul III and is found in the Appendix of the Ritual, at the beginning. Where true danger of disease is present, especially where an infant is to be baptized in the womb, the Holy Office, August 21, 1901 (Coll. P. F., n. 2121), permitted use of water mixed with mercury bichloride corrosive, or sublime corrosif. The proposed proportion was 1/1000.

Use of doubtful matter is permitted only in necessity and under condition. To use very impure water, when other can be had, is a grave sin of irreverence. He who uses natural water instead of baptismal in solemn baptism from negligence seems to sin gravely.

⁽¹⁾ In c. 737, §1, by the words "natural water" is understood that which is commonly held as true and is usual. It matters little whether it has been made by human art or by nature.

⁽²⁾ Since chemically made water is certain matter, we do not see what can be objected against water whose elements have been found chemically in plants rather than immediately in hydrogen and oxygen.

— The proximate matter of baptism is ablution which, as St. Thomas notes, 3 p., q. 66, art. 7 ad 2, preserves some account of immersion, since always in ablution at least some part of the body is placed under water. Each account seems to be required. Or, better, the proximate matter should be called ablution by way of immersion. For in the Scriptures themselves baptism is said to us to be a "washing of water" (Ephesians 5:26) and "burial together" with Christ: "For we were buried together with him by baptism into death" (Romans 6:3). In baptism we die with Christ, so that with him we may rise again. And the very word baptizo, baptizein, means to dip, to immerse.

Therefore for the value of baptism there is need that water in such quantity physically touch the body, at least as to a principal part, that someone morally can be said to be washed.

This can be had in either way, whether the body is moved toward the water, as in immersion, or the water is moved to the body by infusion or by sprinkling. Moreover water can be moved in such a way that either several parts of water, for example of water springing forth, simultaneously touch several parts of the body, or a smaller quantity of water, yet more than one drop, as it seems, successively touches several parts of the body. This same is obtained in a twofold way: either water flows by running down, or by hand or even by a well-wetted finger it successively reaches the parts of the body. Observe that movement of the hand or finger is required, since simple application of a wetted hand is not judged to be ablution.

Therefore baptism conferred over an infant's clothing or over the mother's womb is null: in neither way is the infant himself physically touched. Baptism conferred over the afterbirth, or the deciduous membrane by which the body is contained in the mother's womb, is very doubtful, since it is not proved to be a true part of the infant. There seems to be lesser reason for doubting concerning baptism by which only the hair has been wetted. Yet the matter is controverted. Wherefore, where the hair is thick, let it be parted by hand, or, what is better, let baptism be conferred on the forehead. And because it sometimes happens that the whole body of a newborn infant is anointed with oil, he will act more cautiously who, not content with pouring, at the same time washes the forehead by hand.

Baptism in which only a less principal part, such as finger, hand, foot, is washed is also doubtful. And unless the head has been washed, sufficient doubt remains so that baptism ought to be repeated (St. Thomas, 3 p., q. 68, art. 11 ad 4). Wherefore this manner of acting, by which, the membrane ruptured, an infant in the womb is washed by means of a small tube, is less certain than Ballerini proclaims it to be, De baptismo et de quinto praecepto. Add that there is some doubt whether an infant, before he is separated from the mother or brought forth, is capable of baptism.

Baptism is doubtful and to be repeated under condition if only one or another drop has been used, for example, if a multitude has been sprinkled as though with holy water. And the Holy Office, December 14, 1898, ordered that baptism conferred by way of anointing on the forehead with the thumb wetted in baptismal water be repeated under condition.

In baptism by immersion, a few with Soto and Toledo require that the baptized person emerge from the water. This seems false, because for the body to be washed there is no need that the body emerge, and baptizein is merely to dip. Therefore the baptism of an infant whom, while pronouncing the words, you cast into a river seems to be valid. But unless the death of the infant is already imminent, the effect of death is badly permitted, so that the guilt of a certain homicide is contracted. In the case of extreme necessity, where the infant otherwise would die without baptism, some indeed, with St. Alphonsus, l. 6, n. 106, condemn the action as homicide, but others probably say that the effect of baptism at least probable is immediate and so good that, on account of that proportionate reason, the other effect of accelerated death can be permitted. Cf. Lehmkuhl, II, 86, 5, with Palmieri approving, t. IV, n. 729. But all permit that in extreme necessity an infant be washed with cold water.

— By canon 758 four modes of washing are held as valid: infusion, which now is almost the only one used by Western Catholics; immersion; sprinkling; the mixed mode of infusion and immersion, when the one to be baptized is immersed and, while he is in the pool, is at the same time poured over with water by the baptizer. The Code prescribes, however, that "the first or second mode, or the mixed mode from both, which is more in use, be retained, according to the approved ritual books of the various Churches." In reality baptism by sprinkling is plainly less secure. Through twelve centuries, immersion was the ordinary mode, which still is used for infants at Milan. St. Thomas held it as safer, 3 p., q. 66, art. 7, c.

— The prescribed form of baptism in the Latin Church is this: "I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." From this, this form of the Greeks does not differ substantially: "The servant of Christ is baptized in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit."

That we may judge concerning the essential words, these five things are to be observed, which are signified in the utterance of the form: 1. the person baptizing, at least implicitly, which in the form of the Greeks is not neglected: the words "the servant of Christ is baptized," uttered assertively, are equivalent to "is baptized by me"; 2. the act of baptizing, so that the form be connected with the matter and, by indicating the end of the ablution, determine the same; 3. the person who is baptized: for the form no less than the ablution must affect a certain person; 4. the unity of the divine nature, by the word in the name; 5. the trinity of Persons, and that explicitly and distinctly, by common words.

At least practically, these things are to be demanded. Concerning the necessity of each one, theoretically, one can doubt greatly. Thus in the year 1633, September 8, the Holy Office declared this form of the schismatic Armenians true and legitimate: "May my hand now baptize in the name of the Father; may my hand now baptize in the name of the Son; may my hand now baptize in the name of the Holy Spirit" (Coll. P. F., I, n. 74).

— Therefore he baptizes validly, although he sins venially, who for I baptize says: I wash, I dip, etc.; for the action is well indicated by these words. It is not entirely the same thing to indicate the action and to indicate the effect of the action, so that the English formula "I christen thee" can give some occasion for doubting.⁽¹⁾ - He baptizes validly who for you designates the subject by the common name servant of Christ, in the manner of the Greeks, or by the proper name "Peter"; or who for the sake of honor says, "I baptize Your Lordship"; or who omits I, or adds Amen. - The Sacred Congregation of Propaganda Fide and the Holy Office declared valid the formula "with the name" used without bad intention. A very brief interruption, "I baptize you (this water is cold) in the name," etc., does not stand in the way of value; nor do these additions stand in the way: "in the name of the Father who created you, of the Son who redeemed you," etc. - If, with the order changed, you say, "In the name of the Father... I baptize you," the baptism is valid.

⁽¹⁾ Lehmkuhl, II, 88, while he observes this, nevertheless adds that this form is much more probably valid. Sabetti-Barrett, Comp., n. 657, incline rather toward the negative side. Moreover another certain form is available to English speakers: to baptise.

— These forms are not valid: "I baptize in the name," etc., when the designation of the person to be baptized is entirely omitted; - "I baptize you in the names..." since the essence or divine nature is thus signified as multiple; - "I baptize you in the name of God or of the Most Holy Trinity," or "in the name of one and triune God," or "in the name of the three Persons," or "of the Father and of the Son," with the person of the Holy Spirit omitted. The reason is because the three divine Persons are not distinctly expressed; - "I baptize you in the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit"; or "with the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit"; or "in the name of the Father through the Son, in the Holy Spirit," because either all or certainly clear signification of unity of essence is lacking; - "in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ," at least today, because of the omitted invocation of the Most Holy Trinity. How the texts which seem to sound as if baptism was conferred by the Apostles in the name of Christ, and the response of Nicholas I to the Bulgarians which seems to hold this formula as valid, are to be explained: this must be borrowed from the dogmatic theologians; - if you should say of the Mother, of me, because the sense varies; - if a cough, not plainly momentary, separates the syllables of one word, or, too protracted, for instance through half a quarter of an hour, takes away the coherence of the words; - if you add the name of the Blessed Virgin Mary as a part of the form: therefore the value then will depend upon the intention of the agent.⁽²⁾

— The forms are doubtful if, with the particle in removed, you say only "name," or substitute "in the virtue, in the majesty of the Father," etc. For it is not plainly certain whether in the name signifies "by the authority of the Father," etc., in which case the indicated changes would be only accidental; or "with the Father invoked." - There has been doubt concerning the formula: "I baptize you in the name of the Father, in the name of the Son, in the name of the Holy Spirit," or "I baptize you in the name of the Father; I baptize you in the name of the Son; I baptize you in the name of the Holy Spirit," because the unity of essence might not be sufficiently expressed. But the Holy Office, January 11, 1882, declared that these are valid. Also it does not seem that one should doubt concerning the value of the form: "In the name of God the Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit," unless you wished to express three gods. - The omitted conjunction and before the word "Holy Spirit" gives place to lighter or graver doubt, according as, for example, while you pronounce the words, you separated the Son from the Holy Spirit sufficiently or not. On the contrary, if it is omitted before the word Son, since Father and Son of themselves bring in distinction, it introduces not even doubt; - "I baptize you in the name of the Begetter, the Begotten, and the Spirated"; or "in the name of the Almighty, the Wise, and the Good"; or "in the name of the Unbegotten, the Begotten, and the Good"; because the Trinity of Persons is not explained by words by which it ought and can be apprehended by all the faithful.

⁽²⁾ Although the form must be sensible, nevertheless interior intention can effect that this or that be said as a part of the form, just as interior intention effects that these droplets adhering to the chalice be consecrated or not. Wherefore it is not required that it appear what is said as the form or what is added as an invocation.

— The same person must wash and pronounce the form. Wherefore baptism seems to be invalid if the one to be baptized, while another says the form, slips into the water,⁽³⁾ or is pushed forward by someone other than the baptizer, or places himself under water springing from a fountain or falling in drops. But it is valid if the minister himself places the one to be baptized under water thus naturally falling.

What if the water falls not naturally but by the work of another? Ballerini thinks it does not matter for what cause the water flows. But others object that then from two persons one washer is constituted, so that baptism is doubtful (Lehmkuhl, II, 86, 4).

⁽³⁾ It is confirmed by a response of the Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments, November 17, 1916 (A. A. S., VIII, 478). Yet in a case of necessity the thing will be able to be attempted under condition, because of the moral unity of persons, by which the one to be baptized seems to act at the minister's command.

— When a triple pouring of water is made, the form is more rightly uttered in such a way that it is not finished before the third ablution, because the form with any first ablution constitutes baptism. But whether you have pronounced the form immediately before or immediately after the ablution, this does not stand in the way of value.

— The invocation of the Most Holy Trinity is to be made upon the one to be baptized, not upon the baptizer, who will have thought in this way to call upon the help of the Most Holy Trinity for baptizing.

— Necessity of Baptism. "Baptism, the gate and foundation of the sacraments, necessary for all unto salvation in reality or at least in desire," is such: this c. 737 pronounces concerning the sacrament of baptism.

— I. The sacrament of baptism is the sacrament of regeneration through water in the word. It imprints character, remits, by way of ablution, original guilt and, with the condition of attrition placed, personal sins before baptism, indeed, probably those committed in baptism itself; condones every debt of punishment; makes an adoptive son of God; confers the right of special help for the profession of Christian life.

The sacrament is in some way supplied by: baptism of the Spirit, or the act of perfect contrition or charity, insofar as it contains at least tacit desire for the sacrament; through that act at least mortal fault with the debt of punishment is taken away; and baptism of blood, or death suffered for the faith or Christian virtue. Killing in hatred of Christ completes the martyrdom of infants, while in adults acceptance of martyrdom is necessary, and, if they have been stained by personal mortal fault, effort toward contrition. By martyrdom every debt of punishment is taken away, and the aureole is conferred. Yet character is imprinted by the sacrament alone.

II. The remote matter of the sacrament is natural water, or that which is commonly held as true and usual. Moderate admixture of another thing does not harm the value, provided the name and common use of water are preserved. And in private baptism all pure water is licit; in solemn baptism, water blessed for this is to be used, and indeed, as it seems, under grave fault. Baptismal water is to be prepared twice in the year with oils consecrated in that year, if these could be had. Deficiency of water is provided for in various ways. The shorter formula of blessing, that of Paul III, is permitted to missionaries.

The proximate matter is ablution, which can be done by immersion, simple or mixed with infusion, by infusion, and by sprinkling. That baptism be certain, there is need that on the head the man can morally be said to be washed. The mode in use must be observed. Sprinkling today has become obsolete.

III. The prescribed form in the Latin Church is: "I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." Therefore there must be signified: the baptizer, the baptized, the act of baptizing, for it would not suffice to indicate the effect, the unity of the divine nature, "in the name," the Trinity of persons explicitly and distinctly, by common names, so that baptism conferred in the name of Christ is to be repeated. The same person must wash and pronounce the form. It does not stand in the way of value whether the form is pronounced immediately before or immediately after the ablution. The addition of the name of some saint will corrupt this form or not according to the intention by which the name is pronounced as part of the form or otherwise. The Trinity is to be invoked upon the baptized person, not upon the baptizer.