Chapter I: On the Nature and Division of the Sacraments

— A Sacrament of the New Law is a sensible thing which, from the stable institution of Christ, has the power of effecting the sanctity or grace which it signifies.

No one is ignorant that there have been and still exist several usages, even ecclesiastical ones, of the word sacrament. But we assume the word in the technical usage of this book in the definition.

It is defined by faith in Trent, Session VII, canon 1, that there are seven sacraments, neither more nor fewer, truly and properly such, namely baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme unction, order, and matrimony, and that all and each were instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord.

This definition does not prevent Christ, the author of the sacraments, from having been able to commit the ultimate determination of the elements of a sacrament to the Church. Concerning this matter dogmatic theologians are to be approached. This power of the Church is also the reason why moral theologians, solicitous for practical security, are accustomed, more than dogmatic theologians, to define the conditions of validity circumspectly and severely. The same power imposes on us also a diligent attention to the sacramental decrees which are issued by the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, through which the supreme authority of the Church is accustomed to express its mind in this matter.

As a sensible thing assumed for signifying, a sacrament is in the genus of sign. But it is proper to this sign that by signifying it operates, and indeed operates that which it signifies.

But it signifies sanctifying grace, whether first grace, when it first gives or restores it; or second grace, when it increases the same; then sacramental grace, special to the individual sacraments, that is, a special right to helps accommodated to the end of each sacrament.

But it signifies these things by means of the very title to having these things, which it places in the soul. This title, in three sacraments, constitutes a real, spiritual, indelible quality. That quality is called character, which, according to St. Thomas (3 p., q. 63, art. 3, c.), "is specially the character of Christ"... a certain participation of the priesthood of Christ, derived from Christ himself. But the sacraments by which it is imprinted are baptism, confirmation, and order. As often as these sacraments are validly conferred, that character is imprinted, although an obstacle can stand in the way of the further effect of grace.

Not only in these but in all sacraments, very many theologians, after St. Thomas, distinguish that which is sign only, or signifies and is not signified: the sacrament itself; that which is reality and sacrament, because it is simultaneously signified and further signifies, as character; finally, that which is reality only, or which is merely signified and does not signify: sanctifying and sacramental grace.

But what is the proper character of the three sacraments which imprint character, and what, in the other sacraments, is the title demanding grace, does not plainly agree even among those who think that in all sacraments there is reality and sacrament.

Moreover, a sacrament is a stable sign, or a sign instituted permanently in the Church militant. Wherefore the washing of feet at the Last Supper, the breathing by which Christ risen gave the Holy Spirit to the apostles, and the words of Christ to Magdalene and to the paralytic, "Your sins are forgiven you," although they signified the spiritual effect of grace, are not sacraments, since perpetual institution is lacking.

Finally, it effects or operates grace ex opere operato, that is, by its use and application through its own efficacy, and not ex opere operantis, or not from the act and disposition of the minister, which, even when it is required for the effect of the Sacrament, is not the cause, but the condition without which not.

— Properly speaking, the following are not sacraments:

1. The figures and sacraments of the Old Law: various purifications and consecrations of priests; the paschal lamb, and especially circumcision; both because they were not instituted by Christ and because they did not effect true sanctity. And although, from the received opinion of theologians, circumcision at one time took away original sin through true grace, it did this either ex opere operantis, in adults, or not ex opere operato simply and rigorously; for it did not contain grace as cause, because the fountain of grace had not yet flowed forth, that is, the merits of Christ had not yet been acquired through his passion; nor did it formally confer grace insofar as it was circumcision and from its own institution, but insofar as it was a profession of faith; nor did it confer it by force of its application and use, for it did not give it to everyone not placing an obstacle. But circumcision was a sign of incorporation into the people heir of temporal promises, which were a figure of the spiritual promises made to those who are children of Abraham not by flesh but by spirit, that is, to the Christian people.

2. Sacrifices both of the Old and of the New Law, because they are formally instituted not for conferring grace ex opere operato, but for exhibiting and rendering worship to God. Although the Sacrifice of the New Law, or the Mass, obtains grace ex opere operato for him for whom it is offered.

3. Martyrdom, because although it confers grace ex opere operato, it is not specially instituted for this end.

4. Sacramentals, as the blessing of an abbot, because precisely from their use and ex opere operato they do not confer grace.

5. Acts of virtues, because they do not confer grace but merit it, and they are not all sensible.

— Therefore the sacraments are divided:

1. Into sacraments of the living, which, instituted for nourishing or increasing grace, of themselves demand a subject already living or endowed with sanctifying grace; and of the dead, which, instituted for conferring first grace, do not require in the subject an antecedent state of grace. The sacraments of the dead are baptism and penance; extreme unction is of a certain mixed character; the other four are of the living. Yet in a true sense, even first grace derives from the eucharist, insofar as, before the reception of the eucharist, no one obtains grace except from some desire for it, "either through himself, as adults, or by the desire of the Church, as little ones" (St. Thomas, 3 p., q. 79, art. 1 ad 1).

2. Into sacraments necessary by necessity of means or of precept, and not necessary. Necessary of themselves for all are baptism and eucharist; necessary after grave sin is the sacrament of penance; necessary in a qualified way are confirmation and extreme unction; of simply free use are order and matrimony.

Necessity is considered with respect to individuals; for those which are of free option to individuals, that is, order and matrimony, are most necessary to the Church.

3. Into sacraments repeatable or not repeatable. Strictly, the latter are those which imprint character (c. 732, §1). From the present discipline, extreme unction cannot be repeated in the same danger of death.

4. Into formed sacraments, which are as it were completed by the effect of grace, and unformed or not formed sacraments, which, validly administered, nevertheless, because of a defect of disposition in the subject, do not confer grace on the subject. At least some, with the obstacle removed, revive or confer grace: this is certain concerning the sacraments which imprint character. Concerning the others the matter is less clear, but, with the eucharist excepted, it can probably be affirmed. Cf. below, n. 208.

— On the Matter and Form of the Sacraments. Sacraments can be taken by way of a physical composite or by way of an artificial composite. In the former way, they are compared by scholastic doctors with physical substances which consist of matter and substantial form. Matter is the more determinable part; form is the determining and perfecting part. Matter itself is distinguished as remote: the sensible thing, as, in baptism, water; in the eucharist, bread and wine; in extreme unction, blessed oil; and as proximate, or the same matter as employed in the sign: the very action of washing or immersing, of anointing, in baptism and extreme unction; the sacramental species remaining after the conversion, in the sacrament of the eucharist. Form is the words or what is put in their place, as, in matrimony, the sign of consent.

Here we are treating of the former account.

In the other way, or when sacraments are taken by way of an artificial composite, the matter and form themselves, or the things and words together, have themselves after the manner of matter, but the signification after the manner of form.

— On the Union of Matter and Form. A question to be solved presents itself spontaneously: what conjunction of matter and form is essential to a sacrament? This is the general rule. As much conjunction as is required that one sign be constituted, so much conjunction is required. But a sign which must signify commonly is to be judged from common estimation. Therefore there must be such conjunction between matter and form that, according to the moral estimation of men, with the nature of the individual sacraments considered, one affects the other, that is, that the words are judged to fall upon such a thing and to compose one sign with it. Hence:

Physical "simultaneity" is required in the eucharist alone, so that the words may be true: "For this is my body," etc.

Moral simultaneity strictly so called is necessary in baptism, confirmation, extreme unction, and order: that is, so that one sign may be constituted, the words must be pronounced and the matter must be applied morally at the same time. This is had without doubt if you have begun to pronounce the words before the application of the matter has had its end, or have begun to apply the matter before you have ceased to pronounce the form; indeed, if, without interval, the pronouncing follows the ablution or anointing, or the ablution or anointing follows the pronouncing. But if the matter is separated from the whole form by one Pater Noster, validity itself is already denied by St. Alphonsus, l. 6, n. 9.

In penance, which is by way of judgment, absolution can be delayed for a rather long time. And provided the circumstances demonstrate the connection between accusation and sentence, there is no reason why we should assign a maximum interval. Yet there are those who deny that so great a distance can intervene as can separate, in forensic judgment, the instruction of a case and its definition. This stricter opinion seems to be supported by the extrinsic authority alone of St. Alphonsus (l. 6, n. 9).

Finally, in matrimony, which is made by way of contract, and in which matter and form are found in mutual consent, it suffices, as in other contracts, that the consent of the one reach the morally persevering prior consent of the other.

— On the Truth or Integrity of Matter and Form.

1. The very value of the sacrament prevents matter or form from being changed substantially; but an accidental change will often be illicit. In this matter, the common estimation of men must be very much attended to. Matter is changed substantially when, according to common use and estimation, it differs in name and in reality from that which Christ prescribed. Thus raw material is not called bread, nor is that held as elemental water which is contained in the juice of a plant. Corruption of the form is to be called essential or accidental according as the same sense remains or does not remain. But it is corrupted essentially not only when the very sentence is formally changed, but also: a) when individual words are materially corrupted, so that they express nothing or something different; this occurs more easily in the base or root, that is, in the beginning, than at the ending, as if you should say matris instead of patris; b) if, because of an excessive interval, the words no longer seem to coalesce into one sentence; c) if not one single person pronounces the whole form, but several, one one part and another another part of the whole form. - On the contrary, the form may be able not to perish if you either omit, add, substitute, transpose, or, from defect of language, pronounce less well certain sounds which are plainly indifferent to the sense. Cases will be given concerning the individual sacraments.

2. A good intention does not avail to restore a signification which has been taken away by a change. But a signification which of itself is ambiguous can, from a manifest intention, be determined to one thing, so that the same material corruption may be held accidental if it appears to have proceeded from unskillfulness or distraction, while if done from a depraved intention or deliberately, it would have been substantial. Thus Pope Zacharias resolved the case concerning baptism. Cf. c. Retulerunt, 86, d. 4, Cons.

3. Without doubt, under one pronunciation of the form, several are validly baptized or absolved at the same time; and licitly indeed, in a case of urgent necessity; outside this, some hold it prohibited under mortal sin, others under venial sin. Cf. St. Alphonsus, l. 6, n. 29; d'Annibale, III, 235. - If while one applies the matter another pronounces the form, for example, "I baptize you," he utters a falsehood and therefore says it in vain, as the Holy See itself declared. Cf. n. 225. Nevertheless in extreme necessity this might be attempted under condition, because the person saying and the person doing perhaps are morally one, since the application of the matter and the pronunciation of the form are done in the name of the one Christ. But the sacrament stands if several ministers perform the whole, for example, if they absolve or consecrate together, or if one perfects one part, another another part, of a composite sacrament; for example, in extreme unction, one, with the congruent form, anoints the hands, another the feet (d'Annibale, l. c.); or, in the sacrament of order, one, after the litanies, imposes hands; another, toward the end of the Mass, by the third imposition of hands confers the power of forgiving and retaining sins.

— I. A Sacrament of the New Law is a sensible thing which, from the stable institution of Christ, has the power of effecting the sanctity or grace which it signifies.

We know by defined faith that there are seven sacraments properly such.

A sacrament is a sign which by signifying operates that which it signifies: that is, sanctifying grace, whether first or second, and sacramental grace. But these are signified by means of the title to having them, which it places in the soul. This title in three sacraments, baptism, confirmation, and order, is character, or a real, spiritual, and indelible quality. That it be imprinted, valid conferral of the sacrament suffices. A sacrament is said to be efficacious ex opere operato, insofar as it operates not from the act and disposition of the minister or subject, but by its use and application.

II. Sacraments are: of the living and of the dead, according to the primary end of their institution; necessary to individuals and not necessary; repeatable and not repeatable; formed, which are as it were completed by the effect of grace, and unformed, which, validly administered, because of a defect of disposition in the subject, do not confer grace on him. Those which imprint character, with the obstacle removed, revive or confer grace. The same can probably be affirmed concerning the other sacraments.

III. Sacraments consist of a more determinable part, or matter, and a determining and perfecting part, which is form. Matter is remote: the sensible thing; or proximate: the same as employed in the sign. Form is the words, or that which is put in the place of words, and of itself, in matrimony, any sign of consent.

Between matter and form so great a conjunction is required that, according to the moral estimation of men, they constitute one sign, through simultaneity which, according to the nature of the sacrament, can be required as physical, thus in the eucharist; or suffice as broadly moral, as in penance and matrimony; or as strictly moral, as in the other sacraments. A substantial change of matter, when it differs in name and reality from that which Christ prescribed, or of form, when the sense becomes none or another, stands in the way of the value of the sacrament; but an accidental change will for the most part be illicit. Intention cannot restore a signification taken away; but a manifest intention can effect that ambiguity be brought to the right signification. The matter must be applied by the minister pronouncing the form, if the form expresses the action of the minister. But the sacrament is valid if several, concelebrating, express the whole, or if, in extreme unction, one perfects one part, another another part, of a composite sacrament.