Tract VII: On the Virtue of Fortitude

Usefulness. - A twofold good especially can be procured for us by examination of this virtue: that we may discern the true virtue of Fortitude from its counterfeit species; and that we may know the way to be entered upon so that we may become sharers of so praised a virtue and learn to exercise it in so many present occasions.

Order of speaking. - First, the virtue itself must be sketched by us, according to the splendid documents which are supplied to us by the Angelic Doctor; then something must be said briefly concerning its acquisition and present exercise.

I. Notion. Fortitude is a virtue of the irascible appetite, "restraining fears and moderating daring." (Cf. St. Thomas 2, 2, q. 123 art. 3, c.).

The irascible appetite regards good or evil (properly sensible) under the aspect of the arduous, or as to be obtained or fled with difficulty (1, q. 81 art. 2, c.; 1, 2, q. 23 art. 1). To this appetite pertain the passions of daring, fear, and hope. Fear is the passion by which one flees from a future, difficult evil, which cannot be resisted (concerning fear cf. 1, 2, q. 41). Daring is the opposite passion; for "fear flees a future harmful thing because of its victory over the one fearing: but daring attacks an imminent danger because of its own victory over the danger itself" (1, 2, q. 45, art. 1, c.).

Although it pertains also to fortitude to restrain rash daring, the principal parts of fortitude consist in removing the impediment of fear. And in fact it is commonly conceived as a good habit by which difficulties are overcome and fear is checked.

Moreover we consider the virtue as it can be acquired, infused, and perfected by the gift of the Holy Spirit. Acquired virtue shows itself in facility of acts: infused virtue furnishes us the power of exercising it connaturally in a supernatural mode; perfected by the gift of the Holy Spirit it acquires the quality of security which we shall soon indicate.

II. The act of the virtue. The chief action of the virtue is this, that, against imminent evils, it confirms the will in good. But confirmation in this again consists in this, that the will not only continues to abstain from every evil, but also that it remits nothing of its positive good action on account of that evil.

Wherefore a twofold function is assigned to fortitude: to sustain and to attack. To attack pertains to fortitude, insofar as it moderates daring; to sustain, however, insofar as it represses fear. "It is more difficult ...," says St. Thomas, "to repress fear than to moderate daring, because the danger itself, which is the object of daring and fear, of itself contributes something to the repression of daring, but operates toward the increase of fear" (2, 2, q. 123 art. 6, c.). The Holy Doctor demonstrates that the function itself of sustaining is more difficult than aggression by this threefold reason: "first indeed, because someone seems to sustain when invaded by someone stronger; but he who attacks invades in the manner of a stronger one. But it is more difficult to fight with one stronger than with one weaker. Secondly, because he who sustains already feels the imminent dangers; but he who attacks has them as future. But it is more difficult not to be moved by present things than by future things. Thirdly, because sustaining imports duration of time; but someone can attack from a sudden movement. But it is more difficult to remain immovable for a long time than suddenly to be moved to something arduous." (Ibid., ad 1.).

III. The object of the virtue. Dangers of temporal evils, to be strongly undergone or attacked, are the common object of this virtue. But because the virtue would not be cardinal unless in that noble contempt of danger it showed itself principal, and the greatest temporal evil is death, thence its proper object is said to be the danger of directly imminent death; directly, insofar as it must be sustained for the sake of the good itself of virtue. Because again these dangers occur in a just war, therefore the virtue of fortitude is said properly to consist about dangers of death which are in war. Yet St. Thomas here, art. 5, c., understands war broadly, of every attack.

IV. Perfection of the virtue. 1. To attain the end of one's work, to escape evils or dangers, is not, as St. Thomas observes, always in the power of man; "but this the Holy Spirit works in man, when He leads him through to eternal life, which is the end of all good works and the escape from all dangers; and of this thing the Holy Spirit infuses a certain confidence into the mind, excluding the contrary fear; and according to this, fortitude is posited as a gift of the Holy Spirit" (2, 2, q. 139 art. 1, c.). Therefore, through the gift of the Holy Spirit, there is added to the virtue a certain confidence of attaining the end, dangers opposing in vain, according to that text, that "to those loving God all things work together unto good" (Rom. 8:28). By this confidence fortitude itself is wonderfully assisted.

2. Besides that supernatural perfection, fortitude is perfected by promptness in embracing the duty which is joined with danger, by strenuousness in exercising it; and by constancy by which, neither by sadness nor by duration, the soul is called back from a good purpose. Wherefore these are judged to give fortitude its integrity.

V. Christian necessity. Our religion wills us to be prepared for death for the sake of sustaining faith and any virtue whatever. Therefore all of us ought to be strong in the preparation of soul; in occasion we shall truly be so, with the grace of the Holy Spirit assisting.

VI. Potential parts of fortitude. By this name are designated various virtues which, in a less difficult matter, keep the soul upright and persevering in good. Thus magnanimity confirms the soul in the greatest goods or honors to be hoped for or obtained (2, 2, q. 129-133); magnificence directs great expenses to great works to be done suitably (2, 2, q. 134, 135); patience, against sadnesses, especially those which are inflicted by others, protects the good of reason (2, 2, q. 136); perseverance overcomes the difficulty arisen from duration of time (2, 2, q. 137).

To magnanimity St. Thomas also ascribes confidence, which confers promptness. Thus it comes about that the potential parts themselves give fortitude its integrity.

VII. Opposite vices. One can sin against fortitude not only by defect but also by excess. By defect, timidity and sloth are opposed to fortitude; by excess, fearlessness that loves dangers and immoderate daring too confident in itself.

VIII. Examples of the virtue. The most illustrious examples of fortitude, raised by the motive of charity to the highest perfection, are offered to us by the martyrs both of the first age of the Church and of the present century. Concerning martyrdom, its conditions and privileges, see III, 216. 217.

The daring of those who, without a proportionate cause, expose life has a false species of fortitude; duelists also have a false species. For fortitude does not look to this, that it approach dangers as such, but that by no danger it be delayed from doing good.

IX. Present occasions of the virtue. If we consider that constancy in every arduous work to be done is ascribed to the virtue of fortitude (cf. 2, 2, q. 139 art. 1), there are many occasions today of demonstrating fortitude of soul. Whether you consider public calamities, of the Church or even of the fatherland; or the many temptations which are created by worldly neo-paganism; or private difficulties of various kinds which often occur in following virtue: how strong is the man who will never be moved from the way of virtue, while so many seek excuses for gravest sins from the difficulty set before them! Although even today there is not lacking an occasion of bloody martyrdom; and missionaries, already strong in desiring an apostolic expedition, far from parents, from dear ones, from fatherland, can also have before their eyes, in more than one region, a probable death to be accepted for the faith of Christ.

X. Acquisition of the virtue. Sacred and profane letters, whether ancient or modern, celebrate with equal fervor the virtue of a man of constant soul, who has resolved to expect nothing from fraud or suspect arts, nothing from a less approved connivance, whom no fear deters, no difficulty breaks, whom, immovable in his good purposes, "Not the zeal of citizens commanding perverse things, - not the face of a threatening tyrant, - shakes in solid mind.... If the broken world should fall upon him, the ruins will strike him unafraid" (Horace, Odes 3). That man is free, and ready for every illustrious deed.

But a good so greatly loved and praised is at the same time most greatly desired today. They deplore, in external and public action, the timidity of good people¹; we have to deplore so many personal and domestic falls of those who, on account of human annoyance, transgress the most sacred commands of God. Most opportunely, therefore, one asks concerning the means of strengthening the soul.

And this can already be a consolation to us, that fortitude is open to all in at least some degree. They say this who consider human psychology. What shall we say, we who are fortified by the protection of prayer and have the promised gift of the Holy Spirit?

Therefore these human means can be indicated: meditation on the price at which fortitude is to be held, on the noble glory which it communicates; - on the fragility and vanity of human things, so that more easily we may dominate them; - examples of strong men, which, by reading books, we can place before our eyes; - the companionship of those who demonstrate strength of soul; - small victories carried back from lesser dangers; - the practice of doing all things manfully; - praises themselves of fortitude in others; - finally hope in God exercised by frequent acts.

But if public utility holds us solicitous, we shall strive by every way to procure this, that both parents and those who are accustomed to instruct adolescents should set before themselves as something principal to instill and inculcate strength of soul already in infants themselves, then in adolescents and young people of either sex. From their tenderest years let them learn that there are certain things absolutely forbidden and absolutely necessary: far from boys let there be ridiculous tales which have been accustomed to fill the childish imagination with vain fears; let them be taught to act strongly; and if there has been occasion, let them be praised concerning sincerity of intentions and words; in schools let the manifold method be applied which is at hand for proposing examples of men who have been distinguished by fortitude, especially of recent martyrs; let the adolescents themselves be ordered to weave praises of those men in their written themes; let stage plays be such as effectively commend noble actions: let every softness be denied to the body, but, on the contrary, let exercises of this kind be done which, adding vigor to the body, wonderfully assist the vigor of the soul. What more, since books are not lacking which happily treat the argument of instructing the will.

¹ "The greatest evil of this century," says Montalembert, "is the timidity of good people."

I. 1. Fortitude, which is numbered the third cardinal virtue, is in the irascible appetite "as restraining fears and moderating daring" (2, 2, q. 123 art. 3), so that against the greatest evils, even of directly imminent death, it firmly preserves the will in the good of reason. "Even of directly imminent death," we say, not because it firms the will against this evil alone, but because, unless even then the good will remained stable, the virtue would not exist complete.

2. The functions of fortitude are to sustain and to attack; it is divided into no subjective parts, since it orders a very special matter; but its potential parts are various virtues which in a less difficult matter keep the soul upright and persevering in good. They are, from the doctrine which St. Thomas borrows from Tullius Cicero himself, magnanimity, which, operating immediately about the passion of hope, confirms the soul in the greatest goods or honors to be hoped for or obtained (2, 2, q. 129-133); magnificence, which directs great expenses to great works to be done suitably (2, 2, q. 134, 135); patience, which, against sadnesses, especially those which are inflicted by others, protects the good of reason (2, 2, q. 136); and perseverance, which overcomes the difficulty arisen from duration of time (2, 2, q. 137).

3. Promptness in embracing the duty which is joined with danger, strenuousness in executing it, constancy, by which the soul is not called back from a good purpose either by sadness or by duration: these complete the virtue. But that integrity is attributed to the very virtues which are the potential parts of fortitude.

4. The elicited act of the virtue of fortitude intends the very honorableness of fortitude; but for the most part it will be commanded by the higher virtue of faith or charity.

Fortitude can be harmed not only by defect, or excessive fear, but also by excess in one contemning or loving dangers, or too confident in acting.

II. Among the most precious qualities of a man is to be placed the virtue of fortitude, by which one becomes truly ready and free for doing every good. But by right instruction and patient exercise it becomes open to all in some degree.

But a distinguished example of fortitude is the martyr, whose fortitude is raised by the motive of charity to the highest perfection.

III. With the virtue of fortitude is connected the gift of the Holy Spirit of the same name, by which gift the virtue is perfected, and the virtuous man is led through even to the end of eternal life. To that gift correspond the two fruits of patience and longanimity (2, 2, q. 139 and 140).