I. On the Nature of the Sacraments

What is a sacrament? - As regards the force of the name, sacrament, in Greek mystery, is the same as a sacred, hidden thing. As regards the thing, sacrament, insofar as it comprehends the sacraments of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, is defined: A visible sign of invisible grace. But insofar as it is restricted only to the sacraments of the New Testament, it is defined: A sensible sign which, from the institution of Christ, has the power of signifying and causing grace. Hence the sacraments of the Old Testament differ much from the sacraments of the New Testament. For the former did not cause grace, but only figured that it was to be given through the passion of Christ; but our sacraments both contain grace and confer it upon those worthily receiving them. - Sacraments are distinguished from sacramentals, which are certain sacred things, sacred prayers, or actions instituted by the Church, which do not have the power of causing grace of themselves, but only, from the prayers of the Church, of exciting pious movements in us; and thus consequently they have the power of remitting venial sins and temporal punishment, and also of obtaining for us other spiritual and temporal goods, by way of impetration, by reason of the prayers of the Church. Sacramentals are: the Lord's Prayer, holy water, the use of eulogiae, Agnus Dei, consecrations, blessings, general confession, alms, etc. Sacred anointings, which are not sacraments, instituted by the Church, are counted among sacramentals. - Florence, Decree for the Armenians; Trent s. 7, c. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8; Roman Catechism n. 2, 14; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 60, a. 1-4; q. 87, a. 3; Suppl. q. 29, a. 1; L. 90-94; La Croix 218 ff.; Ferraris v. Peccatum n. 52 ff.; Voit 112-117; E. M.

Agnus Dei are blessed and consecrated by the Roman Pontiff. They have power against demons and against all evils of the elements; they are a protection for women giving birth, and for all in prosperous and adverse cases, and they free from unexpected death.

How many are the sacraments of the New Testament? - There are seven: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Order, Matrimony. Namely, as in bodily life we are born, grow, are nourished, are healed when sick, are fortified against enemies, are governed, and are multiplied, so also in spiritual life. For through baptism we are spiritually reborn; through confirmation we are increased in grace and strengthened in faith; through the Eucharist we are nourished with divine food; through penance we are spiritually healed from the sickness of sin; through extreme unction we are strengthened in agony against the devil; through order the Church is governed; through matrimony it is multiplied. Florence, Decree for the Armenians; Trent s. 7, c. 1; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 65, a. 1-3.

Were all the sacraments instituted by Christ, and when? - R. To the first: In the affirmative, and this is of faith from Trent s. 7, c. 1. But it is far truer that all were instituted immediately by Christ, by himself, and not some mediately through the Apostles or the Church.

R. To the second: Christ more probably instituted Baptism before his passion, when he was baptized in the Jordan, John c. 3, v. 5; Matthew 3:15-17; penance after the resurrection, when he gave to the Apostles the power of remitting sins, John c. 20, v. 22, 23; Trent s. 14, c. 1, 14; the Eucharist at the Last Supper, Trent s. 12, c. 1; order at the Last Supper, when he conferred on the Apostles the power of consecrating, 1 Corinthians c. 11, v. 24-26; Trent s. 22, c. 1, c. 2, and after the resurrection when he gave to them the power of remitting sins, John l. c.; matrimony at the wedding of Cana, or when he established its indissolubility and perpetuity, Matthew c. 19, v. 5, 6, 9, for the matter is not certain. Nor is it established at what time he instituted confirmation, whether after the institution of the Eucharist at the supper, in that discourse in which he promised to all that he would send the Holy Spirit, John 14, 17, or after the resurrection, when Christ conferred on the Apostles full episcopal power in the Church, saying to the Apostles: As the Father has sent me, I also send you.... Receive the Holy Spirit, John 20:21, 22. Nor likewise is it established at what time he instituted extreme unction. - St. Thomas 3 p., q. 64, a. 2-4; 4 D. 3, q. 1, a. 5, s. 2; Roman Catechism p. 2, on Baptism, n. 19.

Do all the sacraments, and always, confer grace? - All the sacraments of the New Testament contain grace and have the power of conferring it on those not placing an obstacle, and they give it always and to all who rightly receive them. Trent s. 7, c. 6, 7. An obstacle is had if the necessary dispositions are lacking in the one receiving. It is also called fiction, because it prevents the sacrament from effecting that which it signifies. St. Thomas 3 p., q. 60, a. 3; q. 69, a. 9 ad 3. - Hence sacraments are called formed or unformed according as they produce grace while they are received, or, with an obstacle intervening, suspend their effect, namely grace, until the obstacle is removed. Whence it appears that sacraments can be at the same time valid but unformed, and can be received at the same time validly but illicitly. Validly, when nothing is lacking from those things which pertain to the essence of the sacrament; illicitly, when, from fault, something is lacking from the necessary dispositions in the one receiving. - Decree of the Holy Office Lamentabili, July 3, 1907, propositions 39, 40, 41.

Do unformed sacraments, when the obstacle is afterwards removed, revive? - For a sacrament to revive is to furnish the grace which it would have furnished from the beginning if there had not been an obstacle. But the obstacle is removed by supplying those necessary dispositions which were lacking from the beginning, e.g., imperfect contrition, if it is a question of baptism received by an adult without any contrition for his own sins, and meanwhile he has not committed a new grave sin. Otherwise either perfect contrition is required, with the vow of the sacrament of penance, or imperfect contrition with the sacrament itself of penance. And then baptism destroys original sin and at the same time all actual sins committed before baptism. But the sacrament of penance destroys sins committed after baptism, and the sin of fiction, or of depraved disposition, with which the sacrament of baptism was received, at least insofar as this depraved disposition persevered after baptism, since it impeded its operation.

Now baptism revives, because it cannot be repeated. St. Augustine l. 1 Contra Donat. c. 13; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 69, a. 10, and others commonly. The same consequently must be said of confirmation and of order. St. Thomas 4, d. 49, art. 2. The same also must be said by proportionate reason of extreme unction and of matrimony, which during the same infirmity and the same marriage likewise cannot be repeated. - But concerning penance and the Eucharist it is much disputed. The reason for doubting is that if attrition is lacking in penance, the matter of the sacrament is lacking; and consequently the sacrament is neither formed nor unformed, since it is invalid, namely since it is altogether not. But the Eucharist from its institution can frequently be repeated, and therefore it does not seem that there was need to attribute to it this efficacy, so that assistance may be given to human frailty.

But St. Thomas, 4 dist. 17, q. 3, a. 4, qc. 1, speaking of a penitent who has made a valid but unformed confession, says: "although then he does not perceive the fruit of absolution, nevertheless when the fiction recedes he will begin to perceive it; as also happens in the other sacraments." But the general reason for revival is that it is only by accident that they do not produce their proper effects of grace, namely because of the obstacle; and therefore those effects remain suspended while the obstacle remains, but when this has been removed they must be applied to the soul. - Lugo d. 9, n. 50, 55; La Croix 207; L. 6, 87, 444, 707; H. A. Exam. Ord. n. 4.

What grace do the sacraments cause? - Sacramental grace, which the sacraments cause, is not grace entitatively diverse from common or non-sacramental grace, but it is sanctifying, habitual grace, insofar as it is given through such a sacrament, and gives a right to such special and more abundant helps, and comprehends these special helps themselves, actually conferred in their own time, according to the diversity of the end for obtaining which each sacrament was instituted. Florence, Decree for the Armenians. But the sacraments which from their primary institution cause the first sanctifying grace are called sacraments of the dead, as baptism and penance. Those which from their primary institution cause the second sanctifying grace, as the five other sacraments, are called sacraments of the living. But, since all the sacraments of the New Testament contain and confer grace on those not placing an obstacle, Florence, Decree for the Armenians; Trent s. 7, c. 6, 7, the sacraments of the dead by accident confer second grace if someone receives them already in the state of grace, and this is certain.

On the contrary, the sacraments of the living by accident confer first sanctifying grace, if someone simply attrite receives them in the state of grave sin, in good faith falsely thinking himself to be rightly absolved or perfectly contrite; and this again is certain concerning extreme unction, very probable concerning the others. The reason is that all the sacraments cause grace for those not placing an obstacle; but the obstacle to grace is not sin existing in the soul, but affection toward sin. - St. Thomas 3 p., q. 62, a. 1-4; q. 72, a. 7 ad 2; q. 79, a. 3.

Do the sacraments cause equal grace in all? - Sacraments cause grace by force of the sign itself, or ex opere operato, not by the merit of the minister or of the recipient, or ex opere operantis. Hence they of themselves effect grace equally in all; yet this by accident, from the greater merit and better dispositions of the subject, can be greater, as happens in the effects of other causes which act physically and necessarily. For greater merit and better dispositions of this kind, in order to the effect of grace ex opere operato, have themselves as more fully removing every obstacle. Trent s. 6, c. 7; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 69, a. 8.

Do all the sacraments imprint character; what is the nature of character? - Only three sacraments imprint character, which therefore are customarily called characteristic, namely baptism, confirmation, and order, by which we are made subjects, soldiers, and ministers of the Church. Character is a certain spiritual sign, distinctive from the others, impressed on the soul and indelible. Hence they cannot be repeated without grave sin of sacrilege. For they would be repeated in vain, and consequently not without grave irreverence, since it would be to mock Christ himself, who instituted the sacrament. Sacramental character is not incompatible with grave sin; therefore sacraments, even unformed ones, although they do not produce grace, nevertheless imprint character in the soul. The remaining four sacraments do not imprint character and admit repetition. Hence sacraments are divided into unrepeatable and repeatable. Penance and the Eucharist are simply repeatable; extreme unction and matrimony indeed are repeatable, but not in the same infirmity and the same marriage. Therefore they hold a middle place between the unrepeatable and the repeatable, and cannot be repeated without grave sacrilege. - Florence, Decree for the Armenians; Trent s. 7, c. 9; St. Thomas 3 p., q. 63; Lugo, de Poenit. d. 16, n. 558.

Are the sacraments necessary? - Baptism for the non-baptized, and penance for those who after baptism have fallen into grave sin, are necessary by a necessity not only of precept but also of means, in reality or in desire. Florence, Decree for the Armenians; Trent s. 5, Decree on original sin; s. 14, c. 1, 4, 5; can. 1, 2, 6, 7. The Eucharist is necessary by necessity of precept. Trent s. 13, c. 9. The sacraments of order and matrimony are altogether free to individuals. Trent s. 7, c. 4. But whether confirmation and extreme unction are necessary from precept is not certainly established, as will be explained in its own place. - St. Thomas 3 p., q. 61.

By what are the sacraments perfected? - "All Sacraments are perfected by three things, namely by things as matter, by words as form, and by the person of the minister conferring the sacrament with the intention of doing what the Church does; and if any of these is lacking, the sacrament is not perfected." Florence, Decree for the Armenians.

Things and words are required so that they may intrinsically constitute the sacrament, or the sensible sign signifying and causing grace, as matter and form. But since the proximate matter and form, which is contained in words, do not exist of themselves, but are contained in human actions, therefore a minister is furthermore required for substantially perfecting the sacrament, and indeed with the intention of doing what the Church does; for by this intention the ultimate signification of that sign is completed. For even with the thing and word, or matter and form, posited, that whole action still does not have perfect sacramental signification; for it can still be a sacramental action or some action, e.g., one mocking the sacrament itself, according to the intention of the one acting. But the sacraments "effect that which they figure" and signify, St. Thomas 3 p., q. 62, a. 1 ad 1, and therefore if they signify nothing, they effect nothing.