CHAPTER II: ON CAPITAL SINS

236. • Sins are called capital because they are as it were the heads, or sources, of other sins. Hence they should be called vices rather than properly sins, if they are considered in general.

Seven are numbered, namely: 1° Pride; - 2° Avarice; - 3° Lust; - 4° Envy; - 5° Anger; - 6° Sloth; - 7° Gluttony. - The reason for this number seven from St. Thomas¹ is this. Man can either pursue or flee that which is good according to itself in a mode discordant from reason. Goods, such according to themselves, which man can pursue in a mode discordant from reason, or inordinately, are - either honor and glory, and such pursuit is called pride; - or the preservation of the individual through food and drink, and the inordinate pursuit of this is called gluttony; - or the preservation of the species through acts destined for the propagation of the human race, and the inordinate use of these acts is lust; - or riches, and the inordinate appetite of these is avarice. The good which one can flee in a mode discordant from reason is - either one's own good, and thus sloth has place; - or the good of another, and there is either envy, which through sadness, or anger, which through the appetite of vengeance, is inimical to another's good.

The virtues opposed to the capital vices are: humility, liberality, chastity, benignity, meekness, devotion or diligent piety, temperance.

The things which follow I have taken partly from Haine,¹ partly from St. Alphonsus.²

236. • Pride is the inordinate appetite of one's own excellence. I say: inordinate; for to will to excel is a meritorious act, if you will it in a due mode and for a due end, for example for the glory of God, the salvation of the neighbor, etc. It is either perfect, by which someone so raises himself in spirit that he refuses to be subject to God and Superiors, or so conducts himself as if he had his things not from God, but from himself or at least from his own merits; and it is a most grave sin, but rarely occurs. Or it is imperfect, by which someone, while preserving subjection to God and Superiors and excluding that mode of conducting himself, esteems himself more than is just; and this of itself is venial, as an excess in an indifferent thing, unless grave contempt of the neighbor is added, for example through contumely, defamation, or damage in goods of fortune.

The daughters are:

1° Ambition, that is, the appetite of an honor not due, for example of an office for which you are unworthy; or of one greater than is due, as of an office for which you are not sufficiently worthy; or indeed of one due, but to be acquired by an undue mode, end, or means, for example through simony.

2° Vain glory, or the inordinate appetite of human estimation, which, if it is sought by words, is called boasting or vain and foolish preaching of oneself; if by deeds, ostentation; if by the undertaking of a work exceeding one's powers, presumption; if by false and fictitious signs, hypocrisy. These of themselves and ordinarily are venial. I say: of themselves, because by accident it will be mortal: - boasting from an evil end; by reason of grave damage to the neighbor; if it concerns a mortally evil thing, the evil species of which thing it also assumes when it is done with internal complacency or joy concerning that thing (n. 229); - ostentation, for example through new opinions, if these notably corrupt morals, etc.; - presumption, by reason of grave damage to the neighbor, as if without due skill you presume to take up the office of physician, confessor, etc.; - hypocrisy, if it is done with grave injury or contempt of God or the neighbor.

3° Pertinacity, by which someone clings excessively to his own judgment, being unwilling to believe one who understands better.

4° Contention, which is an inordinate contrariety of words.

5° Discord, which is a contrariety of wills concerning a good in which from charity we ought to agree.

6° Disobedience, ingratitude, etc. The sins set forth under 3°, 4°, 5°, 6° are grave according to the reason of the mode and end. Thus it will be mortal - pertinacity, if you pertinaciously adhere to an error of great moment, or if it is joined with the danger of grave damage to the neighbor; - contention, if with a spirit of contradicting you quarrel concerning a truth pertaining to the Faith, or to the salvation of soul or body.

237. • Avarice is the immoderate appetite of riches, that is, not of money only, but of all things which can be valued by money. Of itself, or insofar as it is opposed to liberality alone, it is venial, as an excess in a thing otherwise indifferent and licit; by accident it is very often mortal, namely 1° when it is gravely repugnant to charity toward God, for instance if a man inordinately adheres to riches in such a way that he places his whole affection in them, more solicitous about conserving money than grace; 2° when it is gravely repugnant to charity or justice toward the neighbor, for example by not paying debts or by delaying their payment, by not succoring the necessity of the neighbor.

Prodigality, which is opposed to avarice and consists in defect of preserving and excess of expending, of itself is venial; by accident it is mortal, as if you create poverty for your children and wife, if you render yourself incapable of paying debts, etc.

The daughters of avarice are: hardness of heart toward the wretched, by which it happens that one does not have compassion on the poor, rebukes them, exacts debts too harshly when the debtor is not solvent, etc.; oppression of the poor; unrest of mind, that is, a vehement and inordinate application of the mind to acquiring or preserving riches, with empty and vain fear lest they not be acquired or lest they be lost; fraud, for example in contracts; violence; treachery or deception against faith pledged or owed; theft; and very many other things.

238. • Lust will be treated in the Treatise on the Sixth Precept.

239. • Envy is sadness concerning the good of the neighbor insofar as it is apprehended as diminishing one's own excellence; as if you should grieve that someone equal to you, or not much unequal, grows in honor or riches, as though through this something should fall away from you. Hence, if someone is saddened concerning the goods of the neighbor from another motive, it will not be envy.

Hence it differs: 1° From indignation, by which someone is saddened concerning the good of another insofar as he is prudently believed unworthy of such good. It is good if it is conceived on account of God or the common good, which is believed to be injured by the unworthy man; yet it can be evil, as if it concerns goods insofar as they come from God to sinners. 2° From fear, by which you are saddened concerning the good of another because from it you fear some evil to yourself or to another innocent person. This, when evil affection and aversion concerning the person are excluded, is not illicit. Thus we are licitly saddened concerning the power of the impious insofar as, abusing it, they are harmful; thus I prudently grieve that he has been elevated to office who, as my enemy, will now more easily be able to harm me, because such sadness is not so much concerning the neighbor's good as concerning the evil following from it. 3° From zeal or emulation, by which you are saddened concerning the good of the neighbor, not because it is a good to him, but because the good which he has is lacking to you. This of itself is good. Thus, when evil affection concerning the person is excluded, which nevertheless easily intervenes, you are licitly saddened that another has taken from you the office or girl desired in Matrimony. Thus students or those learning an art, when they see the progress of others, rightly are saddened concerning their own defect, by which they themselves are stirred to better things. Similarly the craftsman, seeing his neighbor feed his family well by his industry, rightly grieves that he himself cannot prosper so. Thus finally the merchant or innkeeper, seeing buyers or guests turn aside to a neighbor, licitly grieves concerning that concourse, not insofar as it is profitable to the neighbor, but insofar as it is his own detriment and loss of profit, which otherwise he would justly have had. 4° From hatred, by which you are saddened concerning the good of the neighbor from displeasure with the neighbor himself.

Envy from its kind is mortal, because it is directly opposed to charity toward the neighbor; often it is venial, both from imperfection of the act and from smallness of matter.

The daughters are: 1° hatred (n. 281); 2° whispering (n. 516); 3° detraction (ibid.); 4° joy in the adversities of the neighbor; 5° affliction in his prosperity.

240. • Anger is the inordinate appetite of vengeance or quasi-vengeance. It is said: inordinate; for anger can be without sin, for example when someone becomes angry so that reason may execute justice more strongly; when vengeance is sought only that the other may be corrected, others frightened, the decorum of justice preserved, etc. But from St. Thomas it becomes inordinate in two ways: 1° on the part of the mode of becoming angry, if interiorly you grow hot beyond what reason dictates, or exteriorly make anger too manifest by signs, although just vengeance is sought; 2° on the part of the object, if you seek unjust vengeance, vengeance greater than is just, or indeed just vengeance but to be inflicted outside the order of law, or not for the due end but from hatred, to satisfy a malevolent affection. - There is added: or quasi-vengeance; because when a man is angry with inanimate things, for example an artisan from anger breaks or throws away an instrument, a writer a pen, it is not properly vengeance; yet it is anger, namely on the part of the mode, which of itself is only venial; by accident it is sometimes mortal, if for example notable damage is caused to his own health or that of another, if it breaks out into blasphemies or curses. The second inordination, namely on the part of the object, is from its kind mortal, because it is directly opposed to charity.

The daughters are: indignation and swelling of mind, while anger remains in the heart. Indignation in this place is an inordinate affection arising from this, that someone thinks himself treated unworthily by someone; and it is commonly a venial fault, but none if it is not inordinate, that is, if it proceeds from a just judgment of reason; but mortal if it grows even to deliberate hatred or grave contempt of the person. Swelling of mind is present when someone devises diverse ways of vengeance and with those thoughts swells his soul: how great a sin it is must be judged from the quality of the vengeance which is devised. - Clamor, when the angry man raises his voice, pouring forth many things inordinately and confusedly, is of itself venial. Contumely (n. 533), blasphemy, malediction or imprecation, when it breaks out in the mouth. That a malediction be grave three things are required, namely that the evil imprecated - be grave, - truly be wished, - be wished with perfect deliberation. Quarrels, fights, wounding, when it goes out into deed. Quarrels, if they do not exceed measure, as also small fights, are venial; otherwise if they advance to seditions, wounds, slaughters. And these are commonly sins on the part of the one beginning the quarrel; for the other can defend himself with the moderation of blameless defense (n. 467, II).

241. • Sloth, or weariness of soul, from St. Thomas can be used in two ways. 1° Generally, for every remission of the soul in working well in the exercise of the virtues, on account of the labor joined with this exercise; and taken thus it is not a special vice, but general, because every vice flees the good of the opposite virtue. 2° Specially, for weariness concerning a spiritual good, for example concerning divine friendship apprehended as evil because of the difficulty joined to obtaining and preserving it through laborious exercises of the virtues and flight from illicit pleasures, whence it happens that one does not care for that friendship.

General sloth is venial of itself; as if you are saddened concerning Mass because in cold weather one must rise, yet you hear it, although with some displeasure. I said: of itself; because if the weariness remains in the sensitive appetite alone and the will tries to resist, it is a meritorious act. But it is mortal if acts gravely obliging are therefore omitted, for example from weariness you omit Mass of precept; but it is not a sin distinct from the neglect of Mass, nor consequently to be expressed in Confession. - Special sloth is of itself a most grave sin, unless imperfection of the act excuses, because it is specially repugnant to charity toward God and turns away from God.

The daughters are: 1° malice, by which someone has hatred for spiritual goods according to themselves, as if it displeased him to have acted well; or he contemns the benefit of God, as if he desired not to have been born, to be a brute, etc.; and it is of itself mortal; 2° rancor, by which those who induce one to spiritual things are distasteful to him; this, when hatred and other things are excluded, is only venial; 3° pusillanimity, by which someone shrinks from undertaking something difficult, and, when another mortal transgression is excluded, is only venial; 4° despair of obtaining beatitude, and this is mortal; 5° torpor in the observance of precepts, which is venial if things gravely obliging are performed coldly, but mortal if they are not fulfilled; 6° wandering of the mind, by which someone in the exercise of spiritual things wanders about other matters: of itself it is venial; mortal if it is notable and attention is required under mortal sin, as during sacrificing (n. 1334, 13°). It is free from all fault if someone does not so much intend to pray, as to occupy himself with a pious exercise by reciting the words of prayers; because he prays not formally but materially only, for example when someone working with his hands recites prayers or sings psalms, not with the intention of praying, but of avoiding vain thoughts or recreating himself.

242. • Gluttony is the inordinate appetite of food or drink.

This vice is committed chiefly in five modes: 1° if you eat before the time; 2° if too exquisite things; 3° if more than is just; 4° if voraciously; 5° if things prepared with greater industry. These are contained in the following verse:

Prepropere, laute, nimis, ardenter, studiose.

It is a venial sin from its kind. But it becomes grave if it gravely harms health, or if it renders someone unfit for offices. He sins who eats or drinks to satiety on account of pleasure alone, as is established from proposition 8 condemned by Innocent XI, p. XV; yet of itself it does not exceed venial sin. - Thus commonly.

The daughters of gluttony are drunkenness, concerning which presently more fully; dullness of mind; scurrility; much-speaking; and uncleanness of any kind.

Remedies: to consider the worst effects of gluttony as to body and soul; - to mortify the flesh especially in the refreshment of the body; - frequently to recall death, or the corruption of the body soon to come.