§ II. On the Manner of Acting with Various Kinds of Penitents

There must be treated: 1° of those in occasions; 2° of the habituated and recidivists; 3° of the Confession of children before First Communion; 4° of the Confession of adolescents after First Communion; 5° of the Confession of persons of the other sex; 6° of the Confession of persons of distinguished condition; 7° of the Confession of persons professing piety.

1429. Definition. - An occasion of sin is generally defined: an external circumstance which, whether from its own nature, or from the frailty of the man who is found in it, allures, or induces, to sinning. Hence it differs from the danger of sinning, by which name comes whatever impels to sin, whether that be intrinsic or extrinsic.

Division. - A manifold occasion is distinguished, namely proximate or remote; absolute or relative; present or not present; voluntary or necessary.

1° A proximate occasion is that which induces a probable danger of sinning; remote, however, that which induces a slight [danger], or in which commonly men, for the most part, do not sin.

2° An absolute occasion, or occasion per se, is that which of itself induces to sin, and therefore is such with respect to men taken commonly; but a relative occasion, or occasion per accidens, is that which, although it is not an occasion with respect to others, is nevertheless such with respect to someone, his frailty being considered, or because he has frequently fallen in it. Wherefore, just as an absolute proximate occasion can be a relative remote one for one who is very pious and cautious, so on the contrary an absolute remote occasion can be a relative proximate one for one who is weak and prone to vice, especially shameful vice.

3° A present occasion, or occasion in esse, is that which is continually present to someone, without its being sought, e.g. if he keeps a concubine at home, or is accustomed to sin with a maidservant; but a not-present occasion, or one not in esse, is that which is absent, and at intervals either is sought or occurs, as a tavern is relative to a drunkard, a mistress with respect to her lover.

4° A voluntary occasion is that which can easily be dismissed; but a necessary one is that which cannot be removed physically or morally.

Moreover the causes which truly render some occasion necessary are nearly these:

1° Complete impossibility of avoiding the occasion, e.g. if a concubine were shut up in a prison of which her concubinary were the guard.

2° If the occasion cannot be avoided without sin, suppose of injustice, or without true and grave scandal, as if a wife were in occasion on account of cohabitation with her husband, and from separation there would follow spiritual ruin in the children or scandal among the people.

I said: a) without TRUE scandal; for fictitious or imaginary scandal is not scandal. Of this kind would be that which a concubinary would invent, alleging that the people, if he cast out the concubine, would be confirmed in the suspicion which it already has concerning his concubinage; for that very suspicion itself is already the scandal, which cannot be removed except by the casting out of the concubine.

I said: b) without scandal ... GRAVE; for a light one is not proportioned to the grave danger of one's own ruin.

3° If the occasion cannot be deserted without grave temporal harm in goods, whether of fortune, of reputation, or of life, or without another grave difficulty.

4° According to Berardi and others. When the person in occasion cannot withdraw himself from one occasion without certainly falling into another equal or worse occasion, or into another equal or worse spiritual danger. The reason is that no one can be obliged to something useless or to something worse. Hence Gury wrote: "A maidservant would not have to be obliged to depart at once from the house ... for the case in which ... she could not depart except so as to fall into an equal danger and perhaps into a greater one." Yet one must beware of hallucination, which in this matter is very easy; for it is too easy to be deceived, where it is sweet to believe. Thus it is very easy for a concubinary to believe, e.g., that he will sin in an equal way even with a new maidservant, and nevertheless to delude himself; concerning which matter Viva wrote: "Certainly the danger, considered in itself, of sinning with a new maidservant is not the same ... as of sinning with a concubine."

1430. - Principle I. In order that a right judgment may be made concerning the probability of the danger which makes some occasion proximate, according to the mind of St. Alphonsus a distinction must be made between an occasion in which someone has already been placed for some time, and an occasion which is now to be approached for the first time.

In the former case the occasion will have to be held proximate if someone has frequently sinned in it; nor is it required that he always or almost always have sinned in it, or even more often than not. But it makes no difference whether the frequency is relative or absolute. Relative frequency is computed according to the number of times in which someone was exposed to the occasion, and it will be present, e.g. if someone in twelve visits is accustomed to sin five or six times. But absolute frequency will be present when the number of falls, considered in itself, is notable, as if two persons who meet on single Sundays fall ten or twelve times in a year, or if for several years you have always sinned in a house which you visit only once in the year.

In the latter case, one must stand by the presumption taken from things which commonly happen: namely, it must be presumed that probable danger of sinning will be present for someone if that very occasion commonly brings that probable danger to other persons placed in the same circumstances. - I said: placed in the same circumstances; for diversity of circumstances, whether on the part of the subject, or on the part of the occasion itself, or on the part of the manner in which the same occasion is approached, induces a difference in the degree of danger.

On the part indeed of the subject, a difference of age, state, sex, temperament, virtue, education, instruction, affections, etc., can have great influence. Thus some things are very dangerous to children and not to adults; to youths and not to old men; to the lustful and not to the cold; to those leading a celibate life and not to the married; to men and not to women, or conversely to women and not to men. Thus some things are very dangerous to common people, but not to persons of distinguished condition and well educated. Thus frail persons and those lacking the fear of God will find grave dangers where persons endowed with virtue and piety will be in slight or no danger. Thus a prolonged conversation with a woman ordinarily exposes those who pursue her with disordered love to grave danger; but not those who do not have such an affection. Thus books of impious men or heretics, which ordinarily would expose secular persons to very grave danger, expose a Religious man, very grounded in Theology, to slight or no danger. It must also be adverted that habituation produces great differences. For on one side many things are more dangerous to the accustomed than to the unaccustomed, insofar as custom renders consent and fall easier; and on the other side some things are more dangerous to the unaccustomed than to the accustomed, insofar as some things from long use (or from use of worse things) no longer make any impression; whence St. Alphonsus wrote: "Habituation causes that men are less moved to concupiscence from such a sight" (of women showing their breasts), "as is clear from experience."

But on the part of the occasion itself, many circumstances can induce a great difference in the degree of danger. Thus it is one thing to converse with a young, beautiful, adorned, immodest woman, full of allurements; and another thing to converse with an old, deformed, grave, modest, pious woman, etc. Thus it is one thing to be present at a comedy represented with sufficient honesty and sufficient decency; and another thing to be present at a comedy very shameful or represented very shamefully.

Finally, on the part of the manner in which the occasion is approached, many circumstances can likewise induce a difference in danger. Thus it is one thing to speak with a girl secretly, witnesses being removed, frequently, for a long time, and without any caution; and another thing to speak with her in the presence of others, rarely, for a brief time, and with opportune cautions.

1431. - Principle II. In order that someone may be treated as constituted in a proximate occasion, it is required that the occasion from proximate has not become remote. But that it has become remote is known from nearly these indications:

1st If from sufficient experience it is clear that the gravity of the danger has vanished; as, for instance, if someone was accustomed almost daily to become drunk in a tavern, and now already for a long time indeed frequents the tavern daily, but, on account of the purpose made, has never become drunk. But a much longer experience is required in chastity.

2nd If some cause has supervened which evidently destroys the gravity of the danger, as if someone had had a custom of sinning with a woman near him, not on account of affection toward her, but on account of the mere discharge of lust; but now has taken as wife her sister, whom he very much loves. I say: evidently or sufficiently certainly, so as to exclude the case, e.g., of one promising amendment yesterday.

3rd According nevertheless to only some Theologians. If the penitent shows extraordinary sorrow and purpose. But I would admit this third indication only if the occasion, which I suppose to be voluntary, a) is not present, nor going to last long; or b) is not very alluring, as if, e.g., there is question of an associate with whom the penitent himself was accustomed first to introduce depraved conversations.

4th If other means sufficient for rendering the occasion remote without separation are present, and it can be presumed that the penitent will in fact employ them.

1432. - Principle III. Absolution is not to be denied to a penitent constituted in a remote occasion, even if he does not wish to desert it. The reason is: 1° because it does not induce a proximate danger of sinning mortally; 2° because too hard an obligation would be imposed on the penitent, since such occasions generally cannot be morally avoided. Yet make an exception, and that per accidens, if the occasion, although remote, unless it is deserted at once, is going shortly to be proximate, as if with the occasion there is joined a vicious habit, or a great temptation or vehement passion.

1433. - Principle IV. A penitent is never to be absolved who refuses to desert a voluntary proximate occasion, whether that occasion is proximate per se or per accidens; whether in esse, or not in esse. This is clear from propositions 61, 62, 63, condemned by Innocent XI, p. XVII; likewise from the 41st condemned by Alexander VII, p. XIV.

1434. - Principle V. But to a penitent who is placed in a necessary proximate occasion, absolution cannot be denied on account of that occasion, if from elsewhere he is found disposed, and is willing to use the prescribed remedies. The reason is that no one is bound to that which is either physically or morally impossible; and from elsewhere the occasion of sinning is not of itself a sin, nor does it cast a man into the necessity of sinning. And this sentence indeed, according to St. Alphonsus, is most probable; "but," he adds, "in practice all agree that it is expedient that absolution ... be deferred. Indeed ... I would never absolve," thus the holy Doctor continues, "one who is in an extrinsic proximate occasion, ... especially if the occasion is concerning shameful matter, whenever absolution could conveniently be deferred. For I judge that the confessor, as physician, is held to fit to his penitent the more opportune remedies, so that he may work out his salvation; and I think that no other more apt antidote can be ministered to him who is in a proximate occasion than the delay of absolution; since experience teaches that penitents, after they depart absolved, for the most part neglect to employ the prescribed means, and thus very easily relapse." - Note that the holy Doctor says: whenever absolution could conveniently be deferred ... as physician, etc. For which reason, if there is question of a penitent whom the confessor prudently and before God judges not going to return, or not except after a long time, the delay of absolution will no longer have the character of medicine.

I said: is willing to use the prescribed remedies. Here it is asked, what remedies are to be assigned to the penitent who is placed in a necessary occasion? Resp. They are of a threefold kind: 1° some are directed to diminishing the force of the occasion; 2° some to diminishing the force of passion; 3° finally some to increasing spiritual strength.

First indeed it is necessary to diminish the force of the occasion. Not rarely a few words spoken with a strong soul; - not rarely some serious threat or reproach; - not rarely even one opening of the mouth for crying out; - not rarely even once to report the matter to someone who can apply a remedy, - suffice so that the treacherous plotter is cast down in spirit and ceases from every annoyance. The Salmanticenses wrote that such a person in occasion ought "not to mingle long conversations with that woman, and not even to joke lightly." He will also have to avoid looking at her with delay, and, as far as possible, not to speak about her, not to think about her, etc. But especially, says Scavini, "it must be inquired ... whether some circumstances generate the proximate occasion, in which case, by removing the circumstances, the occasion will be removed; e.g. sin is never committed except while in the evening he converses in the kitchen with the maidservant; then entrance into the kitchen at that time should be prohibited, and the occasion will be removed." Moreover these and similar things will be able, if not to destroy the force of the occasion, at least to diminish it not a little.

Secondly it is necessary to diminish the force of passion, by providing it no foment through idleness, through freedom of the senses, through depraved thoughts, through depraved readings, through intemperance, etc.; likewise by subjecting it through labor, through fasts and other macerations, if this is possible.

Thirdly it is necessary to increase spiritual strength. This is done chiefly by prayer, frequency of the Sacraments, and meditation on eternal truths.

As to prayer, care must be taken that the penitent, every morning and evening, and also when temptation comes, earnestly implores God and the Blessed Virgin for grace so necessary to him. But everyone knows how great is the usefulness of novendial prayers, devout assistance at the Sacrifice of the Mass, visitation of the Most Holy [Sacrament], renewal of purpose before the Crucifix, etc. Moreover prayers have greater force if they are joined with alms.

As to frequency of the Sacraments, care must be taken that the penitent choose for himself a stable confessor, learned and pious, as far as possible, and that he confess to him with the greatest frequency with which he can. But especially care must be taken that the penitent return to Confession immediately after a fall.

Finally, as to meditation on eternal truths, care must be taken that the penitent every day seriously think again about death, divine judgment, and eternal torments. But if for the penitent there were an opportune occasion of making spiritual exercises (even privately in his own home), as if he were a priest, or a rich person, or a Religious, then the confessor would have to employ every effort with him, that he may undertake them and perform them rightly; indeed, when possibility is given, there can be a true obligation of recurring to extraordinary means of this kind, namely when the evil and danger of the soul is great and extraordinary.

1435. - Principle VI. Never, i.e. not even the first time, can he be absolved who is placed in an occasion, necessary indeed, but such that, while it stands, amendment cannot be hoped for, or no hope exists that the remedies will be going to profit. The reason is that to wish to remain in such an occasion is to wish the sin, and the removal of the occasion is here the sole means of salvation. Except the occasion which it is altogether impossible to remove. See n. 1429. 4°. 1°. Cf. n. 1436, q. 2°.

1436. Questions. - Query 1° Can a penitent who sincerely promises that he will abandon a voluntary proximate occasion of sin be absolved before he has abandoned it?

Resp. 1° Affirm., and that not only once or twice, but even three times, if a) there is question of an occasion not in esse; b) the purpose of avoiding the occasion is firm; for if the habituated person otherwise betrays indications of indisposition, as if after the first or second absolution he falls back in the same way and with no effort employed for avoiding the occasion, he will have to be treated as formally a recidivist, and therefore neither the second nor third time will he be absolved without some extraordinary sign, as will be clear from the things to be said n. 1473 sq. - But it must be noted that here only whether he can be absolved is asked; for although the confessor, as judge, can absolve this penitent, as sufficiently disposed, nevertheless he can also, as physician, delay absolution, so that he may see whether the penitent in truth avoids the occasion or at least begins to amend himself; indeed it will be expedient to act thus, even the first time, if the custom of sinning in the occasion is already inveterate. I said: and that not only once, etc. For several times before the real execution of the purpose he cannot be absolved.

Resp. 2° Neg., if there is question of a present occasion or one in esse, not even the first time. If however the penitent either a) gives extraordinary signs of sorrow AND absolution cannot conveniently be deferred; or b) cannot return to the same confessor, or at least not except after a long time, NOR has been unfaithful to a promise already made before concerning removing the occasion (in which case he is to be treated as a recidivist, i.e. not absolved unless he brings extraordinary signs), he not only can be absolved, but has a right to receive absolution.

The reason of the rule is that "the taking away of the present occasion" is "a greatly arduous matter; ... and therefore, if the occasion is not taken away before absolution, the penitent will easily after absolution deceive himself, falsely persuading himself that he will resist temptations.... For which reason, if such a one wished to be absolved before he deserts the occasion, he would be indisposed, because he would constitute himself," and that voluntarily, as is supposed in the question, "in a probable danger of breaking his purpose; and therefore the confessor" absolving him "would sin both against the office of judge and of physician." And indeed against the office of judge, because he would absolve one indisposed; but against the office of physician, because he would not apply to him the remedy necessary to his salvation.

The reason of the 1st exception is that those extraordinary signs indicate that the penitent has been endowed with more abundant grace, from which he can be hoped to be more constant in removing the occasion. But that absolution even in this case is to be deferred, if it can conveniently be deferred, is from this, that the little cord of occasion is broken with difficulty. - The reason of the 2nd exception is that then the occasion here and now is necessary, since it cannot conveniently be taken away before absolution. But that absolution even in this case is to be deferred, if the penitent has not stood by the promise previously made concerning removing it, will be clear from the principles which we shall hand down concerning recidivists n. 1473 sq.

Query 2° Can he be absolved who, existing in a necessary occasion, after remedies have been employed, always relapses in the same way?

Resp. Neg., if there is no hope of amendment, whatever finally must happen. Thus St. Alphonsus, as the truer [opinion]. The reason is that, although on account of a just cause the danger of sin can be permitted, nevertheless the formal sin itself can never be permitted; but, when no hope of amendment appears, danger and sin become one single thing. - Hence a woman ought rather to perish from poverty than to frequent a house where she receives large alms, but which always degenerate into the wage of prostitutes. I said: if there is no hope of amendment. But this is judged to be present "if in the present [case] the penitent brings extraordinary signs of sorrow."

1437. Resolves. - 1° "A maidservant vividly solicited by her master, ... if ... she is frail and little devout ... is held to depart from his house," although she has not yet sinned. The reason is that the occasion here, although still remote, is shortly going to be proximate. See n. 1432. - But if "she were given to piety, and cautious, and employed opportune remedies for repelling temptations and opposing passion, then I would not bind her to taking away the occasion." St. Alphonsus. The reason is that then the occasion cannot be presumed shortly going to be proximate.

2° Paul has often sinned with his maidservant, and can dismiss her without grave inconvenience. On occasion of spiritual exercises, to which he applies himself far from his own home, he confesses. It is asked whether he can be absolved before he has in fact dismissed the maidservant. Resp. distinguish. Either he has promised others that he will dismiss the maidservant, or not. If the former, he will not be able to be absolved unless he offers extraordinary signs, such as spiritual exercises are not when they have been performed perfunctorily and for this reason only, because the Superior or diocesan statutes compelled him to them. If the latter, he will be able to be absolved. See the reason of this resolution n. 1436. q. 1°. R. 2°.

3° Peter, on account of his business, or because otherwise he would be judged, not without manifest danger of enmities, to disregard those laws of relationship which are accustomed to be observed among relatives, goes two or three times in the year to a house which for him is a proximate occasion of the sin of lust, or to a certain city in which he is accustomed to sin with prostitutes. It is asked, 1° whether Peter must be obliged no longer to approach that house or city; 2° whether he can be absolved if he has promised to employ the prescribed remedies?

Resp. to the 1st Neg., if he is prepared to use the prescribed remedies.

Resp. to the 2nd Neg., if (which nevertheless will be rare in the case) absolution can conveniently be deferred, or if he is a recidivist and does not bring extraordinary signs of sorrow. The reason of each response is clear from the things said n. 1434.

4° Those who are not sui juris, as a son or daughter of a family and a wife, and are placed in a proximate occasion in esse with a male servant, a maidservant, a relative, or a husband, can be absolved if they seriously promise to employ the remedies prescribed by the confessor, and absolution cannot conveniently be deferred; otherwise, if either a) absolution can conveniently be deferred, or b) after remedies have been employed in vain, they always fall back in the same way and do not give extraordinary signs of sorrow. This follows from the things said n. 1436.

5° Caia, deprived of parents and destitute of every human hope, lives in concubinage with Peter, to be expelled from his house and to perish from hunger unless she continues to obey Peter's lust. It is asked whether she can be absolved before she has left Peter's house? - Neg. This follows from the things said n. 1436.

Of these some, for the most part, are voluntary; others, for the most part or frequently, are necessary; concerning each kind separately there must be treated.

Note. - While in those things which I hand down in this Section II, I teach that some occasion does not necessarily have to be abandoned, do not understand this as if in no event, and not even in the cases concerning which I treated n. 1435; 1436. q. 2; 1437. 3°. 4°. 5°, it had to be abandoned; but these things must be taken in the sense indicated n. 1434; i.e. it will be lawful to try the remedies concerning which in the same n. 1434, until hope of amendment has vanished.

There must be treated: 1° of concubinage; 2° of dances; 3° of theatres; 4° of conversations; 5° of depraved companions; 6° of depraved books; 7° of dice-play; 8° of taverns.

1438. Definition. - Concubinage properly so called is the frequent and continued lying together of an unmarried man with an unmarried woman, keeping her as if she were a wife, whether in the same house or in another. - I said: properly so called; for if there were frequent and continued lying together with a married man or a married woman, it would be concubinage improperly so called.

1439. Questions. - Query 1° Is he a concubinary, or at least is he held to separation, who rarely has sinned with a domestic woman?

Resp. 1° He is not a concubinary, since that frequent and continued lying together is not present which, as was said in the definition, is required for concubinage.

Resp. 2° He is not held to separation, provided that 1) the danger of relapse without separation either has already become remote or can be rendered remote; 2) on account of special circumstances either on the part of the subject, or on the part of the occasion itself (n. 1430), it cannot be presumed that the danger of relapse, although for now remote, will shortly again become proximate; 3) separation is not necessary for ending or repairing scandal which perhaps has arisen. The reason of the 1st is that the occasion is not, or at least is no longer, proximate; the reason of the 2nd and 3rd is clear from the things said n. 295. 12°; 301; 1432. - In practice, however, on account of the defect of the second condition, separation will often be necessary.

Case. - Lampridius once or twice sinned with his maidservant; he confesses after three months, affirming that he is sorry with his whole heart and that he will employ suitable means for avoiding relapse; but that he cannot cast out the maidservant, who is very useful to him. All these things having been weighed, the confessor absolved him. It is asked: Could Lampridius ... have been absolved? Gury resolves: "Lampridius absolutely could have been absolved, without dismissing the maidservant at once, the circumstances of the case being considered; or some experiment of time could be permitted."

Query 2° Can a concubinary ever be absolved before he has dismissed the concubine; or a concubine, before she has deserted the concubinary?

Resp. Distinguish. For on one side the occasion is either voluntary or necessary; but on the other the concubinage is either public or occult.

If 1) the concubinage is public and the occasion voluntary, Neg., and that although he gives signs of great sorrow. "The reason is both because it would beget scandal to see him who still keeps a concubine at home, or frequents her house, approach the Eucharist; and because a public sinner should not be absolved unless he also publicly does penance, and satisfies for the scandal." Therefore, before he is absolved, he must dismiss the concubine, or, if she lives outside the house, not approach her for some notable time.

If 2) the concubinage is public and the occasion necessary, ordinarily the concubinary will be able to be absolved in one case only; namely, when he lies dangerously ill, and the remedy of Matrimony can be employed. But if there is no place for this remedy, he will indeed be able to be absolved and fortified with the Sacraments of those going forth [from this life], provided nevertheless that a) the presence of the concubine or concubinary is not joined with proximate danger of sinning, or this danger can both be rendered remote and is in fact rendered so; and b) scandal either is not present, or, if it is present, is removed. But scandal is not present if the morally insuperable difficulties which impede the expulsion of the concubine or the desertion of the concubinary are of themselves manifest to the people or altogether presumable by them. But scandal is removed, in the case in which those difficulties were unknown to the people, if the sick person makes them manifest openly to some witnesses. (24) p. 420.

It is clear of itself that here there is question of a sick person in possession of himself; for, if the sick concubinary is found destitute of his senses, he must be absolved under condition, and also anointed with Holy Oil, as is clear from the things said n. 1371. 4°, and will be clear from the things to be said in the Treatise on Extreme Unction, n. 1508. q. 8°.

If 3) the concubinage is occult and the occasion voluntary, namely such as can easily and immediately be removed before absolution, absolution cannot be given, as is clear from the things said n. 1436. q. 1°. R. 2°, and that although the penitent brings extraordinary signs (except the cases concerning which in the cited place); for "experience shows too much that, absolution having been obtained, the occasion is afterward taken away with difficulty, and thus he very easily returns to the vomit." Except, according to the mind of St. Alphonsus, if the concubine lives outside the house. See n. 1436. q. 1°. R. 1°.

If 4) the concubinage is occult and the occasion necessary, one must attend to why it is necessary.

If a) it is necessary by reason of scandal or infamy, "commonly speaking he is not to be absolved.... The reason is that in prolonged concubinage it is morally impossible for the matter not to become known to others." I said: COMMONLY speaking; for "if otherwise grave damage of reputation cannot be avoided," in this "very rare case" he will be able to be absolved. "But in that case I say that it is altogether expedient that absolution at least be deferred, until the continence of the penitent is proved by experience; unless the case were that the penitent (otherwise sufficiently disposed, as is supposed) could not return any more; ... or if the necessity of communicating were imminent for avoiding positive infamy." The reason of the resolution is clear from the things said n. 1434. - Hence a priest who (which may it be absent!) would live most miserably in concubinage with a female relative or maidservant without any suspicion on the part of the people, will be able to be absolved if, by casting out the concubine forthwith and without delay in the case of grave illness, or immediately after he has returned home from Spiritual Exercises, that which is occult would become public with great scandal. Nevertheless he would have to resolve to dismiss the concubine as soon as he could do so without the aforesaid scandal. Cf. however n. 1437. 2°. - Resolve the same if in the time of a Mission there were question of dismissing a maidservant, in the case in which dismissal, made precisely at that time and immediately, would cause infamy.

If b) it is necessary by reason of damage in goods of fortune, a distinction must be made. Namely, he will be able to be absolved if there is question of damage which would make the man fall from his proper state, as if, e.g., a maidservant is very poor and a notable wage, e.g. of many years, is owed to her, which the master will not pay if she departs. The reason is that to fall from one's own state is a sacrifice so grave that practically it cannot have the character of a means for liberating the penitent from sins; for it is easier that he effectively cease from sins, while the occasion remains, than that he dismiss it with so intolerable a sacrifice. "But in these cases regularly" (i.e. except the cases just alleged under a) "absolution is also always to be deferred."

If c) it is necessary on account of complete impossibility of removing it, or because it is not possible to withdraw oneself from it without falling into another equal or worse one: recall the things said n. 1429. 4°, and the admonition concerning absolution regularly to be deferred, as in the preceding cases.

Query 3° Would one who was publicly thought to be a concubinary, and was not, be held to dismiss the woman on account of whom such an estimation came upon him?

Resp. 1°. If he gave occasion to the rumor neither by an evil work nor by one less right, he is not held; but it suffices that he make known that an opinion of this kind is false; for then the scandal, as calumniously excited, either will cease or will become Pharisaic.

Resp. 2°. If by a work either evil or less right he gave occasion to the opinion, separation, if it can be done without grave damage, must be enjoined; because anyone is held by natural right to remove scandal; but he will be able to accomplish this with difficulty without separation, since he gave cause to the scandal. If separation cannot be done without grave detriment, he is not held to it; since charity, by force of which he must remove scandal, does not oblige with so great an inconvenience; therefore it suffices that he strive to remove the scandal by exemplary life and by making known the truth.

Query 4° What if provision can be made for the salvation of the concubinaries through Matrimony?

Resp. 1° This remedy is expedient when either 1) the concubinary or the concubine labors under a certainly lethal disease; or 2) no unhappy outcome from such a Matrimony can be feared.

Resp. 2° That remedy ought to be employed in that twofold case, if it is necessary for legitimating offspring. - See the things to be said in the Treatise on Matrimony, n. 1539. q. 4°.

1440. - By the name of dance in Moral [Theology] comes the act of dancing, not insofar as it is considered in itself alone, but insofar as it is joined with diverse circumstances, either depraved or dangerous, on which the whole guilt of dances depends.

Depraved circumstances are, e.g. - obscene embraces, touches, conversations, nakednesses, gestures, - a depraved intention, - the character of scandal (concerning which n. 295. 8°), - grave prohibition of parents, - an ecclesiastical law forbidding them, etc. Circumstances of this kind render dances illicit per se; other circumstances make them more or less dangerous, or an occasion of sin. Here we treat of dances primarily under the character of an occasion of sin.

1441. - The general rule to be held in this matter is this. If the danger which dances bring is grave or probable, and no grave cause is present for approaching it, dances must be avoided under mortal [sin]. - But if the danger is light or not probable, or if a grave cause excuses, then either a light sin or none will be present. Therefore the quantity of the danger and the gravity of the cause must be attended to.

I. The Quantity of Danger. In order that this may be known, the criteria of the probability of danger handed down n. 1430 must be consulted; and hence 1) it must be considered whether the penitent at other times has been present at dances, and whether on account of them he has sinned frequently or not. If he has sinned frequently, and now the circumstances are not so different that it ought to be presumed that this time he will not sin, it will be most clearly established that the danger is grave. - But if from the particular experience of the penitent no conjecture can be made, then 2) the rule must be taken from those things which commonly happen. - But what commonly happens? Commonly these are found in grave danger:

a) Both women and men, if they approach dances not only on some one occasion, e.g. once or twice in a year, but with great frequency. The reason is that frequency of this kind is accustomed on one side greatly to excite lust, and on the other side to take away the will of praying, of frequenting the Sacraments, and of employing cautions which would be especially necessary for avoiding sins. Add that in the case no help can be expected from God, because no necessity is accustomed to compel anyone to approach dances frequently and very often.

b) Those girls of common condition who carry before themselves much levity, joined with much beauty or womanliness, especially if they are also very lustful and have their own lovers at those dances. For it is established by experience that young men, with girls of this kind on occasion of dances, abound in special flatteries, - i.e. in closer embraces and claspings of hands; likewise in conversations not only amorous, but also not rarely altogether obscene; - and finally, if they can, they kiss them and shamefully touch them, whether in the intervals when they cease from dancing from time to time, or even in the very act of dancing, especially when the very quality of the dance offers an opportunity of this kind, whether of kissing or of shamefully touching. But it is established by the same experience that these girls are accustomed to consent to the temptations of men, at least by words and internal delectation. Therefore it must altogether be said that they are placed in grave danger.

c) Those leading the dances called Round dances, as our Bishops warn. See n. 295. 8°.

But what if some girl wishes to approach dances not too frequently, but only once or twice in the year, and is sufficiently well conducted, and does not carry before herself the levity described above; will she cast herself into grave danger?

"I judge," says Berardi, "that grave danger as to a girl of this kind ordinarily is not present. I am moved by experience. For those girls having sufficient fear of God, who once or twice in the year are present at dances, if they are asked whether on account of dances they have committed some mortal sin, whether by deed, by word, by thought, whether in the very act of dancing or afterward, ordinarily respond negatively."

But it is asked whether these things which have been said for girls concerning whom in the case are valid also as to dances called Round dances?

Resp. Those dances, although in general, nevertheless not always and in every case, or among persons of every kind, are immodest; and this especially for this reason, that not all in dancing employ embraces so close, and that proximity of breast and face so indecorous, which commonly are employed; for those dances can take place even if some distance is preserved in the embraces. It is true that the matter greatly depends on the will of the man; but, if an honorable and well conducted girl, such as is supposed in the case, seriously says that she does not wish to be so closely pressed, certainly she will not be pressed in that way by force. Wherefore, as regards our present case, the words which our Bishops use concerning these dances, whether in the decrees of the Plenary Council of Baltimore II, or in the Pastoral Letters cited n. 295. 8°, cannot be objected; for they call those dances immodest only in that sense, that today they commonly, not that they necessarily, are conducted immodestly (as at present carried on). - Therefore, saving a better [judgment], this would be my practice as to those dances. To all indeed I would most vehemently dissuade them, but I would not prohibit them to all indiscriminately, or to each individual, under denial of absolution; nevertheless certainly to those who would lead them either a) immodestly, or b) frequently, or c) with relative proximate danger, or d) with scandal of others in places where either they are not accustomed to be led, or the warning of the Bishops, concerning which n. 295. 8°, is urged. These things concerning the quantity of danger.

II. But for making a judgment concerning the degree of fault in approaching dances, it is not sufficient to weigh the degree of danger which is found in them; but it is necessary also to weigh the cause which impels one to approach the same dances. For if the danger is not of great moment, causes also not of great moment can excuse from every fault, even venial. But if the danger were grave, grave causes alone could excuse. But what will be causes not of great moment, and what kinds will be grave causes? Causes not of great moment are accustomed to be, e.g., the end of relaxing the soul; of more easily finding an occasion of Matrimony; of not displeasing a lover; of satisfying neighbors inviting to dances; of not exposing oneself to some censure or ridicule, etc. But grave causes can be, e.g., if a woman were going to render her own husband hostile to herself, or if a girl would give occasion of great disturbance in her family, because her parents have announced dances in their own house, or her brothers have already agreed with companions that they are going to lead their sister to dances appointed by common counsel, etc. Yet in order that causes of this kind truly ought to be considered grave, it is necessary that no means be present by which the aforesaid disturbances can be avoided.

1442. - Query. How should confessors and Pastors conduct themselves as to dances?

Resp. 1° Let them avoid excess and defect of zeal against them. They exceed who inveigh against them with too much force and without any prudence. They are deficient who are touched by no care to impede them.

Resp. 2° Confessors: a) As to absolution to be denied or conceded, let them follow the rule handed down n. 1441. b) Even in cases in which the confessor does not deny absolution, he would conduct himself badly if he permitted dances with so much facility that he would not even give counsel of abstaining from them. For, however much dances may seem innocent, they are always dangerous, by reason both of the loss of devotion and modesty, and of the danger of implicating oneself in premature and inconsiderate loves. Wherefore the confessor, as much as he prudently will be able, must employ every care so that he may either avert penitents from dances, or at least diminish the aforesaid dangers by some admonitions and opportune means. These admonitions are chiefly the following, namely, that the penitent 1° form a right intention; 2° preserve modesty in all things, especially as to clothes, gestures, and conversations; 3° in no way yield to vicious sympathies, whether of others toward himself, or of himself toward others; 4° after the dance, revolve in mind holy and congruent reflections, which close entrance to depraved thoughts.

Resp. 3° The Pastor: a) Let him have persuaded to himself that by dances great dissipation is produced in the Parish, and, whether directly and proximately, or indirectly and remotely, occasion is given to many sins; whence he will take care according to his powers that he impede them, or at least diminish them. b) Let him use the necessary prudence, so that he may choose the more apt way which conduces to this end. - First indeed he will obtain much, if, rightly satisfying all the duties of the office of a good pastor, he instills into the faithful committed to him the fear of God, hatred of sin, care of the soul, and benevolence and esteem toward himself. Then in this matter he will profit especially if he fosters piety in girls.

1443. - Of these: 1) Some are notably shameful - whether on account of notably shameful things either exhibited or recited in them (n. 295. 8°), - or on account of women with breasts and arms enormously uncovered either acting in or present at the spectacle, especially if, as is usual, they are contemplated with telescopic eyeglasses (opera-glass), - or on account of scenic dances (ballets), with which they are commonly intermingled. 2) Others besides are contrary to our most holy Faith, - whether because they traduce the Catholic Religion, now as tyrannical, bloodthirsty, cruel; now as hostile to knowledge, lights, progress; now as ridiculous, despised, vile; now as false, superstitious, impious, - or because they expose sacred rites, and the Sacraments themselves, to mockery, or exhibit priests, Pontiffs, Religious men, and nuns as given to shameful things, - or because they extol or excuse crimes, e.g. vengeance, suicide, adultery, vices of the flesh, etc.

1444. - Query. What practice must be held as to theatres?

Resp. 1° "Let Pastors prudently avert the faithful from theatres ... and scenic games, especially those which are known to be full of evil and danger. Let them take care, however, lest by following opinions too rigorous they restrict Evangelical liberty. For if there are games of this kind which are subject neither to danger of sinning nor to scandal, it can be permitted to laymen to be present at them. But in preaching let them censure in general and grave words those games which, as very often happens, offer nothing except occasion of sinning." Thus the Plenary Council of Baltimore II.

Resp. 2° Absolution is to be denied in the following cases:

1) To some by reason of scandal (n. 295. 8°), unless a proportionate cause of permitting the scandal is present (n. 296 sq.).

2) To others by reason of cooperation in things notably shameful or gravely adverse to Religion. But cooperation will be either positive, namely by money or applause; or negative, namely by not impeding those things, when either by office there is an obligation of impeding them, or at least otherwise they can conveniently be impeded.

3) To others by reason of a voluntary occasion, namely: a) to spectators of representations which are contrary to Faith and Religion, unless both the character of scandal and the danger of perversion are absent, e.g. in a person most firm in Faith and very well fortified against falsehoods; b) to spectators of comedies even not gravely shameful, namely those to whom they are a relative proximate occasion; c) to spectators of gravely shameful comedies, unless they approach the spectacles only out of curiosity or for vain solace, the danger of consent in shameful delectation being excluded. By reason of this danger St. Alphonsus says: "I would in no way excuse from mortal [sin] an adolescent who without necessity wished, for the sake of curiosity, to be present at" gravely shameful "comedies of this kind, unless someone were very fearful [of God], and moreover had experienced several times that he had never sinned lethally by watching them; provided that by his example he did not furnish other adolescents an occasion of assisting at shameful representations of this kind"; d) today also universally to those who approach a theatre, without having first had certitude concerning the absence of obscenities and impieties. The reason is that, from things commonly happening, they expose themselves to probable danger. But especially fathers of families must make themselves certain concerning this matter before they concede to children the liberty of approaching a theatre.

I said in Resp. 2° under 3): to others by reason of a VOLUNTARY occasion; for if a cause sufficiently grave and sufficient for approaching the theatre is present - as if parents or a husband command, AND at the same time great disturbance and discord would inevitably follow if their will were resisted - those approaching are to be treated according to the principles of necessary occasion. - But a cause sufficiently grave and sufficient will not be that, e.g., the price for entrance through the whole time in which the representations will have place has already been given; - for the price is not recovered by attendance; - or that there is question of a representation from which the profit to be received is destined for a philanthropic end, e.g. for a children's asylum, for a hospital, for the poor, etc.; for, if someone wishes to contribute something to that end, he will be able to do it without approaching the representation, namely by paying the price without attendance. Nevertheless this cause can sometimes have force, namely as to magnates, whose absence would have to be much noted, so that publicly they would have to be reproached as inhuman, cruel, enemies of the poor, etc.; especially if factions were fervent, and there were question of a matter which greatly interested those factions; in which case it will belong to the prudence of the confessor to determine whether such and so great a necessity is present which excuses both from individual danger and from scandal, or whether a way can easily be found of saving body and soul at the same time, e.g. by removing oneself from the city, by presenting oneself at the theatre for a brief time and afterward departing, etc. - Thus Berardi.

1445. - A twofold kind of conversations must be distinguished: one of those in which great danger is ordinarily found, such as are: a) in cities those in which either often and very often there are conversations against Religion, or almost always you hear conversations either openly or ambiguously obscene, you see immodest women, and, wherever you turn your eyes, you behold dangerous things; b) those rural ones in which, the parents in no way watching, girls have every liberty of conversing with suitors, etc. - The other kind of conversations is of those in which nothing is done or said against Religion or honesty, so that all things proceed with sufficient decency, the time being spent in play, singing, music, and narration of public or private news. The danger of these conversations is reduced to some possible temptations because of the intervention of persons of diverse sex; to some murmurings; to some levities, by praising, e.g., this or that beautiful girl, by speaking about the theatre, about spectacles, about this or that treatment of Matrimony, etc. To this second kind also belong those rural conversations in which, with the heads of families thus disposing and watching, all things proceed outwardly with sufficient decency.

1446. - "This distinction having been made, I judge," says Berardi, "that, at least ordinarily speaking, he who, without grave cause, wishes to approach conversations of the first kind cannot be excused from mortal sin."

"I said: without grave cause; for if someone for a grave cause should approach one of conversations of this kind (e.g. because otherwise he would render hostile to himself that family especially necessary to him), then perhaps it will be able to be permitted that, instead of deserting the same conversation immediately and totally, he desert it little by little, by finding some excuses (which will never be lacking to one willing), by whose aid he will at length be able sufficiently to free himself from it, without rendering that family hostile to himself."

"But as to the second kind of conversations, the confessor will diligently consider the particular cases and their circumstances. Thus, e.g., if there is question of a married woman who approaches a conversation, the confessor will examine her, whether she furnishes occasion of jealousy to her own husband; whether at the time of conversation she leaves maidservants alone with male servants; whether then she leaves her own sons or daughters in some danger, etc. - If there is question of a girl, he will ask her whether she plays or sits at the side of a lover with danger of furtive touches; whether she indulges malicious looks, etc. - If there is question of a married man, he will ask him whether he furnishes occasion of discord between himself and his own wife; whether he exceeds in play with grave detriment of his family, etc. - If there is question of a son of a family, he will ask him whether he approaches that conversation against the will of his parents; whether there he enters into friendship with some depraved companion; whether he exposes too much money to play, etc. - Above all, however, the confessor will weigh whether the penitent in those conversations (which outwardly proceed decently) nourishes genial affections in his heart, and consents to depraved desires. From this examination the confessor will be able to collect whether that conversation is immune from every grave danger even in the particular case, or whether it contains grave danger. Afterward he will observe whether this grave danger (if it is present) must be placed in any single time, or whether it must be placed only in the assiduity and excessive frequency of conversation. Likewise whether the danger can be rendered remote by opportune cautions, or whether total separation is necessary."

1447. - Query. How should the confessor conduct himself as to those penitents whom he finds to have evil companions?

Resp. Let him examine: 1) whether there is truly question of a proximate occasion of mortal sin, concerning which there would undoubtedly be question, a) if the penitent were placed in grave danger of doing gravely depraved actions, whether with the companions themselves (e.g. by committing sodomy with them), or from their instigation (e.g. by going with them to brothels). Say the same if b) there were question of danger of having or hearing conversations which cannot be had or heard without mortal [sin]. Nevertheless in this case judgment would not have to be hastened, but first the quality of the conversations themselves would have to be examined, i.e. whether they are of several species (e.g. against Religion, against charity, against chastity, etc.), and whether they truly contain grave guilt. Recall the things said n. 491. I. 1°-5° and n. 492, where concerning the cases in which foul speaking is mortal.

But in the hypothesis that the conversations cannot be excused from mortal [sin], and there is truly question of a proximate occasion, let him examine: 2) whether this occasion is voluntary or necessary. Certainly it can be necessary, if companions of this kind are found in the same college, in the same workshop, etc. (and concerning these cases n. 1460-1465), or if those companions are his own neighbors, insofar as (as often happens in the country) it is morally impossible altogether to avoid encounters with them.

1448. - The reading of depraved books and newspapers is interdicted by natural law and by ecclesiastical law. Concerning this latter we shall speak n. 1702 sq.; concerning the former we must treat in this place.

For knowing the degree of fault in reading them, insofar as this is interdicted by natural law, it is necessary to distinguish books into two classes. Some are full of impieties or obscenities: others are only erotic, i.e. treating of loves, without any or almost any impiety or obscenity.

"As to books of the first class I say," says Berardi, "that, ordinarily speaking, and natural law alone being considered, it is a mortal sin to read them, even if they are read only on some one occasion. The reason is that such books are extremely dangerous and fatal."

Books of the second class, "as are many comedies, tragedies, dramas, poems, and some moderate romantic books, in which many things indeed are found very tender and affective, but nothing or almost nothing is present which smacks of impiety or of obscenity," are "all dangerous to youth"; and, ordinarily speaking, grave danger is present for those who are wholly occupied in readings of this kind about loves, but not for those who sometimes read some one of these books. But for the greatest part this matter depends "on particular circumstances, and especially" it is "to be attended to whether the reading is done from a lustful end, or with special danger, the age, temperament of the reader, and especially his morals and experience of falls having been inspected." Cf. above n. 233, Resp. to the 1st.

1449. Questions. - Query 1° What must be said concerning the reading of many newspapers, in which here and there some or many things hostile to the Catholic Religion are found?

Resp. "I judge," says Berardi, "that the reading of those newspapers can be gravely illicit by natural law, the quality of the person reading, the frequency of reading, and the quality of the newspaper itself being inspected, i.e. the multitude of impieties contained in it, the manner of announcing them, etc." Cf. above n. 310, d). (25) p. 420.

Query 2° Can a penitent having a depraved book which is not his own, but another's, return it to the owner?

Resp. Distinguish. "If no," says the same Berardi, "or a small inconvenience will follow from the burning of the book, certainly he will be held to burn it from charity toward the owner, because charity then prevails over that small violation of justice (if there is any). But if notable inconveniences will follow from the burning of the book, then the penitent can return it to the owner." L. IV. 753. § fin.

1450. - Concerning the dangers of play see n. 1050 Note.

Query. Can one who, because of play, is placed in a proximate occasion of disorders, concerning which n. 1050 Note, render this occasion remote by employing cautions and moderation?

Resp. This depends on the circumstances. Sometimes indeed he will be able to do this; but if he is borne to playing by an excessively great passion, or if the quality of the companions or place almost necessarily draws him to play and to excesses, then no remedy remains except in the first hypothesis altogether to desert play, and in the second to desert those companions and that place.

1451. - The dangers of taverns are: 1) drunkenness, and the disorders which ordinarily accompany drunkenness (see n. 243); 2) play, and the sins which are accustomed to arise from play; 3) neglect of prayer, of the obligation of Mass, indeed even of the Paschal precept; 4) lust; 5) quarrels, beatings, indeed, especially among us, homicides.

1452. Questions. - Query 1° Can a tavern-goer render this occasion remote by abstaining from excesses, without entirely leaving the tavern?

Resp. "If the tavern-goer," says Berardi, "frequents the tavern without grave necessity, and if from a vice too inveterate he has contracted a great passion for drinking excessively, then in no way can he have hope of rendering this occasion remote without total separation. Indeed it is necessary besides to desert those companions who are accustomed to turn aside to the tavern, and sometimes, especially in the beginning of conversion, it will not be enough to wish to desert the companions, but it will also be necessary to place oneself in the impossibility of complying with their invitations: which can be done by handing over to the wife the money as soon as it has been earned; for thus, destitute of money, he is compelled to repel every temptation of turning aside to the tavern."

Query 2° Are there any causes which render this occasion of the tavern necessary?

Resp. Affirm., namely the necessity of one's own craft, e.g. because someone is a driver, broker, merchant, brewer, etc. (26) p. 421.

There must be treated: 1° of visits of lovers for contracting Matrimony; 2° of a woman who, on account of violence inflicted or fear struck into her, suffers her own violation; 3° of some domestic occasions; 4° of dangers on account of service; 5° of dangers in schools, colleges, and workshops; 6° of dangers in arts and offices.

1453. - Young men and girls loving one another and keeping company are placed in a proximate voluntary occasion - either a) without the intention of future Matrimony, - or b) without a founded hope of the same. Therefore these are to be treated in the manner which was said n. 1433 and 1436. q. 1°. - But if the intention and hope of Matrimony are present, distinguish. For either they visit one another in such a way that grave sin and its proximate danger are absent, or not. In the former case they can be absolved; in the latter they are to be treated as those who are placed in a proximate necessary occasion. See n. 1434, 1436. q. 2°.

But the cautions to be employed, lest the keeping company become sinful, or a proximate danger of sin, are: - 1) That they not dwell under the same roof; - 2) that one alone not be together with one alone, especially at that time (e.g. while the parents have gone out of the house), or in those places (e.g. in a field; in a solitary lane in night hours), where they are not observed by others. For these things, especially if they happen not by chance, but by counsel, will not happen except from an end of lust or with the greatest danger of lust. Wherefore one must act most severely with parents, and especially with the mother, and the grave obligation of vigilant custody and caution must be urged; - 3) that they not keep company without the knowledge or against the will of parents, or of those who are in the place of parents to them; for then most certainly they are going to visit one another secretly, and at those times and places at which they cannot be observed; - 4) that the keeping company not be protracted too long: wherefore a prudent confessor should leave no stone unmoved, so that he may avert from keeping company those between whom Matrimony cannot be contracted except after a long time, or is foreseen as having to be contracted after a long time; - 5) that the visits not be more frequent or more protracted than prudence, especially from the practice of the God-fearing, permits. Nevertheless the girl will be able to tolerate these (special cautions being opposed to the special danger which arises from them), if there is fear lest otherwise she be deprived of prosperous nuptials; - 6) that lovers not approach each other with proximate danger either of obscene touches, or of kisses, embraces, etc., prohibited under grave [sin] [see concerning the Sixth, n. 487. 488]; - 7) that lovers fortify themselves in a special way with spiritual helps, but chiefly with frequency of the Sacraments.

Let St. Alphonsus be heard concerning these things. "But generally speaking concerning young men and girls who love one another mutually, all these are not indiscriminately to be condemned for grave fault; but ordinarily I judge that with difficulty are they outside the proximate occasion of sinning lethally. This is too clear by experience; for out of a hundred adolescents scarcely two or three, in that occasion, are found immune from mortal [sins]."

Resolves. - 1° As soon as lovers frequently fall into mortal sin, they are to be treated as those who are placed in a proximate occasion, and therefore the occasion must either be altogether taken away, or from proximate be rendered remote. - It must be taken away, if in fact (all things considered) there is no hope that it will become remote, or it is not necessary, i.e. if without grave damage the lovers can renounce present Matrimony and await an occasion of another Matrimony.

But it is taken away either by renouncing Matrimony, or by contracting it, or by interrupting the visits until it is contracted.

It is rendered remote (supposing that it is necessary), if, the confessor taking care, they soon contract Matrimony, and meanwhile employ greater cautions, first of all diminish visits, are never alone, etc.

2° If lovers cannot converse except alone, suppose because the beloved woman is a maidservant or a widow living alone, they are placed in a necessary occasion from this cause at least, and are to be treated as such.

3° If the parents unjustly resist the Matrimony, the keeping company, provided nothing else stands in the way, is not illicit.

Note. To lovers only honorable kisses are lawful, according to the custom of the country, e.g. on arrival and departure.

1454. - I say I. In any hypothesis a woman is held not to consent by the will, and therefore to abstain from every act of positive cooperation. The reason is clear of itself. - Hence in no hypothesis will it be lawful for her in any way to compose or accommodate herself to the shameful act, by removing, e.g., clothes, etc. - Hence also, if she foresees that violence will be inflicted on her, in the case, e.g., in which she would approach such a house alone, she must, if she can, not approach the same house alone.

I say II. The cases of this violation can be reduced to three.

The first case is when the violence is total and absolute, so that the woman physically cannot either cry out, or move herself, or in any way impede copula; and in this case she is held only to resist by the will; for no one is held to the impossible.

The second case is when without danger of notable damage, or infamy, or excessive shame she can cry out or resist extrinsically. The resolution of this case we gave n. 20. under 2°. § Women sin gravely, etc.

The third case is when she would indeed have hope of avoiding the foul congress by crying out or otherwise resisting extrinsically, but only with danger of notable damage to herself (e.g. of death), or of infamy, or of excessive shame.

Concerning this case I note the following:

1) As regards the danger of infamy to be feared from crying out, it is necessary that there be question of true infamy, e.g. of the danger lest a girl be held as corrupted; for often not infamy, but rather honor and praise comes to a woman crying out that she may preserve her honesty.

2) Let the things said n. 462. q. 2° and q. 3° and n. 20 under 2° be recalled, where we hand down the doctrine of St. Alphonsus concerning this case.

3) Lugo notes: "In practice violent oppression, and without fault on the part of the woman, must be believed with difficulty. For it is very rare that, if she wishes, she cannot in some way resist and impede violation; but on account of ... weakness of soul, and sometimes also on account of a hidden affection of lust, which they are altogether ashamed to manifest, they consent."

Nevertheless it can be believed with less difficulty that the oppression of white women by Black men, such as sometimes happens in this region, was altogether unwilling; for they are accustomed to abhor Black men.

From the things said you resolve: 1° If a woman were shamefully touched by a man with whom she is making a journey in a carriage, certainly she is held to resist in the better way in which she can; but, outside the case of proximate danger of consent, she would not be held to throw herself down from the carriage, while it is moving swiftly, with very grave danger of breaking her bones.

2° A woman permitting herself to be touched by another with a touch which commonly is judged modest, as taking, handling of the hand, embrace and kisses according to the custom of the country, does not sin, unless it is established to her that it is done from a depraved affection; indeed even in this case she will be able to bear herself permissively, if otherwise she would inject suspicion of infamy, or others would be scandalized, which nevertheless certainly is not to be feared when those touches are done openly.

There is question: 1° of a woman who is placed in danger on account of a male servant or another living in the same house; 2° of an adolescent who is placed in danger on account of a brother by whom he is shamefully touched while he lies in bed together with him; 3° of some other domestic dangers which parents are held to avert from children.

1455. - I. As to the woman concerning whom under 1°, let the confessor weigh whether separation is necessary for taking away the probability of danger, and, if it is necessary, whether the circumstances allow that it be exacted, by procuring namely that the male servant, or he who is for her the occasion of sinning in the house, be expelled. Hence the question can be made whether separation is to be judged morally possible if, in order to obtain it, it is necessary to reveal the matter either to the father or to the husband? I say that one general rule cannot be given in this matter. Ordinarily nevertheless a distinction is to be made between a girl who without grave inconvenience can reveal the matter to her mother (who afterward will manifest the matter itself to the father), and a wife who can have a just repugnance to manifesting it to her husband. The first indeed can fear no damage from her parents, who will have the greatest care of proceeding most cautiously, so that they may guard the honor of their own daughter; but the second can fear the imprudences of the husband, the calumnies of the servant, scandal of the family, publicity of the matter, and similar very grave evils.

But if the circumstances do not allow that the expulsion of the servant or of another familiar be procured, the confessor will have to exact the application of other means, and especially he will provide that the tempter not find her alone, especially in bed, or in remote places. The cure will be easy if the woman is not very prone to venery, and if she does not have affection toward the tempter; otherwise the cure will be most difficult. For the rest, the confessor will take counsel from the general rules, from the consideration of particular circumstances, and especially from divine light implored by fervent prayers.

1456. - II. The adolescent concerning whom under 2°, I suppose, cannot easily destroy the gravity of this danger so long as he sleeps with that lascivious brother; and I say: if, by warning the parents concerning this wicked action of the brother, he can hope for a change of bed, he will be held to employ this means; but if he cannot hope for this, on account of the extreme poverty or negligence of the parents, it can happen that either the confessor himself or the Pastor can and must provide for this scandal; and, if this hope is present, the penitent will have to be obliged to notify the confessor himself outside Confession, or the Pastor. But if neither this, nor any other way is available for obtaining a change of bed, nor can the adolescent without grave inconvenience to himself (which regularly is present) always or on most nights sleep on the ground or on a bare board, he is to be treated as one placed in a necessary occasion.

1457. - III. 1° Parents, and especially mothers, must be admonished concerning the most grave obligation which they have, of averting or removing from the house, as much as they can, all those things which redound to the scandal of the family, e.g. male servants or maidservants who could be dangerous to the virtue of their children (see n. 447. 2°); books or newspapers harmful to morals or religion; scandalous pictures or sculptures; nakednesses of sons or daughters, etc.

2° As to parents who allow children to sleep with themselves in the same bed or room, or with others of diverse sex in the same bed, see n. 432. 5°.

1458. - I say I. On account of the dangers which are accustomed to accompany service, especially today, a girl who is not driven to it by necessity should by no means seek service, especially if she lacks singular piety and prudence, except nevertheless in the case in which an occasion is offered to her of entering service there where from certain information she has known that no danger is present.

I say II. But if a girl already exercising service is subjected to temptations, and is exposed to a danger either proximate, or now indeed remote but shortly going to be proximate (see n. 1432), she will have to be treated as constituted in a present proximate occasion, and that either voluntary or necessary, according as the service will be able to be deserted with or without grave difficulty. - But if the occasion were necessary, the special remedies will be nearly these: 1° To threaten the male servant, or son, or master tempting her that the matter will be reported to the father, mother, master, wife. 2° If threats are made in vain, or are foreseen to have to be made in vain, to warn the mistress either by herself or through her mother, if thence it is lawful to hope for an efficacious remedy.

1459. - Query. If the tempter is the master, is the maidservant held to warn his wife, although she foresees that from this discord will follow between her and the husband?

Resp. "I judge," says Berardi, "that a maidservant, if she can easily procure for herself another service immune from a similar danger, certainly is held rather to choose this means. But if it is not expedient for her to desert that service, then ordinarily she ought, either by herself or through her own mother, to warn the mistress, if she hopes for fruit (and ordinarily fruit can be hoped for), although she sees that the aforesaid discord will follow. The reason is that, for the most part, discord of this kind is not accustomed to be of such moment that it outweighs the evils arising from this shameful love of the master toward the maidservant. Add that this love cannot for long remain unknown to the wife; whence the discord would not be avoided by the silence of the maidservant."

Concerning the maidservant who is impeded from hearing Mass of precept, or from observing abstinence, recall the things said n. 408. 11°, and n. 573. 6°. - The same is valid concerning a male servant, as is clear of itself.

When the so-called public schools must be deserted as proximate occasions was said n. 435. The cases to be treated here pertain chiefly to Catholic colleges, schools, etc.

1460. - The dangers of schools can be reduced to two principal classes. For some are found within the schools themselves; others while boys approach them, or return home from the same. Concerning these latter dangers it must only be said that depraved companions are to be avoided by young persons, and that a grave obligation can fall upon parents of procuring that under the custody of some upright man the children approach school and be led back home from it; for there can be a very great danger lest the children be wholly perverted, if on that occasion they are left without custody.

1461. - Dangers of the former kind - some have place because the teachers themselves furnish scandal to the disciples, or at least are touched by no care concerning the morals of the disciples; - but others, although the teachers are upright and satisfy their own duty.

In the former hypothesis, the gravity of the danger standing, ordinarily there is one remedy only, namely either to desert the school, or, if there is question of a Catholic school, to open the matter by oneself or through the parents to the Pastor; or, if of a public [school], and a remedy is hoped for thence, to some one of the school Trustees, or to another who can provide.

In the latter hypothesis, as if, e.g., a boy is tempted by some companion sitting at his side, recourse must be had to the teacher for a remedy.

1462. - This obligation is much more present if the author of seduction were bringing scandal to several other fellow-disciples, unknown to the teacher; for then there would be question of public scandal, which can be so damaging that it must be impeded even with grave inconvenience. - This rule is valid not only for schools, but also (and much more) for colleges, seminaries, etc., and St. Alphonsus openly adheres to it.

1463. - Query. Is a disciple who is in no way tempted by a fellow-disciple, but himself from his own frailty tempts the fellow-disciple, and, other means having been tried in vain, is placed in continual danger of sinning, nor can contain himself because that fellow-disciple sits at his side, held to reveal his own frailty to the teacher, so that he may change the place for the aforesaid fellow-disciple?

Note. The resolution to be given is valid also for similar cases perhaps occurring in colleges and seminaries, as, e.g., if a collegian or seminarian from his own weakness is placed in danger on account of another collegian or seminarian remaining in the same room. Say the same of a young man or girl who cannot withdraw himself or herself from grave danger unless by revealing his or her own frailty to the father or mother, etc. These things having been noted:

Resp. Before all things the confessor must weigh whether it is to be presumed that the Superior can and wishes to apply that remedy; and in the affirmative case it must also be weighed whether the remedy can be applied so cautiously that the penitent is not going to suffer public infamy. For if public infamy of this kind were going to arise for a penitent enjoying a good name, he could not be compelled to undergo such infamy, because in such a case there would be question of a necessary occasion. But if the whole inconvenience consists only in revealing one's own frailty to the Superior, then the confessor must weigh whether such a revelation constitutes a grave or light inconvenience. Without doubt there are cases in which a revelation of this kind cannot be made by the penitent without the greatest and extreme difficulty, as if, e.g., he enjoys great esteem with the Superior, or is very timid and ashamed; for shame can be so great that some would choose rather to be damned than to manifest their own sin to such a person, as St. Thomas wrote: whence it is no wonder if several are going to have a most grave difficulty in manifesting a shameful sin to the Superior, and much more to father or mother, with whom they must converse daily. But while this great difficulty stands, the penitent is not to be obliged to undergo so great a burden, because then there would be question of a necessary occasion. Sometimes, on the contrary, he would have to be obliged to this revelation, because sometimes cases are given in which a revelation of this kind can be done sufficiently easily, e.g. if other sins of the same kind of the penitent are already known to the Superior; if the penitent has an open temperament and one easy for manifesting sins; if it is easy for him by letters or through a third person to render the Superior more certain concerning that matter, etc. Nevertheless the confessor, as much as possible, will avoid taking upon himself the burden of denunciation of this kind.

1464. - Some arts are not only dangerous, but altogether iniquitous. Such are all superstitious arts, e.g. the art of healings, magical art, divinatory art, etc., to which modern animal magnetism and spiritism are reduced. Such also are the usurious art, shameful pimping, etc. No one does not see that arts of this kind can be made honorable by no reason, and must altogether be deserted. But other arts are not iniquitous per se, but only dangerous. Thus soldiers are exposed to many dangers of sinning because of blasphemies and fornications which are very common to them; likewise merchants and brokers because of frauds, perjuries, etc.; likewise physicians and surgeons because of the treatment of women; likewise farmers because of shameful conversations, bestialities, etc.; likewise carriage-drivers because of blasphemies, drunkennesses, etc.; likewise almost all artisans because of immodest or impious conversations, etc. Say the same concerning various offices in which many dangers are found, as happens, e.g., in the office of Confessor, Advocate, Judge, Magistrate, etc.

1465. - Query. Is someone held to desert an art not iniquitous per se, but gravely dangerous for himself?

Resp. Neg., if either 1) the gravity of the danger can easily be destroyed by the penitent through other means, e.g. by changing not the art, but the workshop; or 2) there is a grave reason for not deserting the art, and the penitent is prepared for rendering the danger remote, and for undergoing sacrifices the more grave in proportion as the ruin is greater to the danger of which he is exposed.

Such are:

1466. - I. Certain occasions of drunkenness. The principal are: taverns and drinking-houses; - companions and friends given to this vice; - certain special days, whether of the week or of the year, as the day on which the weekly wage is accustomed to be paid to workers; the Fourth of July; the day designated annually by the Government for public giving of thanks; the first of the year; Carnival; Easter; Monday of Easter and Pentecost; the feast of St. Patrick; days fixed for political elections; - certain fairs; - festivities which come under the name of picnics, excursions, etc.; - the day on which Baptism is conferred on an infant; - banquets or nuptial feasts; - vigils beside the bodies of the dead (wakes); - funerals.

1467. - II. Certain occasions of lust, whether internal or external. Besides those enumerated above under A and B, here must be noted: a) games called kissing plays. b) Many of those which we enumerated n. 1466 among occasions of drunkenness, as excursions, picnics, wakes, etc. c) If one alone with one alone is carried by carriage, or walks through solitary places, such as in the country, especially among us, are most frequent.

1468. - III. Occasions of injustice. Such are: 1° several public offices which either easily offer a means of becoming rich unjustly, or scarcely can be obtained, carried on, or retained, without indulgence being shown to the unjust cupidity of others (cf. n. 453. 456. 458). 2° Certain trades, e.g. those which are exercised by those who in English are called pedlers. 3° Administration of another's property by those who are over workers (foremen), by clerks of bankers or other businessmen (clerks, book-keepers), by conductors of public carriages, etc.

1469. - IV. Occasions of heresy or apostasy. These can be or become of this kind: 1° Service among heretics, apostates, or infidels. 2° Reading of certain heretical newspapers or books. 3° More intimate association with non-Catholics. 4° Public schools, or those of higher instruction (high schools). 5° To approach the sermons of non-Catholics. 6° Mixed marriages and courtship previous to them, etc.

Notes near nn. 1466-1469, particular occasions of drunkenness, lust, injustice, and heresy (printed pp. 178-179).

1 L. VI. 459. | 2 Prax. Conf. n. 70. | 3 De Recid. n. 77. Ed. 1a. | 4 2. 2. q. 156. a. 3. ad 3.

1470. - A consuetudinary, or habituated person, must carefully be distinguished from a recidivist, and the former is said to be he who, by the repetition of sins of the same kind, concerning which either he has not yet confessed, or (practically speaking) has not yet been confessed and admonished, has contracted a true propensity to those sins, or a depraved habit of them.

How many acts suffice for contracting a depraved habit depends on the nature of the repeated sin itself, and on the mode in which it was committed, namely by thought, word, or deed; - on the longer or shorter time which intervened between the acts themselves of the same kind of sin; - on the temperament or disposition of the penitent; - on the greater or lesser intensity with which the will placed the acts, etc. - Thus "five times in a month," says St. Alphonsus, "can already constitute an evil habit in some vice of external sin, provided that between the acts themselves some interval intervenes. And in the matter of fornications, sodomies, and bestialities a much smaller number can constitute a habit: one who, e.g., would fornicate once in a month for a year, can well be called habituated." (27) p. 421.

Among the habituated some are such simply, or incontinent; but others are habituated in evil will. - The latter sin a) because of habitual perversity of will; b) without a previous impulse of vehement passion, or from proper election, or at least from only light concupiscence; c) they do not easily detest the sin committed. - But the former, on the contrary, sin 1) from the impulse of vehement passion; so that 2) habitually their will itself is good and contrary to sin, which therefore 3), the impulse of passion having passed, they very greatly abhor. Thus Berardi from St. Thomas. (28) p. 421.

He is called a recidivist who, although admonished and having promised amendment, has fallen back into the same sin of custom. But according to the mind of St. Alphonsus one must well distinguish between a recidivist such formally and materially. The former is he who has fallen back in the same or almost the same way; the latter, who after his last Confession indeed fell back, but not in the same or almost the same way. - Therefore, that someone may be called a recidivist formally such, three things are required: 1° That he has contracted a habit of sin; 2° that in another Confession he was rightly admonished; 3° that he fell back into the habit or into the sin of habit in the same or almost the same way, no study of amendment having been employed, or prescribed means.

Notes near n. 1470, consuetudinaries and recidivists distinguished (printed p. 179).

1 Vind. Ed. 2a. T. II. p. 276. col. 1 (1). | 2 L. VI. 459. | 3 Ib. | 4 Prax. Conf. n. 70. | 5 L. VI. 459. | 6 Prax. Conf. n. 70. | 7 L. VI. 460.

1471. - Principle I. A depraved habit is not of itself a sign of indisposition. The reason is that "although ... it renders the sinner more prone to sin, nevertheless it does not give a presumption of his infirm will." - Hence the habituated person can be absolved at once and regularly must be, "even if no amendment has preceded, provided that he seriously proposes it"; i.e. he is disposed "by true sorrow and firm purpose of employing efficacious means for amendment." Moreover sorrow and purpose of this kind are presumed from the Confession itself, spontaneous indeed; which presumption yields only to some positive presumption to the contrary. - I said: can be absolved AT ONCE and REGULARLY must be. For "if the habit were very rooted," such as it is accustomed to be in him who is habituated in evil will, and universally in those who for a long time were given to some vice, especially of the flesh, "the confessor also can defer absolution for him," a) "for experiencing how constant the penitent is in reducing the prescribed means to practice, and" b) "that he himself may conceive greater horror of his vice."

1472. - Principle II. Nor is it a sign of indisposition that someone has become a recidivist into the sin of habit, provided that he is only such materially (n. 1470). But the following show a recidivist to be only such materially - "the fulfillment of means prescribed by the confessor"; - "a smaller number of sins," ... namely "when the penitent was in the same occasions of sinning," but not when that smaller number of sins is to be attributed to another cause than the purpose of amendment, e.g. to illness, with which he labored after the last Confession; - "if ... after the last Confession he contained himself for a long time, e.g. for 20 or 30 days, when before he was accustomed to fall several times in a week"; - "if the relapse" was only "after a great conflict," or long and energetic resistance, or in a very vehement temptation; - if after relapse and before Confession he abstained from sin for a notable time. - The reason of the principle is that in cases of this kind relapse, even frequent, is deservedly attributed, not to a defect of true sorrow and firm purpose, but to greater infirmity which exists from a depraved habit. - Hence the confessor ought especially to ask a penitent who has fallen back into the sin of habit: a) whether he employed the means prescribed for amendment; b) how often and in what circumstances he fell back. From the response it will be clear whether the relapse is a sign of indisposition or not. But if it is not, he can and must absolve him. But whether at once, we shall soon say.

1473. - Principle III. A recidivist formally such (n. 1470), by the very fact that he has fallen back in the same or almost the same way into the sin of habit, offers a founded presumption of his indisposition; - which presumption, unless it is taken away by a contrary presumption, makes his disposition at least doubtful, and therefore that he must be held and treated as doubtfully disposed.

I say: 1° he offers a founded presumption of his indisposition. "For he who firmly proposes (Lugo says well) a thing morally possible to himself, does not so easily forget his purpose," or does not act as one who had no purpose at all; "but at least for some time perseveres, and falls with more difficulty or more rarely." Therefore by this very fact that he has fallen back in the same or almost the same way into the sin of habit, he offers a founded presumption of an infirm purpose.

I say: 2° which presumption, unless it is taken away by a contrary presumption, makes his disposition at least doubtful. But that contrary presumption is not founded by ordinary signs of disposition, namely the usual affirmation or protestation of penitents, that they sincerely are sorry and firmly purpose; but only by extraordinary signs (or some special manifestation of sorrow), and these solid and founded, namely such from which with foundation the will of the penitent can be argued truly to have been changed for the better.

Notes near nn. 1471-1473, habituated persons and formal recidivists (printed p. 180).

1 L. VI. 459. | 2 Prax. Conf. n. 73. Vind. Ed. 2a. T. II. p. 285 sq.

1474. - St. Alphonsus enumerates nine signs of this kind, and here, for the sake of aiding memory, we review them under four headings, according as they are collected, namely either A) as manifesting primarily sorrow of soul; or B) from the motive itself of Confession; or C) from those things which the penitent performed before he approached Confession; or D) from the accusation itself and from the mode in which it is instituted.

1475. - A. Tears, sighs, or cordial words extraordinarily manifest sorrow of soul or compunction of heart. But cordial words "sometimes," says St. Alphonsus, "can be more certain signs than tears"; for tears "sometimes proceed from some passion which penitents set forth; or from the motive of denied absolution, or of damage suffered or imminent." Besides there are those who by their very temperament are more easily moved to tears, and for whom these flow at even the lightest motions of soul and such as are almost immediately to be calmed. Hence regularly they are to be valued less in women than in men. "For the rest," adds St. Alphonsus, "the tears of penitents for the most part arise from compunction of heart, especially if they are poured out after hearing a sermon or the admonition of a confessor offering some motive of compunction."

1476. - B. The motive itself of Confession, namely:

a) "Spontaneous Confession, namely if the penitent approaches, not now to fulfill the Paschal precept, nor on account of some custom of confessing oneself on some feasts, nor does he approach impelled by parents, by a master or teacher: but comes altogether spontaneously, and truly inspired by divine light, for the sole end that he may receive divine grace. Especially if for confessing himself he has undertaken a long journey, has abstained from notable gain," e.g. "from the gain of that day, has sustained a grave inconvenience, or has overcome a great internal or external conflict."

b) "If he has come moved by some extraordinary impulse, suppose on account of a sermon heard," or a Mission frequented, or spiritual exercises performed, "or the death of a friend" or relative, "or on account of fear of some imminent scourge," e.g. of an epidemic disease, or because he was snatched from some proximate danger of death.

Note. - 1° It has been said under a), that that Confession is not spontaneous which is instituted for fulfilling the Paschal precept. Take care nevertheless not to conclude thence that he who has not confessed through the whole year and only in the Paschal time approaches the Sacrament of Penance, by this very fact, or a priori, must be held as indisposed. Rather you will say that he who spontaneously and for the end that he may obey the Church and reconcile himself with God approaches the Sacred Tribunal in the Paschal time, is to be presumed disposed, until this presumption is not destroyed by a contrary presumption. Nevertheless many approach Paschal Confession without any preparation of soul and from mere custom; others, because they are compelled to it; others, because it is their interest that they be judged good Christians. All these indeed commonly show sufficiently, by the very manner of confessing, the defect of due disposition. - Nevertheless let the confessor remember that especially in the Paschal time he is obliged to dispose penitents; for that time is almost the only one in which he can act directly upon the soul of penitents of this kind. - Which persons in this time can be absolved conditionally, see above n. 1344. q. 8°. II Rule.

2° The spontaneity of Confession is to be presumed especially in those regions or nations in which faith has languished; for there human respect does not impel to receiving the Sacraments (as in others in which religion flourishes), but rather draws back from them. For the rest, even in regions or nations of this kind there are not lacking those who approach the Sacred Tribunal from custom alone, or from other motives also.

Notes near nn. 1474-1476, extraordinary signs and spontaneous confession (printed pp. 180-181).

1 L. VI. 460. Prax. Conf. n. 74. | 2 Ib. | 3 Ib. | 4 Ib.

1477. - C. Those things which the penitent performed before he approached Confession. Such are: "study" (serious indeed or equal, but not some very minimal and scarcely perceptible one) "employed for amendment; ... or if the penitent employed fasts, alms, prayers and Masses, that he might make a good Confession, and dispose himself for absolution; flight" or removal "of occasions; ... fulfillment of means prescribed by the confessor.... If the penitent, before he approaches, has restored the thing or reputation taken away"; has burned or otherwise destroyed depraved books, toward which he was much affected; has renounced a condemned society, etc.

Note as to the study of amendment. - This is not to be judged precisely from the degree of amendment which followed; for it can happen that a lighter amendment must especially be attributed: either 1) to a very rooted habit; or 2) to assiduous and vehement temptations; or 3) to a very light and changeable temperament, which is especially proper to young persons, and by which it happens that they pass with equal facility to good and to evil; or 4) to the rusticity of the penitent, to his dullness, to his labile memory, to his occupations, and also to the little care of confessors in assigning congruent remedies to him; or 5) to the condition of the sin itself, suppose because it is most easily committed, as sin of heart and mouth. Indeed even in sins themselves of deed this must be attended to; for someone pollutes himself more easily than he fornicates; he is more easily seduced than he seduces, etc.

Notes near n. 1477, prior efforts toward amendment (printed p. 181).

1 L. VI. 460. Prax. Conf. n. 74. | 2 Vind. Ed. 2a. p. 402. 4. p. 444 (4). T. II.

1478. - D. The accusation itself, and the mode in which it is instituted. a) "If the penitent confesses sins previously kept silent through shame." b) "If on account of the admonition of the confessor he shows that he has apprehended a new knowledge and horror of his sin, and of the danger of his damnation." c) "If he himself" the penitent "asks remedies from the confessor, or new means for amendment; likewise if he promises to fulfill the means which the confessor then suggests to him, especially if he was never admonished to employ them," or if he promises "better to execute the means" previously "given by the confessor.... But I judge that these promises are not to be trusted altogether, if other signs are lacking: since penitents, that they may seize absolution, easily promise, but afterward attend to it with difficulty."

"Others add other signs, as if the penitent gladly accepts a great penance; if he asserts that he repented of the sin as soon as he committed it; if he protests that he wishes to die rather than sin. But I do not know whether these signs alone can be sufficient; rather I would say that they can serve for aiding other signs which alone would not suffice."

From these things conclude that it is not so difficult for a sagacious confessor to find in the penitent - or for a confessor burning with true zeal for souls to induce in the same - some extraordinary, solid, and founded sign, e.g. that which was brought forward under b) in this number. Wherefore let the confessor well attend to these words of His Holiness Pope Leo XII in the Bull of Jubilee of 1825: "Many indeed present themselves to the ministers of the Sacrament of Penance altogether unprepared, but very often nevertheless such that from unprepared they can become prepared, if only the priest, clothed with the bowels of mercy of Jesus Christ, who came not to call the just, but sinners, knows how to deal with them studiously, patiently, and meekly."

Notes near n. 1478, accusation and mode of confession (printed p. 182).

1 L. VI. 460. Prax. Conf. n. 74. | 2 Ib. | 3 Ib.

1479. - I say: 3° that he must be held as doubtfully disposed and treated.

Hence: a) Absolution here and now is not to be conceded to him; for it is not lawful to administer a Sacrament with doubtful matter; but contrition, which is the matter of the Sacrament of Penance, is doubtful in a recidivist formally such. Therefore.

b) Absolution is to be deferred for him until prudent probability is had, namely solitary [probability] (n. 52. 3°), concerning his disposition, or contrition; in other words, until he brings sufficient signs of amendment. - But as to the time to which absolution is to be deferred, St. Alphonsus hands down this rule: 1° If there is question of recidivists from intrinsic frailty, regularly a delay of 8 or 10, or at most 15 or 20 days suffices. For if it is protracted beyond that time, it will easily exceed the strength of the penitent, which otherwise is sufficiently weak, and he will fall in spirit and return with difficulty. - If 2° there is question of recidivists in an extrinsic proximate occasion, a longer experience is required, since the occasion "is a stronger incentive to sinning. But an experience of a month will always suffice." Yet it seems that not even to so long a time is it to be protracted, if within that time the penitent cannot approach the occasion; for so great a delay would be frustrated in this case of its end.

c) Absolution will have to be deferred also for him who already after the first admonition is formally a recidivist; because even here he is doubtfully disposed. Indeed regularly the disposition of this one is more doubtful than of him who falls back after a second or third admonition; for the first, by its own nature, has a greater force for moving than subsequent ones.

For the rest, for other reasons a recidivist returning the first time will be able to be absolved more easily than the second or third time. For extraordinary signs are obtained from a confessor the more easily, the more promptly and quickly he puts the sickle to the root, and moreover the fewer special signs of disposition are exacted, the less multiplied still are the indications of indisposition.

Recall also the things said above n. 1476, Note 2, concerning judgment about the spontaneity of Confession in regions or nations in which faith has languished and frequency of the Sacraments has been greatly diminished.

Note. - Do not wonder that St. Alphonsus is more severe toward a recidivist formally such than toward a penitent who has fallen back from a voluntary occasion not present, whom he teaches can be absolved twice or three times. For: 1° this latter is supposed not to lack a firm purpose of avoiding the occasion, nor to have neglected all means of amendment, suppose prayer, renewal of purpose, etc. (n. 1436. q. 1°. R. 1°), and therefore he is not judged to be a recidivist formally such. 2° Relapse (and this is perhaps the stronger reason) from a contracted habit of itself induces a greater suspicion of indisposition than relapse from a transitory passion; for this latter is determined from the sudden and more vivid presence of the object in the occasion; but on the contrary habit, as St. Thomas teaches, is a quality which according to its own nature has this, that it is not easily changed. - For the rest, as physician, the confessor must be more severe with recidivists from occasion; because the physician attends not to the present disposition (as does the judge), but chiefly to future dangers, or to the very causes of the disease.

d) A recidivist formally such, unless he is certainly indisposed, can or must be absolved under condition in those cases in which one doubtfully disposed can or must be absolved (n. 1344. q. 8°). Advert also that, because faith everywhere is collapsing, in this our age there occurs more often a case to be lamented, in which it is rightly feared lest a penitent doubtfully disposed and dismissed without absolution say farewell to the Sacraments, and waste away in his sins.

Notes near n. 1479, deferring absolution for recidivists (printed p. 182).

1 Conc. Pl. Balt. II. n. 286. Cf. Vind. Ed. 2a. T. II. p. 340. col. 1 (1). | 2 Prax. Conf. n. 72.

Notes near n. 1479, recidivists, habit, and future danger (printed pp. 182-183).

1 Vind. Ed. 2a. T. II. p. 378 sq. | 2 1. 2. q. 49, art. 2. ad 3. | 3 Prax. Conf. n. 71. Vind. p. 786. 2. Ed. 2a. T. II. p. 399 sq.

1480. - Principle IV. For a recidivist, although disposed sufficiently or enough, i.e. such materially, or even formally, but bringing extraordinary signs, the confessor, as physician, can defer absolution, even without his consent, whenever he prudently judges the delay to be useful for his amendment; indeed he is held to this when he judges such a remedy to be necessarily useful for the salvation of his penitent. See the things said n. 1427. II. But whether it is expedient ORDINARILY to use this remedy or not, without the consent of the penitent? See the things said n. 1428. q. 1°, to which St. Alphonsus adds: "If the penitent has relapsed from intrinsic frailty, ... I say with the most common sentence of the Doctors, that it is rarely expedient to defer absolution for a recidivist, when he is disposed: for the grace of the Sacrament must be hoped to be able to profit him more than the delay of absolution." But "it will always be profitable that the confessor terrify recidivists of this kind" from intrinsic frailty "and show as if he could not absolve them."

St. Alphonsus says: 1° if the penitent has relapsed from FRAILTY; for from the mind of the holy Doctor I judge that absolution is regularly to be deferred for a penitent, even sufficiently disposed, if he has relapsed into the sin of habit and there is question of one habituated in evil will (n. 1471). For according to the holy Doctor (ibid.) absolution already can be deferred for a habituated non-recidivist, if there is question of a very rooted habit.

I add, from Berardi, the following cases in which I judge according to the mind of St. Alphonsus that regularly it is fitting or even necessary that absolution be deferred, even for a recidivist from intrinsic frailty.

The first case can be if the penitent is placed in great danger of eternal damnation, namely insofar as remedies have indeed already been employed by him for a long time, and with sufficient diligence and perseverance also, but with no or almost no amendment of the depraved custom (which case certainly, as experience shows, is not chimerical), especially if that miserable man, living perpetually thus in the state of mortal sin, is already old, or labors under slow phthisis, and much more if the danger is present lest at some time sudden death attack him, since, e.g., an apoplectic stroke had already threatened him at other times. For in such and so great a danger reason counsels that, all other remedies having been tried in vain, it is necessary to try (at least for the most part) even the remedy of delaying absolution; for extreme remedies must be applied to extreme evils.

The second case can be if the habituated penitent brings great and extraordinary scandal, as several Theologians note, e.g. Sanchez, Bonacina, Sporer, and Laymann; for hope, even moderate, of impeding the ruin of many souls must prevail over the fear of bringing damage to the penitent; for public damage must be esteemed much more than private.

The third is the case of restitution (especially if there is question of a great sum), as was said n. 719. 4°.

The fourth is the case of reconciliation to be executed with an enemy, or between husband and wife, as St. Francis Xavier and Roncaglia note.

St. Alphonsus says: 2° if the penitent has relapsed from INTRINSIC frailty: for if he has relapsed on account of an occasion, it will be necessary to act with him as was said n. 1479. b).

Notes near n. 1480, physicianly delay of absolution (printed p. 183).

1 Vind. Ed. 2a. T. II. p. 402. 4. | 2 Prax. Conf. n. 76. | 3 Ib. | 4 Ib. n. 77. L. VI. 464 in fine. Cf. Vind. Ed. 2a. p. 404 sq. et 423 sq. | 5 De Recid. n. 110 sq. Ed. 1a.

1481. - The Manner of Acting with Consuetudinaries and Recidivists.

1° As to admonitions. Those who are of a lighter mind, and do not sufficiently perceive the gravity and danger of the sin of habit and relapse, let the confessor strive to shake and terrify them, and teach with graver words to how great a danger they expose their eternal salvation, unless they inflict serious violence upon themselves. - But to the faint-hearted let him add courage, and let him exhort them not to renounce the purpose of amendment, trusting in the aid of Him who does not desert those who are of good will. Especially let him admonish them that, when they fall back, they beware for themselves of melancholy and faint-heartedness, and rather at once elicit an act of contrition, renew the purpose, and, as soon as it can be done, have recourse to the remedy of Confession, lest namely that first relapse become the cause of many others. But let the confessor himself also take the greatest care that courage and patience not fail him.

2° As to the means of amendment. See the things said n. 1434.

3° As to the delay of absolution. Let the confessor take the greatest care that it be as little hateful to the penitent as can be done. Therefore let him strive to convince him of its necessity or usefulness, and let him dismiss him from himself only with most humane words, and lovingly induce him to return to him at the determined time. For recidivists, since they easily lose heart, when after some time they always fall back into the same sins, will with difficulty return to a confessor by whom they are treated less kindly.

Notes near n. 1481, practical handling of consuetudinaries and recidivists (printed p. 184).

1 L. II. Dec. c. XXXII. n. 45. | 2 De II. Dec. D. IV. q. 1. p. 13. | 3 n. 332. | 4 L. V. Tr. VI. c. IV. n. 10. | 5 L. IV. Ep. 8. n. 14. | 6 Q. 5. c. 4. Reg. 1a. | 7 Cf. Vind. Ed. 2a. T. II. p. 426 sq.

1482. - 1° When the annual obligation of the same exists, see n. 115. 548. q. 1°. Very much to be commended is the practice of those pastors who take care that all the little children of their parish, who have already completed their seventh year, are brought to the Sacrament of Penance twice, three times, or even four times a year. But lest these Confessions of little children be frustrated of the fruit hoped for,

2° Due preparation is required for it, or a special instruction concerning the Sacrament of Penance. This: a) should take place before the first Confession, and, if it can be done, also before each quarterly Confession of the little children; b) should be accommodated to their capacity; c) should be so instituted that a provident, not however anxious, solicitude for receiving this Sacrament worthily may be impressed upon the little children, and that they may learn to love it rather than fear it; d) should teach the necessity and the manner of the examination of conscience, by running through the precepts of the Decalogue, insofar as these are commonly violated by little children or probably have been violated; - likewise the necessity and motives of contrition, and that it must be obtained from God, as a gift of grace, by fervent prayers; - the most grave obligation of the Sacramental seal, incumbent not only upon the confessor, but also upon all to whom by accident something from another's Confession should have become known, and at the same time should admonish them that they themselves also not disclose anything from their own Confession to others, not even the penance. - Although, however, it is not to be prohibited absolutely to little children that they commit their Confession to writing, care must nevertheless be taken that in the Formula for the Examination of Conscience, which is found in certain books of prayers, they not mark their sins by some sign; that they not present the written Confession to the schoolmaster to be corrected; that they not show it to others, or preserve it. - The little book Catechism of Christian Doctrine for Beginners, p. 76 sq., exhibits the best norm of instruction. By M. Müller, C.SS.R., printed by the Brothers Kreuzer, Baltimore, and Fr. Pustet, New York and Cincinnati, published in 1874.

After this instruction let a practical exercise be made with the little children concerning those things which are to be done before Confession, in it, and after it, namely the invocation of the Holy Spirit, the examination, contrition, and Confession. - Let the little children be admitted publicly in the Church to Confession, but on individual days or parts of a day only that number of them which can conveniently be heard; thus, namely, neither will they themselves by waiting be exposed to the danger of weariness, nor the confessor by hearing to the danger of haste. - After Confession let them be occupied for some space of time in giving thanks to God and in performing the penance, separated, however, from companions who have not yet completed Confession.

3° In the very Confession of little children the confessor: a) "Must employ all charity and gentler methods," lest, namely, from fear, proper to their age, they keep something back, or shrink from Confession. - b) Let him give ear to the little child, waiting until he himself begins to declare his sins; but if he remains silent, he will have to be exhorted gently to begin. But if the confessor shall have exhorted him to this in vain, let him himself take upon himself the whole burden of the Confession. - c) In what manner little children are to be questioned concerning the Sixth precept of the Decalogue, see n. 1425. - d) Since little children are held to repair the honor of parents which has been injured by asking pardon, "it is better to take care that before absolution they ask this pardon.... But if this act cannot conveniently be exacted from them; ... rather let it be suggested as a counsel, since certainly parents are presumed, at least for the most part, to remit this obligation to their children, lest the children again incur an offense of God." - e) Before absolution the act of contrition should be elicited with the little children by questioning. - f) "The penance ... should be light, insofar as it can be."

Concerning absolution to be conceded or not to little children, and that either absolute or conditioned, see n. 1344. q. 8°. IIa Reg. 7°.

Note. Even those little children who are not yet capable of absolution will be heard in the confessional not without fruit, so that thus they may learn to confess, and on this occasion may be taught in what manner thoughts, words, and works ought to be examined, how they ought to pray morning and evening, and how they ought to conduct themselves at home and in church. St. Charles Borromeo commends this practice even with those little children who have not yet completed the fifth or sixth year of age.

1483. - 1° Let the confessor spare no care that they approach the Sacraments several times a year. For thence the fear of the Lord is increased in them, seduction and the weak fear of men are forestalled, and sincerity of soul in opening the hiding-places of conscience is fostered. Hence

2° Let the confessor beware lest he turn adolescents away from himself by rougher words or harsher rebukes, but rather let him take care to bind their hearts to himself by paternal benevolence, admonishing and exhorting them with benevolent gravity to Christian vigilance, to perseverance in good, and to extirpating the vices into which he shall have learned that they are more inclined.

3° In hearing their Confessions: a) Let him see whether and to what dangers their faith and morals are exposed; - with what companions they foster association; - by what, as it were, beginnings they are exposed or have been exposed to sin, whether by thoughts, or by conversations, or by songs, or by sights, or by association with others; - what kind their first mortal sins were, whether of malice or of infirmity. - b) Let him exhort to sincerity, to energetic resistance to be opposed to temptations, to flight from dangers and occasions. - c) Let him be more employed in teaching and admonishing than in questioning. - d) Let him abstain from any little word whatsoever which he would not wish to be heard by others.

4° Let him show no displeasure to them, if at any time they have gone to another confessor; indeed let him even dissemble that he knows this; but let him attend to the cause why he suspects that they did it. But if the penitent of another confessor has come to him, let him hear him for the present; but let him inquire into the cause, and in the case in which he has detected that no sufficient reason for changing confessor is present, let him exhort him to return to the same confessor; for for preserving innocence and changing life for the better, no means is more suitable than regularly always to approach the same confessor.

Concerning the state of life to be chosen by adolescents, consult what was said n. 425. 426. 1150 sq. and 1524.

1484. - The confessor:

1° "Regularly in the confessional with younger" persons of the other sex "should be rather rigid," i.e. grave, "than gentle."

2° "It is imprudence ... to cast the eyes upon penitents when they withdraw from the confessional, and to look at them for some time."

3° Unless the reason of pastoral office demands it, "outside the confessional let him not even linger to converse with them, ... and let him avoid all familiarity, ... and especially let him never go to their houses."

4° "Let him abstain also from receiving," especially in favor of himself alone, "little gifts."

5° "Let him not be so devoted to the Confessions of women that through this he refuses to hear men," i.e. males, "coming to him," or cannot conveniently hear them. Wherefore the practice existing in certain churches is to be commended, namely that on one side of the confessional, namely on the right of the confessor, men alone stand, on the other women alone, and that to devout persons some day or time be assigned, in which they can conveniently approach, without others being compelled to wait because of them.

6° Letters pertaining to the direction of women should be: a) only responsive, and not even these should be employed while direction can be provided otherwise; b) grave, and, insofar as it will be possible, brief; c) so written that, with the Sacramental seal prescinded, they can be read by the Bishop. Thus Dubois, Pratique du zèle ecclésiastique.

1485. - Here there is question especially of the manner in which the more honorable, for example the principal persons among parishioners, priests, and Prelates are to be treated. "With such persons corrections must be employed in gentler and more discreet words, but with greater fortitude and warmth of soul, since from the sins of these, because of the graver damage which can be brought to others by their bad example, a more pernicious consequent license of crimes is accustomed to arise."

1486. - Penitents who live free from mortal faults are to be led to perfection, but

1° In order and by degrees. - Hence let them be taught: a) "To beware of the smallest deliberate defect, or one admitted with eyes open," yet in such a way that after some light fault has been admitted they do not fall in soul, but rise from the fall by acts of humility, sorrow, and purpose, and this even if they fell a hundred times in the day. b) To perform well ordinary actions, or prayers, the duties of their state, etc., and to have a right intention in all things. c) First to strive for patience, and only afterward for joy in adversities. d) Let them learn to bear light things before they desire grave things.

2° Let them exercise themselves especially in obedience toward the confessor, parents, and husband; in charity toward the neighbor, especially toward domestics; in patience, in the exercise of the presence of God, in special devotion toward the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Joseph, the Guardian Angel, and the Patron Saint.

3° a) Let them apply themselves daily for some time to mental prayer according to their capacity, and never omit it, or other exercises of piety or mortification, because of dryness of spirit. b) Let them apply themselves to Christian mortification in such a way that they prefer internal to external, but not neglect this latter. But in external positive mortification, for example fasts, disciplines, etc., let them do nothing without the counsel of the confessor. But he in general should concede less than is asked; he should especially intend to restrain gluttony and sensuality; he should be discreet in conceding mortification of sleep; and above all he should exhort to negative mortifications, such as to deprive oneself of the sight or hearing of curious things, etc.

4° As regards the frequentation of the Sacraments: 1) Let him advise general Confession to those who are not scrupulous and have not yet made it. 2) Let them confess once, or at most twice in the week. But he who has fallen into venial sin and lacks a suitable occasion of confessing should not on that account abstain from Communion, since venial sins are remitted also by other means. - Indeed certain timorous persons often dispose themselves more usefully for Communion by their own acts, since these are then accustomed to be more fervent, than by Confession. Concerning the contrition required for the Confession of venial sins, see n. 1340. q. 7°, 1350. q. 4°, 1355. q. 4°; concerning the absolution of those who confess only doubtfully venial sins, n. 1344. q. 8°; concerning the frequency of Communion, n. 1313; concerning the direction of those who are endowed with the gift of higher prayer, or Contemplation, Prax. Conf.

Recall also what was said concerning the manner of acting with women (n. 1484), and concerning not preventing penitents of this kind (unless they are scrupulous) from sometimes going to another confessor (n. 1483. 4°), whom they must also sometimes be commanded to approach.