Chapter V: On Capital Sins

St. Thomas, 1.2, q. 84, a. 2 seqq.; de Malo, q. 8 seqq.; St. Alphonsus, V, n. 65; ed. G., II, p. 752; St. Bonaventure, Breviloq., P. III, c. 9; Natalis Alexander, de Peccatis (Migne, Curs. Theol., XI, 707 seqq.; Cathrein, Phil. mor., 134; Tanquerey, I, n. 510.

359. Sins, or capital vices, are so called, not because they are the greatest (for sins against the Holy Spirit and against the theological virtues are graver), but because they have a certain universal influence into all sins, and are, as it were, roots and causes of other vices, not indeed physical or moral, but impulsive and occasional, namely through ignorance, concupiscence, or malice, which they induce in the soul.

Several capital sins, per se, are only venial, but often become the cause of mortal sins; in which case only these mortal sins are necessarily to be declared in confession.

Seven capital sins are fittingly numbered, namely: pride, avarice, gluttony, lust, envy, anger, sloth. For the will, when it departs from right order, either seeks what is not to be sought, or flees what

is not to be fled. Now: 1. If we seek what is not to be sought, that apparent good either is within us, namely one's own excellence, and pride affects this; or it is outside us, namely goods or riches, and avarice covets these; or it is below us, namely the delectable for the conservation of the individual, that is, food, and gluttony seeks this; or the delectable for the conservation of the species, that is, venereal things, and lust seeks these. 2. But if the will flees what is not to be fled, this can happen in a threefold way, namely: either the good of another embitters the soul, in which case envy is born; or the resistance of another irritates it, and then anger arises; or labor terrifies it, and thence sloth proceeds (St. Bonav., l. c.).

360. DEFINITION. Pride is the inordinate appetite of one's own excellence.

It is called 1. appetite, that is, desire and love of complacency; 2. inordinate: in this defect of due order, three grades are distinguished: the first, by which someone wishes to stand out beyond measure among equals; the second, by which someone despises equals or inferiors; the third, by which someone on account of his own excellence despises superiors; 3. of one's own excellence, not another's. Whence if a mother excessively seeks the excellence of her daughter without respect to herself, it is not properly pride, but another vice akin to pride.

Note. Pride is sometimes not numbered among the capital vices, because in the order of intention it is the beginning of all vices.

DIVISION. Pride is perfect or imperfect.

1. Perfect, or consummated, when someone seeks so to excel that he does not wish to be subject to God, to Superiors, and to their laws. 2. Imperfect, when, due subjection being preserved, someone rests in excessive estimation and complacency of himself (V, 65).

361. PRINCIPLES. I. Perfect pride is a mortal sin, and indeed from its whole genus. The reason is because it is directly and absolutely repugnant to charity toward God, who is contemned through pride. Whence the Apostle says (Rom. 1:32), concerning the proud and haughty: Those who do such things are worthy of death (cf. St. Thom., 2.2, q. 162, a. 6).

II. Imperfect pride is from its genus venial. The reason is because to raise oneself beyond what is just, without contempt of God and others, is not a grave disorder. "Nevertheless it would be grave if it were done with notable contempt of others, by taking complacency from the abasement of others" (V, 65).

The DAUGHTERS of pride are three:

1. PRESUMPTION, which is the appetite of undertaking something beyond one's powers. It is commonly only a venial sin; nevertheless it becomes mortal if it brings harm to a third party.

2. AMBITION, which is the inordinate appetite of dignity and honor not due, or greater than due. It also is per se a venial sin; but it becomes mortal by reason of the means employed, or by reason of harm inflicted upon the neighbor.

3. EMPTY GLORY, namely cupidity of vain glory, whose end is the inordinate manifestation of one's own excellence, whether true or fictitious. And it itself is per se a venial sin; often it becomes mortal per accidens, as was said concerning ambition.

Now through EMPTY GLORY one sins in a twofold way:

1. "DIRECTLY, and this: a) either through words, and it is boasting, which is venial per se; b) or through deeds, which, if they are true and have something of admiration, is called invention of novelties; it is mortal if it notably corrupts youth or morals. But if the deeds are false, it is hypocrisy, for example, if someone does something good so that he may seem good, although he is not; which of itself is venial, unless it is with injury or contempt of God and neighbor."

2. INDIRECTLY, insofar as someone does not wish to be less than another. This happens in a fourfold way: a) Through the intellect, and it is pertinacity. b) Through the will, and it is discord. c) Through words, and it is contention. d) Through deeds, and it is disobedience.

"To these three daughters of pride there corresponds (through defect of magnanimity) pusillanimity." See the Holy Doctor, V, 65-67.

Pride also generates curiosity, ingratitude, human respects, rash judgment, etc., concerning which the matter will be spoken of in its own place.

The REMEDIES of pride are: consideration of one's own infirmity, of the vanity of human glory, and of the humility of Christ; then acts of humility, both external and especially internal; finally assiduous prayer (Selva, P. II, inst. 6).

362. DEFINITION. Avarice is the inordinate appetite of temporal goods, which are also usually called goods of fortune.

Avarice is the first vice in the order of execution. The disorder of this vice does not consist in the actual abundance of things, but in the immoderation of affection by which someone does not refer them to a due and honest end, say, to providing for the family and helping the neighbor. This is clear from the things said by St. Thom., 2.2, q. 118, a. 1.

363. PRINCIPLE. Avarice is sin from its genus venial. The reason is because it indeed imports excess, but in a thing indifferent and per se lawful, as riches are. For the rest, per se it is opposed only to liberality, which does not oblige under grave sin. It is said per se, because per accidens it can be opposed to justice and charity. Sometimes avarice also grows to such a degree that on account of it man does not hesitate to transgress divine laws; then it becomes mortal (V, 68). Hence it is said (Ecclus. 10:9): Nothing is more wicked than the covetous man. And (1 Cor. 6:10): Neither thieves, nor the covetous shall possess the kingdom of God.

Note. To avarice is opposed prodigality, which consists in defect of preserving and excess of spending. "It is from its genus venial, lighter than avarice, because it recedes less from the virtue of liberality." Nevertheless it can become mortal if grave evils follow from it: for example, if by this you render yourself unable to pay debts; if you reduce your own people to poverty; if by too costly banquets and delights you introduce into the city a moral necessity that others, by exceeding their powers, do the same; if from this, deservedly, scandal and harm of the poor are born; if you squander goods bound to pious causes, etc. (ibid., 3).

The DAUGHTERS of avarice are: 1. Disquiet of mind, by which one is drawn away from due offices through excessive love of riches; 2. hardening of heart, or mercilessness; 3. violence; 4. perfidy; 5. betrayal (V, 69).

The REMEDIES of avarice, besides prayer, are: 1. Meditation both of the loftiness of heavenly things and the vanity of earthly things; and of the example of Christ the Lord; and of the baseness, unhappiness, and dangers of this vice; and of death, which will despoil us of all earthly things. 2. The giving of alms, visitation of the miserable, and, in the loss of goods, conformity to the divine will.

364. DEFINITION. Gluttony is the inordinate appetite of food and drink.

It is called inordinate insofar as man takes food and drink not for the support of the body, but on account of pleasure alone (2.2, q. 141, a. 6). Cf. n. 308, q. 1. Nevertheless it is lawful to use delight for taking food, for the health of the body.

Gluttony is opposed to abstinence, and is committed in five ways: 1. if you eat before the time; 2. if things too exquisite; 3. if more than is just; 4. if voraciously; 5. if things too exquisitely prepared (V, n. XLIV, and 73).

365. PRINCIPLE. Gluttony from its genus is a venial sin. The reason is because it is excess in a thing per se lawful; and none of the aforesaid five modes is precisely repugnant to charity toward God or neighbor.

"Meanwhile it is judged mortal from accident, and from excessive disorder, in these cases: 1. If someone on account of gluttony violates the fasts of the Church. 2. If someone from gluttony becomes notably unfit for functions to which he is bound under mortal sin. 3. If someone very gravely harms his health, adverting this; otherwise if only lightly, as for example, if one having fever increases the illness by a drink of water. 4. If banquets and drinking bouts become continual, so that the belly is had for God. 5. If someone drinks to perfect drunkenness (concerning which in the Fifth Precept). 6. If someone, from mere gluttony, feeds on human flesh or blood; both because this is repugnant to piety owed to the dead, and because it is contrary to the instinct of nature abhorring it. But he will have to be excused if it happens from cause, for example, from extreme hunger in a siege: in which case, however, you will not be bound to preserve life thus" (V, 73, 4).

The DAUGHTERS of gluttony are numbered as five by St. Gregory (Moral., l. 31, c. 45, n. 88): 1. dullness of mind; 2. inept joy; 3. foolish speech; 4. buffoonery; which from their genus are venial; 5. incontinence: Be not drunk with wine, wherein is lust (Eph. 5:18).

REMEDIES: 1. To beware the incitements of gluttony, and not to mingle oneself with gluttonous persons. 2. To grow accustomed to common foods, sometimes to fast, or at least at table to subtract something from one's own pleasure. 3. To meditate on the examples of Christ thirsting on the cross, and the miseries which gluttony brings with itself. 4. To pray to God before approaching the table.

366. IT IS ASKED. What is CRAPULA and what kind of sin is it?

Resp. Strictly so called, it is excess in food, even unto vomiting.

Concerning it St. Alphonsus teaches: "To eat or drink even unto vomiting is probably only venial from its genus; unless scandal or notable harm to health is present, as Holzmann, the Salmanticenses, etc., commonly say. But those who voluntarily vomit what they have taken, so that they may eat or drink again, are scarcely excused from mortal sin; for this seems to involve great deformity. Thus probably (against Busenbaum) Holzmann and Wigandt" (V, 73, 2).

367. "Lust is the inordinate appetite of venereal things. The use of these by its nature has been instituted for the conservation of the human race, which is a great good of men and an external [good] of God; accordingly, he who abuses it wounds God and men" (V, 71).

PRINCIPLE. Direct lust is a mortal sin from its whole genus. See the Sixth Precept.

"The DAUGHTERS of lust, which for the most part follow it, are eight: four on the part of the intellect, and four on the part of the will." Thus St. Thom., 2.2, q. 153, a. 5. Cf. n. 377.

Therefore on the part of the INTELLECT the daughters of lust are: 1. blindness of mind; 2. precipitation; 3. inconsideration; 4. inconstancy. These four become mortal when the ultimate end is placed in the creature, or a grave precept is neglected.

On the part of the WILL: 1. love of self; 2. hatred of God; 3. affection for the present age; 4. horror of the future age. These four are per se mortal, unless from imperfection of act they become venial (V, 71).

The REMEDIES of lust are: 1. Flight from occasions and causes, that is, flight from idleness, from readings of depraved books and those which they call novels, from familiarity with persons of diverse sex, etc.; 2. continual prayer (Matt. 17:20); 3. frequent confession, and indeed with the same confessor; for the more the state of the sick person is known, the more aptly can the remedy be applied; likewise frequent and devout reception of the Sacred Eucharist, by which the bread of Angels is eaten, and wine springing forth virgins is drunk; 4. memory of the last things; 5. constant cult and frequent invocation of the Blessed Virgin Mary conceived without stain; 6. custody of the senses, chiefly of the eyes: "let your eyes, even if they are cast upon someone, be fixed on no one" (St. Aug., Ep., 19); 7. mortification of the flesh: "for lust is fed by banquets, nourished by delights, kindled by wine, inflamed by drunkenness" (Scavini, l. I, n. 803).

368. DEFINITION. Envy is sadness concerning another's good, insofar as that is diminutive of one's own excellence. To it is recalled joy concerning another's evil, insofar as that is reputed good to us.

PRINCIPLE. Envy is, from its genus, a mortal sin. The reason is because it is directly opposed to charity, whose proper thing is to rejoice concerning the good of the neighbor, and to grieve concerning his evil as our own. Wherefore the Apostle places the sin of envy in the genus of those things which exclude from the kingdom of God (Gal. 5:21). Yet often envy is a light sin, either on account of smallness of matter, or on account of imperfection of act (V, 72).

369. Hence you will deduce: 1. If someone is saddened concerning the goods of the neighbor because he is his enemy, it is hatred, not envy.

2. If he is saddened concerning the goods of a prodigal dissipating them, or of a miser basely storing them up, it is just indignation, not envy.

3. If he is saddened concerning the temporal goods of a sinner, because he is unworthy of them, it is inordinate zeal; since all things happen according to the decrees of divine Providence, which we ought to adore.

4. If he is saddened concerning another's good, for example, concerning obtained power, not because it is a good to him, but because thence he fears harm to himself or to another, it is just fear, which per se is not sin, unless it is inordinate or immoderate.

5. If he is saddened concerning another's good, not because he possesses the good, but because it is lacking to himself, in such a way, however, that he by no means desires the other to be deprived of it, it is emulation; which, if it is concerning an honest good, is praiseworthy; but if concerning temporal things, it is sometimes venial, say, if the good is disproportionate to the one grieving, such as it would be if a rustic grieved that he was not king.

6. If he grieves that another equal to himself should grow in excellence, and apprehends the very increase of excellence as evil to himself, it is envy properly so called; for an envious man is said as if not seeing, because he cannot see the goods of another without sadness. Thus ambitious persons, the pusillanimous, women, the old with respect to the young, and whoever have with difficulty obtained what others easily attain, are accustomed to sin (V, 72; Vera Sposa, c. 12, § 1, n. 9).

The DAUGHTERS of envy likewise from their genus are mortal, and are numbered as four, namely: 1. hatred; 2. detraction; 3. joy in the evils of the neighbor; 4. whispering, which is evil speech concerning the neighbor, for taking away his friendship with others (cf. n. 1192 seqq., 1195 seq.).

The chief REMEDY: the exercise of charity toward the neighbor.

370. DEFINITION. Anger, not insofar as it is a passion but insofar as it is a vice, is called the inordinate appetite of vengeance. The habit of anger is irascibility.

It is called inordinate; because to seek or take vengeance for evil in an ordered way, that is, with due moderation and order, is not sin, but an act of right reason and virtue.

Thus Christ with anger cast the sellers out of the temple. Thus a judge exercises an act of virtue by taking vengeance on the accused; a father on a delinquent son; a master on a servant. Therefore anger is without vice whenever someone is angry so that reason may more strongly execute justice. Indeed, many sin by defect of due anger.

But the disorder of anger can happen in two ways: 1. On the part of the object, as if you seek unjust vengeance, namely if a legitimate cause is not present, or if the anger is greater than is fitting, or finally if it is exercised privately, when it ought to be exercised publicly through a judge. 2. On the part of the mode, say, if someone is too ardently angry interiorly, or manifests signs of anger too much exteriorly.

371. PRINCIPLES. I. Anger, inordinate on the part of the object, is sin from its genus mortal. For it is directly opposed to charity, and also to justice. Whence (Gal. 5:20, 21) anger is said to exclude from the kingdom of heaven.

II. Anger, inordinate only on the part of the mode, is sin from its genus venial. For it is excess in a lawful thing. Nevertheless it can become mortal per accidens, as if blasphemy, cursing, or scandal is added.

But the movements of anger under the influence of passion are often sudden, and therefore imperfectly deliberate, or even indeliberate; from which heading anger (of either kind) frequently is venial, or no sin (V, 79, 80).

The DAUGHTERS of anger are: 1. in the heart, indignation and swelling of mind; 2. in the mouth, clamor, blasphemy, contumely, cursing; 3. in work, quarrel, fight, seditions, wounds. See St. Alph., V, 80-83.

Concerning these, the discourse will return either in the Fifth or in the Eighth Precept.

REMEDIES: Consideration of the evils of anger, of the meekness of Christ; prayer, especially in the movement of anger.

372. DEFINITION. Sloth, in general, sounds the same as idleness or sluggishness, and is torpor of soul in the exercise of the virtues, on account of the labor joined to it. Sloth, strictly taken, is sadness and weariness concerning divine friendship, because it must be preserved through laborious exercises of the virtues; and thus it does not care for that friendship (V, 84).

PRINCIPLES. I. Sloth, taken in the broad sense, is sin per se venial, but disposing proximately to mortal sin. For the tepid man is a burden to God, not otherwise than food soon to be rejected by vomiting is to man, according to that saying (Apoc. 3:16): But because thou art tepid, I shall begin to vomit thee out of my mouth; and that saying of St. Augustine (ap. St. Alph., Selva, P. I, c. 5, n. 9): "God is accustomed to desert the negligent."

But sloth is per accidens a mortal sin when a precept obliging under grave sin is omitted, for example, the hearing of Mass on a feast day, the recitation of the breviary, etc.; but it constitutes one sin with the omission itself (n. 322, q. 2, Hinc, b). Cf. Ami du Cl., 1898, p. 1084, where the matter concerns the law of labor.

II. Sloth, accepted in the strict sense, is sin from its genus mortal. The reason: it is plainly repugnant to the charity of God, since through it divine friendship and eternal beatitude are little esteemed. Hence that saying (1 Cor. 7:10): The sadness of the world works death (cf. V, 84, 2).

The DAUGHTERS of sloth, according to Blessed Gregory (Moral., l. 8, c. 5-6), are the following:

1. Malice, or hatred of spiritual goods; 2. rancor, by which those who exhort to spiritual things are a source of loathing; 3. pusillanimity toward all spiritual goods, fleeing them as arduous; 4. despair concerning salvation; 5. torpor, when good things are done not with due fervor; 6. wandering of mind, by which someone in the exercise of spiritual things wanders about illicit things. This is mortal sin if the mind voluntarily adheres to gravely illicit things, or is drawn back from attention required under grave sin, for example, in celebrating Mass; otherwise it is venial (cf. n. 549, 2).

The REMEDIES of sloth are: frequent confession, pious readings and meditations, and especially spiritual Exercises to be made in total retreat.