Article I. On pride

409. Notion. Pride is the disordered appetite of one's own excellence. Thus St. Thomas.⁹ Pride is the appetite of perverse loftiness. Thus St. Augustine.¹⁰

It is called 1. a disordered appetite, because, although pride, like any human act, supposes an act of the intellect, namely an erroneous consideration of the defects of others and of one's own merits, nevertheless formally it resides in appetite, whether rational or sensitive irascible.¹¹ For the proper object of pride is something arduous, namely one's own excellence, which is sought inordinately, that is, against right reason.

This disorder can occur chiefly in four ways: a) if someone thinks that he has from himself what in reality he has from God. St. Paul rebukes such a proud man, saying: "For what hast thou that thou hast not received? And if thou hast received, why dost thou glory, as if thou hadst not received it?"¹² b) If someone indeed admits that all goods come from God, but that he has obtained them from his own merits. Against such a proud man it is said: "By grace you are saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, for it is the gift of God; not of works, that no man may glory."¹³ c) If someone boasts that he has what either he altogether does not have or does not have in so great a degree. This manner is most frequent; for proud men are wont to esteem their endowments more highly than they really are; and therefore they are blamed: "Thou sayest that I am rich and made wealthy and need nothing; and thou knowest not that thou art miserable and wretched, and poor and blind and naked."¹⁴ d) If someone contemns others, but wishes himself to appear singularly, as did the Pharisee giving thanks to God that he was not a sinner like other men and especially like the publican.¹⁵ Christ refutes such proud men: "Every one that exalteth himself shall be humbled."¹⁶

It is called 2. of one's own excellence, because the object of pride is the excellence of one's own, not another's, person. "For just as humility intends the depression of the person, so pride, which is opposed to it, seeks the exaltation of the person; and by this it is distinguished from ambition, presumption, and vain glory. For the object of ambition is excellence in honors and dignities; of presumption, excellence in works; of vain glory, excellence in reputation and glory. These, however, draw their origin from pride and serve it; for because the proud man inordinately seeks his own excellence, therefore it happens that he intends great honors and great dignities, that he undertakes presumptuous works, and that he seeks great reputation and great glory, so that from these he may excel and become great." Thus Billuart¹⁷ after St. Thomas,¹⁸ who skillfully observes that pride, as it is a special vice, is opposed both to the virtues of humility and magnanimity, but in different ways: "to humility indeed, according as it rejects subjection; but to magnanimity, according as it inordinately extends itself to great things."¹⁹ More directly, however, pride is opposed to humility.

⁹ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 162, a. 2 (Hoffart, Uberhebung).

¹⁰ De civ. Dei l. 14, c. 13.

¹¹ S. theol. l. c. a. 3.

¹² 1 Cor. 4, 7.

¹³ Eph. 2, 8 sq.

¹⁴ Apoc. 3, 17.

¹⁵ Cf. Luc. 18, 10 sqq.

¹⁶ Luc. 18, 14. Cf. concerning those four manners or species of pride brought forward by St. Gregory, St. Thomas, l. c. a. 4.

¹⁷ De temperantia diss. 7, a. 4, § 2.

¹⁸ S. theol. l. c. a. 4.

¹⁹ L. c. a. 1 ad 3.

410. Malice. a) Complete pride is a mortal sin from its whole genus; b) incomplete pride is indeed a venial sin from its genus, but c) it is a most dangerous vice.

a) Complete pride is that which so extols itself that it refuses to subject itself to God and his law, as though that subjection were injurious to its own excellence. Such pride is truly diabolical and proper to the angel Lucifer; but it is rarely found among men. That it is a mortal sin from its whole genus is clear of itself; for it is manifest rebellion against God. Indeed such pride is the gravest sin at least on the part of aversion from God, "because in other sins man is turned away from God either on account of ignorance, or on account of weakness, or on account of the desire of any other good whatever; but pride has aversion from God from this very fact, that it does not wish to be subject to God and his rule.... On account of this also it is especially said that God resisteth the proud.²⁰ And therefore to be turned away from God and his precepts, which is as it were consequent in other sins, belongs of itself to pride, whose act is contempt of God. And because that which is of itself is always more powerful than that which is through another, it follows that pride is the gravest sin according to its genus." Thus St. Thomas,²¹ who nevertheless elsewhere²² teaches that hatred of God is a still graver sin. But the reason is that hatred of God has aversion from God for its very object, while on the contrary the object of pride is one's own excellence inordinately sought, from which aversion from God follows.

b) Incomplete pride is that by which someone, while preserving due subjection to God and to superiors, extols himself too much, makes too much of himself, and wishes to be esteemed by others more than is fitting. Such pride of itself is only a venial sin, because its disorder does not seem to be so great that it induces aversion from God; for it is the disordered appetite of a thing indifferent in itself. Accidentally, however, even incomplete pride is a grave sin, namely if from it a grave injury is inflicted on one's neighbor, or if from it other grave sins arise.

c) Pride is a most dangerous vice, both a) because it lies in wait even for good works, that they may perish; b) because we have within ourselves the source and root of that sin, and nothing lives in us earlier and dies later than pride; c) because, if by chance pride dominates in a man, it is for the most part a sign of reprobation. For a proud man detects this vice in himself with difficulty, and consequently does not even strive vigorously to overcome it.

Nearly all the holy Fathers speak of the malice and danger of pride. Just as St. Benedict enumerates twelve degrees of humility,²³ so twelve degrees of pride are enumerated by St. Bernard, namely curiosity, levity of mind, foolish gladness, boasting, singularity, arrogance, presumption, defense of sins, simulated confession, rebellion, liberty of sinning, custom of sinning. It would be long to explain here more broadly each of those degrees, but I do not know another who describes pride, as it is found in a religious man, so graphically and perfectly as St. Bernard.²⁴ Let as an example be what the Mellifluous Doctor says concerning the sixth degree, arrogance: "He praises what he does, and he does not attend to what he intends; ... and he who in every other matter trusts himself more than others, concerning himself alone trusts others more than himself; ... and whatever he has recognized as praised in himself, he arrogantly ascribes not to the ignorance or benevolence of the praiser but to his own merits." Alardus Gazaeus, writing a commentary on the work of John Cassian "on the institutes of monasteries," delineated two ladders having twelve degrees. The first ladder is of humility, through which by the twelve degrees of humility enumerated by St. Benedict one ascends to heaven. The other ladder is of pride, through which by twelve degrees of pride one descends into the abyss of gehenna.²⁵

²⁰ Jac. 4, 6.

²¹ L. c. a. 6.

²² S. theol. 2, 2, q. 34, a. 2.

²³ For their explanation, see St. Thomas, S. theol. 2, 2, q. 161, a. 6.

²⁴ Tract. de gradibus humilitatis et superbiae c. 15 (Migne, Patr. lat. 182, 965).

²⁵ See those two figures reproduced in Migne, Patr. lat. 49, 1329 sqq.

411. Daughters of pride. Pride in the broader sense, insofar as it is excessive love of oneself, is the mother and queen of all the vices, as has already been said. But if it is taken in the strict sense explained above, then first of all the following vices spring up from it: presumption, ambition, vain glory.

412. Presumption is taken in different senses, both in canon law and in Moral Theology. As a twofold sin it is taken in Moral Theology: "one, which leans upon one's own virtue, attempting, namely, something as possible to oneself which exceeds one's own virtue; ... but the other is presumption which leans inordinately upon divine mercy or power, through which someone hopes to obtain glory without merits or pardon without penance; and such presumption seems to arise directly from pride, as though he should esteem himself so much that even when he is sinning God would not punish him or exclude him from glory."²⁶

Presumption taken in the first sense is indeed directly opposed to the virtue of magnanimity, but it is also in some way reduced to vain glory and pride. For the Angelic Doctor says:²⁷ "No one attempts something above his capacity except insofar as he estimates his capacity to be greater than it is. Concerning this there can be error in two ways: in one way according to quantity alone, for example when someone estimates that he has greater virtue, or knowledge, or something else of this kind, than he has; in another way according to the genus of the thing, for example when someone from this estimates himself great and worthy of great things, from which he is not, for example on account of riches, or on account of some goods of fortune. For as the Philosopher says: 'Those who have such goods without virtue neither justly make themselves worthy of great things nor are they rightly called magnanimous.' - Similarly also that to which someone tends above his powers sometimes indeed is great simply according to the truth of the thing, as is clear concerning Peter, who was tending to this, that he might suffer for Christ, which was above his virtue; but sometimes it is not something great simply, but only according to the opinion of fools, as to be clothed in costly garments,²⁸ to despise and insult others."²⁹

This presumption, which is placed by St. Bernard³⁰ as the seventh degree of pride, is beautifully described thus: "For he who thinks he surpasses others, how does he not presume more concerning himself than concerning others? He sits first in meetings; in councils he answers first; not called, he approaches; not sent, he thrusts himself in; he reorders things ordered, remakes things made. Whatever he himself has not done or ordered, he judges neither rightly done nor beautifully ordered. He judges those judging, he prejudges those about to judge.... But if some middling obedience [function or office] is enjoined upon him, he is indignant, he scorns it, judging that he is not to be occupied with lesser things, who feels himself fit for greater." - This presumption of itself does not include so great a disorder, and consequently from its genus is only a venial sin; but accidentally, by reason of grave danger and damage to be caused, it easily becomes a grave sin. Thus, for example, a confessor, physician, etc., presuming to perform his office without sufficient knowledge and skill, easily sins gravely on account of the damages arising therefrom.

Concerning presumption in the second sense, insofar, namely, as it is opposed to the virtue of hope, there will be discussion below in n. 549.

²⁶ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 21, a. 4.

²⁷ Ib. q. 130, a. 2 ad 3.

²⁸ Gigerlium.

²⁹ Lumpenstolz, Geckenstolz.

³⁰ Tract. de grad. humil. et superb. c. 16.

413. Ambition is the disordered appetite of honor.³¹ Honor, however, is reverence shown to someone in testimony of his excellence. The excellence of man is especially considered according to virtue. Other things which are below virtue are honored insofar as they assist toward works of virtue, such as nobility, power, riches, etc.³² Honor is also owed to superiors insofar as they are God's vicegerents. But honor is sought inordinately in three ways: 1. if someone seeks honor concerning an excellence which he does not have, as if he wishes to be honored as learned when he is ignorant; 2. if someone desires honor for himself without referring it to God; 3. if someone does not refer received honor to the utility of his neighbor. For that in which a man excels is given to him by God, so that therefrom he may profit others.³³ Ambition indeed arises from pride, but it is directly opposed to the virtue of magnanimity, which according to right reason induces man to seek honor. - Just as presumption, so also ambition of itself is a venial sin; but accidentally, by reason of evil effects, it can become a mortal sin.

³¹ Eitle Ehrsucht, vain desire of honor.

³² S. theol. 2, 2, q. 145, a. 1.

³³ Ib. q. 131, a. 1.

414. Vain glory³⁴ is here taken for the appetite of vain glory. Glory is clear knowledge with praise concerning the good of someone, or frequent report concerning someone with praise.³⁵ Strictly speaking, glory is distinguished both from reputation and from honor. Reputation is the opinion and speech of many concerning the life and morals of someone, and consequently, if it is good, consists in the good opinion which many have concerning some man. Honor is testimony concerning the excellence of someone, or reverence shown to someone on account of his excellence. Finally, glory is the effect and end of honor. For from this, that someone is often and by many honored, glory is born to him. - The appetite of vain glory is directly opposed to the virtue of magnanimity, inasmuch as this virtue rightly seeks true and not empty glory; but it is produced by pride, which thinks to increase its own excellence from vain glory. Glory is called vain if someone seeks glory from a thing which either does not exist or which merits no glory, or at least not so much glory.³⁶ - Vain glory according to itself is only a venial sin, because it does not include so great a disorder, nor is it contrary to charity;³⁷ nevertheless it becomes mortal in two ways: 1. by reason of the matter concerning which someone glories, for example if someone seeks vain glory from fornication committed, from a duel, etc.; 2. by reason of the circumstances and especially the end of the agent, as if someone for the sake of vain glory is prepared to transgress a precept obliging under grave sin.

Since there is some difference between pride and the appetite of vain glory, certain authors, such as John Cassian, Evagrius Ponticus, and John Damascene, enumerate eight capital vices, as was already said above in n. 407. But the difference between pride and the appetite of vain glory is this: pride is the disordered appetite of one's own excellence; vain glory is the disordered appetite of the manifestation of this excellence.³⁸ By St. Gregory and with him by St. Thomas,³⁹ who number not pride but only vain glory among the capital vices, there are assigned the daughters of vain glory, that is, seven vices which of themselves arise from vain glory and moreover serve it.⁴⁰

1. Boasting, which is the disordered manifestation of one's own excellence, principally through words.⁴¹

2. Presumption of novelties, or singularity, by which someone tries to do something singular, for example in religious exercises, or conducts himself singularly, so that he may be esteemed above the rest.⁴²

3. Hypocrisy, which is the disordered manifestation of one's own excellence through simulated virtues.⁴³

4. Pertinacity, by which someone trusts too much in his own judgment.⁴⁴

5. Discord, which is disordered dissent with others.⁴⁵

6. Contention, which is clamorous litigation with others.⁴⁶

7. Disobedience, namely when someone often refuses to carry out the command of a superior.⁴⁷

³⁴ Eitle Ruhmsucht, vain desire of fame. John Cassian treats very well of vain glory, which he calls cenodoxia (κενοδοξία), De coenob. instit. l. 11 (Migne, Patr. lat. 49, 397 sqq.). Likewise very good are the commentaries which Alardus Gazaeus, O.S.B., writes concerning this work (ib. in Migne l. c.).

³⁵ Cf. Cicero, De invent. rhetor. 2, 55.

³⁶ Cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 132, a. 1.

³⁷ Cf. ib. a. 3.

³⁸ Cf. ib. q. 162, a. 8 ad 2.

³⁹ Cf. ib. a. 5.

⁴⁰ Cf. De malo q. 9, a. 3.

⁴¹ Prahlerei, prahlerische Aufschneiderei, hablerie, cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 112, a. 1 ad 2.

⁴² Hascherei nach eigentumlichem Benehmen, chasing after peculiar behavior.

⁴³ Scheinheiligkeit, false sanctity.

⁴⁴ Rechthaberei, self-opinionatedness, ergoterie, cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 138, a. 2 ad 1.

⁴⁵ Zwietracht, discord, cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 37, a. 2.

⁴⁶ Streitsucht, quarrelsomeness, cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 38, a. 2.

⁴⁷ Cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 105, a. 1 ad 2.

415. Remedies against pride are: 1. The intimate and sincere knowledge of oneself. For if someone recalls all the sins of his past life, considers his manifold defects, and is inwardly persuaded that all the endowments by which he is strong have been conferred on him by God, it is impossible for him still to be proud concerning anything. - 2. Contemplation of the humility of Christ, who "humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death, even the death of the cross,"⁴⁸ and who invited all: "Learn of me, because I am meek and humble of heart."⁴⁹ - 3. The continual exercise of humility. For opposites exclude one another. But humility is opposed to pride. Concerning humility there will be discussion below in the treatise on the virtue of temperance.

⁴⁸ Phil. 2, 8.

⁴⁹ Matth. 11, 29.