Article I. On the nature and properties of charity

552. Definition. Charity is a virtue divinely infused, by which we love God as the highest good on account of Himself, and ourselves and neighbor on account of God, or rather, with St. Thomas:¹⁹ "Charity is a certain friendship of man toward God" (founded upon the communication of eternal beatitude).

It is explained. It is said 1: Charity is a virtue divinely infused; by these words is excluded: a) the erroneous opinion of Peter Lombard (the Master of the Sentences), teaching that habitual charity is the Holy Spirit Himself inhabiting the soul of the just man and moving it to acts of charity immediately and not through the medium of some habit.²⁰ This opinion is opposed to St. Paul, who says: "The charity of God has been poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Spirit, who has been given to us."²¹ In this text charity and the Holy Spirit are manifestly shown as two distinct things. b) The opinion of certain theologians is excluded (Scotus, several Scotists, Bellarmine, etc.), teaching that charity is identified with sanctifying grace. For sanctifying grace is received in the essence of the soul and perfects it in the order of being, but charity is received in the will, which it perfects in the order of acting. Hence Sacred Scripture speaks of grace and charity as of two distinct things: "The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ and the charity of God."²² But although charity is really distinct from sanctifying grace, nevertheless it is inseparably joined with it, so that with it charity is both born in justification and perishes through mortal sin. - Charity is one and a special virtue, although it extends itself to God, to neighbor, and to ourselves, because by the same charity and by the same motive we love God, neighbor, and ourselves, as will be clear from what is to be said concerning the motive of charity.

It is said 2: by which we love God as the highest good, etc.; by these words the object of charity is designated.

¹⁹ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 23, a. 1 et 5.

²⁰ I Sent. dist. 17; cf. St. Thomas on this place, a. 1.

²¹ Rom. 5, 5.

²² 2 Cor. 13, 13. Cf. St. Thomas, S. theol. 1, 2, q. 113, a. 3; De verit. q. 27, a. 2; Billuart, De gratia diss. 4, a. 4.

553. The primary object which of charity is God Himself, insofar as He is proposed to us by faith. For it is said: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God from thy whole heart, and from thy whole soul, and from all thy powers, and from thy whole mind."²³

The secondary object to which is all creatures, insofar as they are capable of divine beatitude.²⁴ Hence it is said: "But the second [precept] is like to this: Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself."²⁵ Therefore charity extends itself to all men and angels, but in no way to the damned and the demons in Gehenna, because they are no longer capable of divine beatitude.

²³ Luc. 10, 27.

²⁴ Sometimes the material object of charity is taken not only for those to whom we will good, but also for the things which we will to the beloved. In this broad sense the object of charity is absolutely all things, indeed even demons, insofar as from charity we will all created beings to serve for the honor of God and the utility of man (cf. S. theol. 2, 2, q. 25, a. 3 et 11).

²⁵ Matth. 22, 39.

554. The formal object by which, or the formal motive reason of charity, is the goodness of God, as it is lovable in itself and on account of itself, knowable by supernatural light. This is the most common opinion of theologians against a few, e.g. Vinc. Bolgeni,²⁶ Ballerini,²⁷ who think that God as good to us is the motive of charity. But the reason is that charity is a love of benevolence, not a love of concupiscence, which generates hope and not charity. That the motive of charity is the goodness of God apprehended by supernatural light (of faith or glory), and not by natural reason alone, is clear from the fact that otherwise charity would be a natural habit.

Theologians dispute whether by divine goodness, which is the formal object of charity, there must be understood only the totality of all the divine perfections, or whether any perfection taken separately, abstracting from the others, can also be understood, e.g. whether God can be loved with true charity on account of His infinite justice, wisdom, etc.²⁸ In practice this controversy is of little or no utility; for it is certain that all divine attributes are lovable. Moreover, if from love of some divine attribute we proceed to a true and sincere dilection of God above all things and to true love of benevolence, then charity is present. - Gratitude per se is not the love of charity, but the moral virtue of gratitude; just as neither is love toward Christ suffering for us; nevertheless they most easily pass over into charity. Hence the faithful are to be exhorted to elicit such acts of gratitude and love toward Christ.

Therefore divine goodness is the motive on account of which we love God by charity; the same goodness is also the motive why we love ourselves and our neighbors, namely because divine goodness shines forth in us and in our neighbor, insofar as a) the image of God shines in all of us, b) Christ died for all of us, c) insofar as we have all been called to the same beatitude. Hence it is said: "If we love one another, God remains in us, and His charity is perfected in us.... And this commandment we have from God, that he who loves God should love his brother also."²⁹ Therefore there is one and the same charity by which we love God, neighbor, and ourselves, because, namely, there is one and the same formal motive. But if someone loves his neighbor from another motive, e.g. on account of benefits received, on account of his excellent qualities (whether natural or supernatural), insofar as they are his perfections, it is not the love of charity. Nor does it matter that perhaps they are supernatural qualities infused by God, because supernaturality there stands only materially. Yet if those perfections are considered as participations of divine perfection and the beginning of eternal beatitude, they can be loved with the love of charity. Thus at least the more common and truer opinion, against Vasquez, Lessius, De Coninck, Herincx, who think that in this case there is a certain love inferior to charity, although perhaps supernatural.³⁰

²⁶ Della carità o amor di Dio, Rome 1788.

²⁷ Opus theol. mor. II, de carit. n. 68 sqq.

²⁸ Cf. Cajetan, Banez, Sylvius on 2, 2, q. 23, a. 4.

²⁹ 1 Jo. 4, 12 et 21.

³⁰ Cf. Bouquillon, De virt. theol. l. 3, n. 411; Billuart, De car. diss. 1, a. 3, §2.

555. Corollary. From the definition thus far explained it follows: a) that charity is perfect love of benevolence, and b) that it is love of friendship.

a) Charity is love of benevolence, because its motive is the goodness of God as it is in itself; and by charity we love God on account of Himself and not on account of our utility. Certainly even in perfect charity love of concupiscence can be present, but it ought not be the last end. In the love of God man usually begins from love of concupiscence and proceeds all the way to love of benevolence. For in all his acts man necessarily seeks his own beatitude; but when he sees that this beatitude consists in nothing else except conjunction with God, from there he seeks God. But indeed, when he has begun to cultivate God on the occasion of his own necessity, by frequently thinking, reading, praying, obeying, by a certain familiarity of this kind God gradually becomes known and consequently also becomes sweet; and thus, having experienced how sweet the Lord is, man passes over to loving God on account of Himself, i.e. with pure love of benevolence.³¹

Love of benevolence includes three acts, namely, 1. joy concerning the divine goods, 2. desire of increasing them, insofar as this is possible to man, 3. exterior zeal of promoting the glory of God.

1. Love of benevolence causes joy or complacency concerning the goods which God possesses. Hence Christ says to the Apostles: "If you loved Me, you would indeed rejoice, because I go to the Father";³² and St. Augustine is said to have exclaimed most beautifully: "Lord God, I love Thee in such a way that, if I were God and Thou Augustine, I would wish to be Augustine, so that Thou mightest be God." Thus St. Francis de Sales relates,³³ who himself also prayed: "I rejoice more concerning Thy infinite perfections, O Lord, than if those same perfections were mine; I rejoice that nothing in the world can take them away from Thee or diminish them." From joy and complacency concerning the divine perfections, man is induced to the praise of God: "Glory to God in the highest." ... "We praise Thee, we bless Thee, we glorify Thee." ... "We praise Thee, O God, we confess Thee as Lord."

2. Desire, as it is an act of benevolence toward God, ardently intends to promote the glory of God everywhere. Hence the sincere lover of God wills and prays that all men may grow in the knowledge and love of God. "Let the peoples confess Thee, O God, let all the peoples confess Thee";³⁴ and: "Bless the Lord, all ye works of the Lord."³⁵ "Hallowed be Thy name, Thy kingdom come."³⁶ - This desire also produces sadness concerning sins and offenses committed against God; it causes filial fear, lest we be separated from God loved above all things.

3. Zeal for promoting the glory of God arises when love does not stand in affection alone, but also works exteriorly; this indeed happens in two ways: a) when someone, according to Christian prudence, tries with his powers to repel those things which are against the honor or will of God, as mortal sins are in the first place;³⁷ b) when someone positively promotes the honor of God, e.g. in his own exemplary life; by observing the commandments of God most perfectly according to that: "He who has My commandments and keeps them, he it is who loves Me";³⁸ by promoting in other men the exercises of religion and of the virtues.

³¹ Cf. St. Bernard, Ep. 11, n. 8 (Migne, Patr. lat. 182, 113-114).

³² Jo. 14, 28.

³³ Traité de l'amour de Dieu l. 5, c. 6. Cf. Ribadeneira, Vita S. Aug. at the end.

³⁴ Ps. 66, 4.

³⁵ Dan. 3, 57.

³⁶ Matth. 6, 9; Luc. 11, 2.

³⁷ Cf. S. theol. 1, 2, q. 28, a. 4.

³⁸ Jo. 14, 21.

556. b) Friendship, as was said above, n. 551, implies three things, namely, that it is love of benevolence, that it is mutual love, and that some communication of goods intervenes between those loving. But these three things are found in true charity, whence St. Thomas aptly teaches that charity is true friendship (Freundschaftsliebe). For without doubt God loves men with love of benevolence, since He has given us the most precious goods, without having any advantage of His own from it. "For God so loved the world that He gave His only-begotten Son."³⁹ That the love of charity is mutual and known as such is clear of itself; for God knows this love and man knows it. But that some communication arises from this mutual love⁴⁰ Sacred Scripture manifestly indicates: "Through whom He has given us the greatest and precious promises, that by these you may be made partakers of the divine nature."⁴¹ Therefore man having sanctifying grace and charity participates in the divine nature and beatitude, just as iron placed into fire participates in the nature and force of fire. Since these things are so, the just man truly is and is named a friend of God. "You are My friends, if you do the things which I command you";⁴² and: "Thy friends, O God, have been made exceedingly honorable."⁴³ - This love of friendship extends itself not only to God, but on account of God also reaches to all those who either are already sharers of beatitude or at least are capable of it. The reason is that, as was said above, God and neighbor are loved by the same charity.

³⁹ Jo. 3, 16.

⁴⁰ Another communication (which is called koinonia by Aristotle), namely, a certain likeness between those loving, is the foundation of friendship; but another communication, namely, of goods, is the effect of friendship.

⁴¹ 2 Petr. 1, 4.

⁴² Jo. 15, 14.

⁴³ Ps. 138, 17. The Hebrew text differs greatly from the text which the Vulgate and the Septuagint have.

557. The properties of charity are three: for charity ought to be 1. supernatural, 2. efficacious, 3. appretiatively supreme.

1. That charity is supernatural is clear of itself; for it is an infused virtue and necessarily joined with sanctifying grace. Therefore its principle is supernatural. Moreover, both its formal object which and its formal object by which are supernatural, as appears from what was said above.

2. Charity ought to be efficacious. Therefore a mere affection of charity, or affective charity, does not suffice, as the Quietists wished. For this reason we are admonished: "Let us not love in word nor with the tongue, but in deed and in truth";⁴⁴ and Christ says: "He who has My commandments and keeps them, he it is who loves Me."⁴⁵ But St. Gregory⁴⁶ briefly asserts: "The proof of love is the showing forth of work."

3. Charity ought to be appretiatively supreme, i.e. we ought to esteem God more highly than every creature, so that we are prepared rather to lose the whole world than the friendship of God through sin. In this sense we commonly say that we love God above all things. Hence it is commanded: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God from thy whole heart, and in thy whole soul, and with thy whole mind";⁴⁷ and "He who loves father or mother more than Me is not worthy of Me; and he who loves son or daughter above Me is not worthy of Me."⁴⁸ But the intrinsic reason is that it is an atrocious injury to put infinite God after any creature. - But it does not belong to the essence of charity that God be loved intensively or sensibly in the highest degree. For the intensity of the will and the sensation of love proceed not so much from the dignity of the object as from its vivid perception and proximity. But many created objects are perceived by us as more proximate and are felt more vividly by us than God. Therefore, e.g., a man does not sin who feels a more vivid love toward parents, friends, etc., than toward God; provided, however, that he is always prepared to lose all things rather than the friendship of God.

Degrees of charity. Although charity ought to be appretiatively supreme, nevertheless it admits degrees: the first degree is when God is loved in such a way that man, on account of no creature, wills to lose friendship with God through mortal sin. Then man is engaged in the so-called purgative way, by which he strenuously resists disordered concupiscence drawing him to mortal sin. - The second degree exists when man, on account of no creature, wills not only not to lose but not even to diminish friendship with God, which would happen through venial sin. It is the illuminative way, in which man, through diligent exercise of the virtues, is strengthened and perfected in grace. The third and highest degree of charity has been obtained when man loves God in such a way that he avoids even all voluntary imperfections on account of the love of God, with whom he is intimately united. Then in any act whatsoever man chooses that which he thinks will please God more. It is the unitive way, by which man lives in sweet union with God. The first degree belongs to beginners, the second to the proficient, the third to the perfect.⁴⁹

⁴⁴ 1 Jo. 3, 18.

⁴⁵ Jo. 14, 21.

⁴⁶ Hom. in Evang. l. 2, hom. 30 (Migne, Patr. lat. 176, 1220).

⁴⁷ Matth. 22, 37; cf. Deut. 6, 5.

⁴⁸ Matth. 10, 37.

⁴⁹ St. Thomas explains these three degrees of charity somewhat differently (S. theol. 2, 2, q. 24, a. 9).

558. The efficacy of charity follows from its very nature. For since charity is true friendship with God, it cannot be together with mortal sin, since mortal sin is a direct turning away from God and therefore true enmity with God. Therefore an act of true charity destroys mortal sin and justifies the sinner. The third degree of charity is not required, but the first suffices. Therefore such an act of charity is not as difficult as is asserted by some authors. But since Christ in the New Testament instituted the sacrament of baptism and of penance for the justification of the sinner, it is required that the sinner eliciting, with divine help, an act of charity have at least an implicit vow of receiving the sacraments. - An act of true charity is the dispositive cause; but the formal and at the same time efficient cause of our justification is sanctifying grace.

There are some older authors teaching that even the love of noble concupiscence, namely, of supernatural beatitude, suffices for obtaining justification. This opinion, taken in its obvious sense, must be rejected and has no solid foundation. But if, under the love of beatitude, there is understood the love by which we vehemently desire to be united to God, that love is true friendship and charity, and suffices that we be proximately disposed to justification. In this sense St. Paul elicited an act of perfect charity, saying: "For to me, to live is Christ and to die is gain, ... having a desire to be dissolved and to be with Christ."⁵⁰

⁵⁰ Phil. 1, 21, 23.

559. Scholion 1. On the excellence of charity. According to Protestants, faith, i.e. confidence, is the most excellent virtue, because it causes justification. But according to Catholic doctrine, charity is simply the most excellent virtue,^50a and the precept of charity is the first and greatest commandment. Hence St. Paul says: "But now there remain faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is charity."⁵¹ But the intrinsic reason for this excellence is that, among the virtues, that one is more powerful which more attains God. But charity attains God much more intimately than any other virtue. Certainly faith and hope also directly attain God, from whom knowledge of supernatural mysteries and the attainment of beatitude come to us; but not as perfectly as charity, which "attains God so as to stand in Him, not so that something may come forth from Him to us."⁵² Charity is more perfect not only than all the other virtues but also than the gifts and fruits of the Holy Spirit. For through charity man is, as it were, essentially united with the Holy Spirit; but through the gifts he is only made apt to be moved well by the Holy Spirit.⁵³ - The preeminence of charity also appears from its effects: 1. Charity alone remits mortal sins by disposing immediately for justification, when the sacraments of the dead cannot actually be received. 2. Charity alone constitutes true friendship between God and man, as was said above. 3. Charity alone is the form of all the other virtues; and therefore faith and hope lacking charity are expressly called unformed virtues. A few things must be explained about this quality of charity.

Scholion 2. On charity as the form of all virtues. Charity is not the form of being of all virtues, as though it constituted the essence of each virtue;^53a for every virtue has its own essence distinct from the essence of charity. Scholastics usually call the vital principle the form of a thing. But since all virtues without charity are dead and are not able to do anything meritorious of eternal life, while on the contrary, when charity is added, they become living, so that their works are meritorious of eternal life, charity is deservedly called the vivifying principle and the form of the other virtues. But the remaining virtues without charity are so imperfect and weak that they cannot render a man simply virtuous and good; on the contrary, together with charity sanctifying grace is infused with all the other virtues, so that man becomes simply good and virtuous. - The Scholastics called charity the form of all virtues under a threefold respect:

1. Because it commands or orders the acts of all the virtues and strongly and at the same time sweetly excites them to most perfect acts. In this sense St. Paul says: "Charity is patient, is kind, ... bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things."⁵⁴

2. Because all the virtues ought to tend into that which is the proper object of charity, namely, into union with God. Hence St. Thomas says: "Charity can be called the exemplar form of the virtues, not according to whose likeness the virtues are generated, but insofar as they operate in some way according to its likeness."⁵⁵

3. Because only from the influence of charity, whether actual or virtual, are the acts of the other virtues meritorious. But concerning the quality of this influence theologians do not agree. Some, e.g. Vasquez,⁵⁶ teach that habitual charity and the habitual influence of charity suffice, so that all honest works of a just man are meritorious; others, namely, the Jansenists and certain older Louvain theologians, thought that the actual influence of charity was necessary in any act whatsoever, which otherwise would not be meritorious. Finally others, namely, the greater part of the Thomists and many others, teach that some virtual influence of charity is required and suffices for rendering truly meritorious each honest work done in the state of sanctifying grace. This last opinion seems better, since it is defended by St. Thomas and more conformable to reason. The Angelic Doctor says: "Merit of eternal life pertains first to charity, but to the other virtues according as their acts are commanded by charity";⁵⁷ and: "Prayer, like any other act of virtue, has efficacy of meriting insofar as it proceeds from the root of charity."⁵⁸ - But the intrinsic reason is that we merit the last end, namely, perfect union with God, through that by which we tend into God. But by charity alone we tend to perfect union with God. Therefore charity, at least virtual, is necessary in all our meritorious acts, and habitual charity does not suffice.⁵⁹

In practice this virtual influence of charity is easily present in all the acts of a just man. For "when someone orders himself to God as to an end in all things which he does on account of himself, the intention of the last end, which is God, remains virtually; hence he can merit in all things if he has charity."⁶⁰ Nevertheless the faithful are to be exhorted that they also more often actually refer their acts to the end of charity, namely, to God. For thus charity becomes more fervent; but on the fervor of charity depends the quantity of merit; and therefore the widow's small coin merited more than the treasures of the rich.

^50a St. Francis de Sales beautifully asserts: "La charité est entre les vertus comme le soleil entre les estoiles" (Traité de l'amour de Dieu l. 11, c. 9).

⁵¹ 1 Cor. 13, 13.

⁵² S. theol. 2, 2, q. 23, a. 6.

⁵³ S. theol. 1, 2, q. 68, a. 8.

^53a Ib. 2, 2, q. 23, a. 8 ad 1.

⁵⁴ 1 Cor. 13, 4 sqq.

⁵⁵ Quaest. disp. de carit. a. 3 ad 6.

⁵⁶ In 1, 2, disp. 217. In our times Ioan. Ernst proposed the same opinion in the little work Über die Notwendigkeit der guten Meinung, Freiburg, Herder, 1905. Likewise Chr. Pesch, Praelect. dogm. VIII, n. 639.

⁵⁷ S. theol. 1, 2, q. 114, a. 4.

⁵⁸ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 83, a. 15.

⁵⁹ Cf. Billuart, De gratia diss. 8, a. 4; de carit. diss. 4, a. 8.

⁶⁰ St. Thomas, Quaest. disp. de carit. a. 11 ad 2.