Chapter — Prümmer, Manuale Theologiae Moralis
Chapter II. On The Number And Division Of The Sacraments Of The New Law
In the preceding article enough has already been said concerning the number of the sacraments of the Old Law; hence here we treat only of the number and division of the sacraments of the New Law.
30. Proposition. There are seven sacraments of the New Law, namely, baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, order, and matrimony. This is of faith.
Thus the Councils of Florence and Trent defined: "If anyone says that the sacraments of the New Law were not all instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord; or that there are more or fewer than seven, namely, baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, order, and matrimony; or even that any one of these seven is not truly and properly a sacrament, let him be anathema."90
From this definition, however, it is not lawful to deduce that the number seven is the lowest division of the sacraments; for, as will be evident below in the treatise on order, according to all theologians at least the presbyterate and diaconate are true and proper sacraments. Thus the sacrament of order is indeed subdivided into several parts which are true sacraments, as sensible signs instituted by Christ for conferring sanctifying grace; nevertheless, together they constitute only one sacrament of order, as being ordered to one principal thing, namely, to the priesthood.
Almost all Protestants deny the sevenfold number of the sacraments, with the exception only of certain Ritualists. At the beginning of the so-called Reformation, Protestants admitted at one time two, at another three, and at another four sacraments; indeed, Luther at the beginning of his apostasy still acknowledged seven sacraments, but later only two.91 Today Protestants commonly admit only two sacraments. The Anglicans have the following in the Book of Common Prayer: "How many sacraments has Christ instituted in His Church? Two only which are generally necessary for salvation, namely, baptism and the supper." The reason for this fundamental error is twofold: a) because according to Protestants the sacraments do not at all produce justification, but only arouse faith; or they are nothing but pledges by which a man is rendered more certain concerning the remission of sins. But such pledges of the remission of sins are found only in baptism and the Eucharist; b) because the other sacraments (apart from baptism and the Eucharist) are not so clearly described in Sacred Scripture.
90 Council of Trent, sess. 7, can. 1 on the sacraments in general (Denz., n. 844); cf. Council of Florence, Decree for the Armenians (Denz., n. 695).
91 Cf. Sermo de Novo Testamento, a. 1520.
31. I. Argument from tradition. That Christ truly instituted seven sacraments can be proved from tradition in both the Latin and the Eastern Church. It must indeed be admitted that neither in Sacred Scripture nor in any author up to the twelfth century is there discussion of the sevenfold number of the sacraments. But Protestants cannot thence derive an argument against Catholic doctrine. For Sacred Scripture does not enumerate the sacraments at all; and just as it does not enumerate seven, so neither does it enumerate the two sacraments which Protestants admit. The Holy Fathers and ancient authors speak of all seven sacraments received in the Catholic Church, as will be evident below when the existence of the individual sacraments is treated. Thus almost all the Holy Fathers speak of baptism and the Eucharist; Tertullian, St. Cyprian, and many others also of confirmation; St. Augustine in various places treats in addition of penance, extreme unction, order, and matrimony.
That the Holy Fathers never speak expressly and explicitly of the sevenfold number of the sacraments arises from various causes:
a) In ancient times up to the thirteenth century the word sacrament had dissimilar significations and notably included also sacramentals and sacred ceremonies. Thus, for example, even in the eleventh century St. Peter Damian (d. 1072) enumerated twelve sacraments, among which were blessings of things, canons, monks, nuns, and even holy water; Hildebert of Tours (d. 1134) enumerated nine sacraments. St. Bernard (d. 1153) recognizes ten sacraments, among which is also the washing of feet at the supper of the Lord.92
Since, therefore, the ancient authors did not determine the signification of sacrament so clearly, it is easily understood why they did not indicate the number of the sacraments in the same manner.93 The first who seems expressly to have enumerated seven sacraments was St. Otto, Bishop of Bamberg (c. 1139).94 Master Roland Bandinelli (later Alexander III) did the same in the Sentences which he composed about the year 1150.95 Peter Lombard (d. 1164) defines a sacrament sufficiently clearly and then enumerates seven sacraments. After Peter Lombard, all theologians gradually acknowledged the sevenfold number of the sacraments.96
b) Among the ancient authors there is not so systematic a treatment of all the sacraments as there is from the thirteenth century onward; consequently, those authors indeed explained the doctrine concerning individual sacraments if an occasion occurred, but they did not enumerate them all together.
Some theologians97 think that the so-called discipline of the secret was the reason why the ancient authors did not enumerate seven sacraments. Pourrat98 rightly rejects this explanation; for: a) if the Holy Fathers could explain the individual sacraments, as in fact they did in their writings, why could they not indicate all of them together by the number seven? Then: b) did the discipline of the secret prevent authors from the sixth century to the twelfth century from clearly indicating the number seven? Or did the same discipline of the secret impel those authors to enumerate at one time twelve, at another ten, and at another nine sacraments? Surely no one will say this. Therefore, the silence or disagreement of the ancient authors concerning the sevenfold number of the sacraments is rather to be explained from the manifold and inconstant acceptation of the word sacrament.
A valid argument for the sevenfold number of the sacraments is drawn from the agreement of the Eastern Churches in this matter.
For all the Eastern Churches, even those which separated themselves from the Roman Church as early as the fifth century, assert the sevenfold number of the sacraments.99 Hence, whenever there was discussion of the reconciliation of an Eastern Church with the Catholic Church, never did even the least disagreement arise concerning the number of the sacraments, while, on the contrary, almost endless disputes were held concerning other matters of no such great importance, for example, concerning the manner of administering baptism, unleavened bread, the chant "Alleluia," etc. But this clearly demonstrates that the sevenfold number of the sacraments had already been admitted for centuries in the Eastern Churches; otherwise the Easterners would most certainly have tried to contradict Catholic doctrine. In the Catholic Church, moreover, seven sacraments were always in use, as will be evident when the argument from tradition concerning the individual sacraments is adduced.
Furthermore, Protestants cannot prove from history that any sacrament was introduced by some bishop or Pope. Hence Drouven100 argues forcefully, saying: "Let the adversaries explain to us who at length was the fabricator of that insane dogma, as they call it? By what name was he called? From what country did he arise? Of what institute was he a professor? Finally, with what authority was he endowed, that he could have persuaded not only the West, but also the whole East, contrary to ancient doctrine, that there are not two or three, but seven sacraments of the Gospel, efficacious of grace? But if in so necessary a matter they are silent, as in fact hitherto, although repeatedly challenged, they have remained silent, we shall by our right accuse them of falsehood and meanwhile enjoy our inheritance, which ... by this very fact we rightly glory is ancient and coeval with the Church, according to that axiom of Tertullian so often repeated: What is found as one among all is not an error, but a tradition."
92 Canonists of the twelfth century, such as Rufinus, Stephen of Tournai, John of Faenza, Sicard of Cremona, and Huguccio, customarily distinguished sacraments of a fourfold kind. Thus, for example, Rufinus speaks: "The species of sacraments is propagated in a fourfold manner. For some are salutary, others ministerial, others venerative, and others preparatory. Salutary are those by which salvation is acquired, such as baptism, Eucharist, and confirmation. Ministerial: those which are exercised in the ministries of offices, such as the praises of Masses and the other day or night offices diligently assigned to the vigils of clerics. Venerative: those which at certain times of the year are exercised venerably in memory of some sacred thing, such as the feasts of the Lord.... Preparatory: those which are prepared for celebrating all the aforesaid sacraments, such as the consecration of clerics, churches ..." (Die "Summa Decretorum", ed. Singer, Paderborn, 1902, 537; cf. J. de Ghellinck, in Revue des Sciences phil. et théol. 1912, 528).
93 A splendid example of the diverse acceptations in which ancient theologians employed the word sacrament is found in Hugh of St. Victor, who is eminent among the ancient authors writing on this matter; see above, n. 2.
94 In the life of St. Otto, 2 July, in the Bollandists.
95 Cf. Gietl, Die Sentenzen Rolands, 154 sqq. and 194 sqq.
96 Cf. Schanz, Die Lehre v. d. Sakr. I, § 13; Pourrat, La théol. sacr., c. 5, § 4.
97 Cf. Chr. Pesch, Prael. dogm. VI, n. 91; Tanquerey, Theol. dogm. III, De sacr., c. 1, n. 22, and others; Gihr, Die heiligen Sakramente, § 24.
98 L.c.
99 Cf. Drouven, De re sacr. l. 1, q. 3, c. 2, § 1.
100 L.c.
32. 2. Argument of fittingness. The sacraments of the Catholic Church are fixed at the number seven. Why neither more nor fewer are enumerated is explained very well by the Roman Catechism,101 following in the footsteps of St. Thomas.102 For spiritual life is in a certain manner similar to bodily life. But in bodily life seven things are principally necessary, namely, five for the perfection of the individual and two for the perfection of society. For the perfection of the individual it is required: 1. that man be born, which is effected spiritually through baptism; 2. that he grow and be strengthened, which is effected spiritually through confirmation; 3. that he be nourished, which is effected in the spiritual life through the heavenly bread of the Eucharist; 4. that he be healed from a disease perhaps contracted, which is effected in the spiritual life through penance; 5. that after disease he recover his former health in a perfect manner, which is effected spiritually through extreme unction, which removes the remnants of sins. For the perfection of society, however, it is required: 1. that there be a power of governing, which is conferred in the Church with the sacrament of order; 2. that there be propagation of the human race, which in the spiritual life is sanctified through the sacrament of matrimony.
101 Part 2, c. 1, q. 12.
102 S. theol. 3, q. 65, a. 1.
33. Divisions of the sacraments. Above we already distinguished the sacraments of the Old and New Testaments. The sacraments of the New Testament are customarily divided:
- By reason of necessity, into sacraments necessary for all unto salvation, namely, the first five sacraments, and into sacraments necessary not indeed for individual men but for Christian society, which are order and matrimony.
The sacraments necessary for all and each do not have the same necessity; for some are necessary by a necessity of means, namely, baptism for all; penance for those who have fallen into mortal sin; and, according to several authors, also the Eucharist for those who have the unimpeded use of reason.103 Eternal salvation therefore cannot be had unless these sacraments have been received at least in desire. It is not absolutely required, however, that these sacraments also be received in fact. For the Church the sacrament of order is necessary by a necessity of means, because without that sacrament the visible Church cannot subsist.104 The other sacraments are necessary only by a necessity of precept, namely, confirmation, extreme unction, and, according to several authors, also the Eucharist. The necessity of the individual sacraments will be treated more fully below in the treatise on the sacraments in particular. The Council of Trent defined the necessity of the sacraments in a general manner: "If anyone says that the sacraments of the New Law are not necessary for salvation, but superfluous; and that without them or the desire of them men obtain from God the grace of justification through faith alone, although all are not necessary for each individual, let him be anathema."105
- By reason of the subject, into sacraments of the dead and of the living.
The sacraments of the dead were instituted per se to confer spiritual life upon those spiritually dead, that is, those lacking sanctifying grace. They are baptism and penance, which of themselves confer first grace; but per accidens, namely, when the man receiving them is already in the state of sanctifying grace, they confer second grace, or increase grace already existing. The sacraments of the living, namely, confirmation, Eucharist, extreme unction, order, and matrimony, are those which can licitly be administered only to those spiritually living, that is, those existing in the state of sanctifying grace; therefore, per se they cause second grace, or increase sanctifying grace. But per accidens, namely, when the man receiving is in the state of mortal sin with inculpable ignorance, they cause first grace.106
- By reason of the effect, into sacraments which imprint a character and those which do not imprint one.
The sacraments which imprint an indelible character and consequently cannot be repeated are baptism, confirmation, and order. The other four sacraments do not imprint a character and can be repeated. The former are also called non-repeatable sacraments; the latter, repeatable sacraments.
- By reason of their relation to the subject, into formed and unformed sacraments.
Formed sacraments are those which produce or increase the form of the sacrament, insofar as form is taken in the first sense explained above in n. 7, or insofar as it is sanctifying grace. But if, on account of an existing obstacle, the sacrament cannot produce grace and nevertheless was validly conferred, it is an unformed sacrament. Therefore, an unformed sacrament is not to be confused with an invalid sacrament (on account of a substantial defect of matter, form, or minister). Ancient theologians called unformed sacraments sacraments received with fiction, because then the recipient is disposed not truly but fictitiously.107 They distinguished a twofold fiction: one material, when he who receives the sacrament invincibly does not know or does not advert to the defect of a necessary disposition, for example, when an adult receives baptism without adverting that he does not have sufficient attrition for the personal sins committed; the other formal, when a man knowingly receives a sacrament unworthily. Material fiction therefore renders a sacrament simply unformed, but formal fiction renders it sacrilegious in addition.
103 Cf. below, n. 205 sqq.
104 Cf. S. theol. 3, q. 65, a. 4.
105 Sess. 7, can. 4 on the sacraments in general (Denz., n. 847).
106 See more fully on this matter below, n. 40.
107 Cf. St. Thomas, IV Sent., d. 4, q. 3, a. 2, quaestiunc. 2, ad 2.
34. Scholion. On the order of the different sacraments. The Council of Trent108 defined that the sacraments of the New Law are not all equal among themselves. Hence it is asked how the sacraments are to be ordered among themselves. A threefold order is customarily distinguished, namely, of nature, dignity, and necessity. The order of nature fittingly arranges the sacraments as they are commonly enumerated: baptism, confirmation, etc., because the sacraments necessary for the individual man (namely, the first five sacraments) are to be placed before those which are necessary for society (namely, the last two sacraments).109 The order of dignity places the Eucharist in the first place, because in the Eucharist Christ Himself is contained, but in the other sacraments only the grace of Christ. Moreover, all the other sacraments are ordered to the Eucharist as to an end.110 The order of necessity places baptism in the first place, because no sacrament is so necessary for all as baptism, concerning which it is said: "Unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God."111
108 Sess. 7, can. 3 on the sacraments in general (Denz., n. 846).
109 For a fuller explanation, see S. theol. 3, q. 65, a. 2.
110 S. theol. 3, q. 65, a. 3.
111 John 3:5.