Chapter IV. On the Vices Opposed Both to Fortitude and to the Annexed Virtues

638. 1. Three vices are opposed to fortitude, namely, timidity or cowardice, fearlessness, and daring or temerity.

a) Timidity, of which there is discussion here, is not the passion of fear, for passions in the Aristotelian sense are something indifferent; but it is inordinate fear of temporal evils and especially of the dangers of death. Certainly, in every sin an inordinate fear is included; thus the avaricious man fears the loss of money, the intemperate man the loss of pleasure, and so concerning the others. But the principal fear is that of the dangers of death. And therefore an inordination of such fear is opposed to fortitude, which concerns the dangers of death. Thus St. Thomas.¹¹⁶² Inordinate fear, therefore, is excess in fearing and defect in daring. From the first head it is called timidity; but from the second, cowardice; yet on account of their affinity each is called by the common term timidity. This timidity of itself is only a venial sin; if, however, someone from inordinate fear transgresses a grave precept, this is a mortal sin, or rather the cause of a mortal sin. How fear or dread takes away or diminishes the voluntary and consequently the notion of sin was said above, I, n. 69. The greatest cowardice is when someone, on account of the miseries of this life which he considers intolerable, commits suicide.

b) Fearlessness is the vice which does not fear dangers, and especially the dangers of death, when they ought to be feared. This vice arises either from contempt for life, which a man esteems little, or from pride by which he attributes too much strength to himself, or from stupidity of soul. Fearlessness is a sin insofar as it causes other sins, or insofar as from it a man sins against charity toward himself.

c) Daring or temerity, insofar as it is taken here, is excess in attacking dangers.¹¹⁶³ Daring arises from the same causes as fearlessness, with which it is intimately connected, but chiefly from vain boasting. The same holds concerning the sinfulness of this vice as was said concerning fearlessness. In a duel, in certain contests, in acrobatic exercises, etc., the vices of temerity and fearlessness are accustomed to occur.

¹¹⁶² S. theol. 2, 2, q. 125, a. 2.

¹¹⁶³ Waghalsigkeit, Tollkühnheit [foolhardiness, rash boldness].

639. 2. Four vices are opposed to magnanimity, namely, three by excess: presumption, ambition, and vainglory; one by defect, namely, pusillanimity.

a) Presumption,¹¹⁶⁴ which is opposed to magnanimity, is not to be confused with presumption which is contrary to hope.¹¹⁶⁵ The former is a vice inducing one to undertake works which surpass the powers of the agent; the latter is that which hopes for eternal beatitude through means not ordained by God. If it is said that presumption opposed to magnanimity undertakes those things which altogether exceed the powers of the agent, the powers to be understood are not only his own but also those of others which are nevertheless available to the agent; for that which we can do with the assistance of friends and especially of God is not considered altogether to exceed our powers; whence we are not presumptuous when we undertake works of the virtues, even difficult ones, with confidence in the assisting aid of divine grace. An example of sinful presumption is Peter, who, led by excessive confidence, said: "Lord, I am ready to go with thee, both into prison and to death,"¹¹⁶⁶ and nevertheless afterward denied Christ at the voice of a maidservant. Those also sin by such a sin of presumption who, without sufficient capacity, undertake the offices of judge, pastor, confessor, etc. The origin and culpability of this presumption were already discussed above, I, n. 412. Seneca describes presumption very vigorously: "If magnanimity raises itself beyond its measure, it will make a man threatening, inflated, turbulent, restless, and hasty toward whatever excellences of words and deeds, honorableness being neglected."¹¹⁶⁷

b) Ambition,¹¹⁶⁸ which is opposed to magnanimity by excess, is a vice by which someone inordinately desires an honor which he does not merit or which he refers not to God but only to his own utility; or it can be defined more briefly: an inordinate appetite for honor.¹¹⁶⁹ Since honor is a thing good or indifferent in itself, an inordinate appetite for it is of itself only a venial sin; nevertheless, it can become mortal on account of circumstances, for example, if someone places his last end in such human honor, or if he seeks honor from some mortal sin (boasting concerning sins committed), or if someone seeks his own honor with grave harm to others. The inordinate appetite for honor, or ambition, often has very contrary effects, since instead of true honor, mockery and contempt befall the ambitious man.

c) Vainglory,¹¹⁷⁰ insofar as it is opposed to magnanimity by excess, is taken for an inordinate appetite for empty glory. The appetite for one's own glory is not of itself something vicious, whence we are admonished: "So let your light shine before men";¹¹⁷¹ but the appetite for empty glory is sinful; for to desire something vain is vicious, according to this: "Why do you love vanity, and seek after lying?"¹¹⁷² Glory can be called vain in three ways: in one way on the part of the thing concerning which someone seeks glory, as when someone seeks glory concerning that which is not worthy of glory, such as some fragile and perishable thing (for example, bodily beauty); in another way on the part of the one from whom someone seeks glory, such as a man whose judgment is not certain (for example, if someone wishes to be praised by an ignorant man as learned); in a third way on the part of the very person who desires glory, namely, when he does not refer the appetite for his glory to a due end, such as the honor of God or the salvation of his neighbor. Thus St. Thomas.¹¹⁷³ Vainglory in itself is only a venial sin, because it is not simply repugnant to charity and because it is only an inordination concerning a thing indifferent in itself; nevertheless, it can easily become not only a mortal sin, but also a capital sin from which many other sins spring, as was said above, I, n. 414.¹¹⁷⁴

d) Pusillanimity¹¹⁷⁵ is opposed to magnanimity by defect, and it is a disposition of soul by which someone shrinks from undertaking or doing something as though it were too great and surpassed his powers, when in reality it does not surpass them. Whence, just as the magnanimous man rightly tends toward great things, so the pusillanimous man, from culpable ignorance of his own condition, shrinks from great things which befit him. An example of such pusillanimity in the Gospel is the slothful servant who hid his talent in a napkin and on that account was gravely rebuked. Pusillanimity of itself does not signify a grave sin; nevertheless, it can become a grave sin if someone from pusillanimity omits a grave duty; for example, if parents omit correcting disobedient children because they think themselves unable to make an effective correction; if someone no longer fights against temptations, thinking himself unable to conquer them. Pusillanimity which concerns things altogether necessary for salvation can become the sin of despair. Pusillanimity is conquered by placing hope in divine assistance, which will never fail men of good will. Pusillanimity often arises from a morbid quality of the body or from fixed ideas.

¹¹⁶⁴ Selbstüberschätzung, Vermessenheit [self-overestimation, presumption]; cf. above, I, n. 412.

¹¹⁶⁵ Cf. I, n. 549.

¹¹⁶⁶ Luke 22:33.

¹¹⁶⁷ In St. Thomas, S. theol. 2, 2, q. 130, a. 2 ad 3.

¹¹⁶⁸ Cf. above, I, n. 413.

¹¹⁶⁹ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 131, a. 1.

¹¹⁷⁰ Cf. above, I, n. 414.

¹¹⁷¹ Matt. 5:16.

¹¹⁷² Ps. 4:3.

¹¹⁷³ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 132, a. 1.

¹¹⁷⁴ Pascal says very wittily and truly concerning vainglory: "Vanity is so rooted in the heart of man that a lackey, a kitchen boy, and a porter boast and wish to have their admirers; and the philosophers themselves want them. Those who write against glory wish to have the glory of having written well; and those who read it wish to have the glory of having read it; and I who write this perhaps have this desire, and perhaps those who will read it will also have it" (Pensées [1907] 400).

¹¹⁷⁵ Kleinmütigkeit [pusillanimity, faintheartedness].

640. 3. Two vices are opposed to magnificence, namely, one by excess: inordinate sumptuousness,¹¹⁷⁶ the other by defect: parvificence.¹¹⁷⁷ Each vice is an inordination concerning great expenditures to be made, and for this reason parvificence is distinguished from avarice and illiberality. Whence St. Thomas teaches: "Just as the magnificent man agrees with the liberal man in this, that he expends money promptly and delightfully, so also the parvificent man agrees with the illiberal or avaricious man in this, that he makes expenditures with sadness and slowness. But they differ in this, that illiberality is considered in regard to common expenditures, whereas parvificence concerns great expenditures, which it is more difficult to make, and therefore parvificence is a lesser vice than illiberality."¹¹⁷⁸ The sinfulness of these vices must be measured from the other sins which are committed on account of them.

¹¹⁷⁶ It was called by the Greeks banausia, by which word both a low, tradesmanlike disposition and the excessive luxury and ostentation proceeding from it are signified; moderns use the word chiefly in the former sense.

¹¹⁷⁷ Knauserei, Engherzigkeit [stinginess, narrow-mindedness].

¹¹⁷⁸ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 135, a. 1 ad 3.

641. 4. Two vices are opposed to patience, one by defect and the other by excess. By defect there is opposed insensibility or hardness, namely, when someone is touched in no way by any evils, whether his own or another's. This indeed is a defect of sadness, although it is an excess of endurance. That this insensibility is sinful is clear of itself, since it is consonant neither with human nature nor with social life, but savors of stupid brutality and unnatural hardness. By excess (of sadness, but by defect of endurance) there is opposed to patience impatience, by which someone is excessively saddened or withdraws from the good because of sadness or pain. The impatient man for the most part outwardly manifests his impatience by murmurings, lamentations, or irascibility. Each sin, namely, insensibility and impatience, is of itself only a venial sin; nevertheless, it becomes mortal if on account of it another virtue, for example, fraternal charity, is gravely injured.¹¹⁷⁹

¹¹⁷⁹ It is remarkable that St. Thomas does not speak of the vices opposed to patience in the Summa theologica.

642. 5. Two vices are likewise opposed to perseverance, namely, one by defect, which is softness or inconstancy, when someone, on account of difficulties which occur in the continuation of a good work, easily withdraws from it contrary to the right dictate of reason. This inconstancy is called softness by St. Thomas,¹¹⁸⁰ which nevertheless is not to be confused with softness which is a sin against chastity. Inconstancy of itself is not a grave sin; nevertheless, it is the cause of many evils and impedes very many goods; for it renders the soul of man weak and almost powerless to accomplish any great work, since difficulties arise in every great work. By way of excess there is opposed to perseverance pertinacity,¹¹⁸¹ which is an inclination to persist in a resolution contrary to the dictate of right reason, as if someone wills to persist in a false religion which he clearly knows to be false. This pertinacity is a mortal or light sin according to the quality of the obligation and virtue which is injured through it.

¹¹⁸⁰ S. theol. 2, 2, q. 138, a. 1.

¹¹⁸¹ Hartnäckigkeit [obstinacy].