Section — Prümmer, Manuale Theologiae Moralis
§ 1. Moral Theology Down To The Thirteenth Century
10. In the first three centuries Moral Theology is not found handed down in a scholastic and systematic manner. Rather, the ascetical method is employed. The apostolic Fathers and the old writers, by their letters, sermons, and treatises, exhort the faithful to cultivate virtues and to avoid vices. But the most ancient writings which have come down to us treat rather of moral matters than of Dogmatics. The first place is held by the work which is called Didache, or "Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles," and which was more probably written by an unknown author at the end of the first century.32 In this work, which is cited rather often by the Fathers (also under the title: The Two Ways, namely, the way of life and the way of death), a compendious Moral Theology is found: the commandment of the love of God and neighbor is inculcated; as graver sins are enumerated murder, fornication, adultery, idolatry, theft, and blasphemy; there is also discussion concerning duties toward the poor, the family, the Church, etc. Moral admonitions are likewise contained in the Epistle of Barnabas, in the first Epistle of St. Clement the Pope to the Corinthians, and in the work whose title is The Shepherd of Hermas.33 - Clement of Alexandria in his books, which are entitled Paedagogus and Stromata, hands down an almost complete Christian ethics; in some matters, however, he spoke less rightly, for example, concerning original sin, liberty, and Greek philosophy; and for this reason he is not found in the Roman Martyrology.34 - Tertullian in moral matters put forward opinions somewhat more rigid, for example, concerning spectacles, monogamy, the adornment of women, etc.; he did not sufficiently distinguish between counsels and precepts. Concerning the licitness of second marriages he erred. - St. Cyprian also gave excellent exhortations concerning virtues when discoursing on the habit of virgins, on work and alms, on the good of patience, on zeal and envy. His little book De lapsis is of great importance for Moral Theology, because there several times, and especially in chapter 29,35 there is a clear testimony concerning the necessity of sacramental confession; for St. Cyprian writes: "Let each one confess his offense, I beseech you, most beloved brothers, while he who has sinned is still in this world, while his confession can be admitted, while satisfaction and remission made through priests is pleasing before the Lord." - Lactantius also wrote not a few things on Morals.
From the fourth down to the sixth century, moral works are published not only more numerous in number, but also deeper in doctrine. For the Holy Fathers not only admonished the Christian faithful to the exercise of virtues and to the flight from vices, but also had to defend Catholic doctrine against the attacks of adversaries. It is possible here to enumerate only the more principal authors.36 Among the Greeks treating of morality there flourished the three so-called Cappadocians: St. Basil the Great,37 St. Gregory of Nyssa,38 and St. Gregory Nazianzen,39 then St. Cyril,40 St. John Chrysostom, and St. Ephrem.41 Among the Latins, above the others, stand out: 1. St. Ambrose (+397), who, after the likeness of the ethics handed down by Cicero in the book De officiis, wrote a much higher Christian ethics in three books whose title is De officiis ministrorum.42 2. St. Augustine (+430), deservedly called "Doctor of grace"; who not only explained most rightly and most profoundly against the Pelagians the Catholic doctrine concerning grace and predestination, but also published many excellent treatises on moral matters, for example, Enchiridion ad Laurentium, or On Faith, Hope, and Charity; On the Morals of the Catholic Church; On Lying; On Holy Virginity; On the Good of Marriage, etc. His best-known work De Civitate Dei treats of the twofold love, namely of the love of God even to contempt of self, which builds the city of God, and of love of self, which leads even to contempt of God and builds the city of Babylon, that is, of earthly pleasure. St. Augustine, with all his powers, and indeed in all his works, preaches the charity of God. "From charity the spiritual life begins and with it grows. Charity begun is justice begun; charity advanced is justice advanced; great charity is great justice; perfect charity is perfect justice."43 St. Augustine is deservedly called the father of all scientific Theology. For all later writers venerate him as the greatest authority, and indeed both in Moral Theology and in dogmatic Theology. 3. St. Gregory the Great (+604), in the 45 books of the Moralia in Job, gives a very extensive moral treatise. He explains the book of Job allegorically. Job is a type of Christ and of the Church; the wife designates carnal men; the three friends are the figure of heretics; Leviathan designates the devil. This work of St. Gregory, throughout the whole Middle Age, was the primary source from which ascetical writers drew their works. For priests having care of souls the same St. Gregory wrote the book of the pastoral rule, which not undeservedly has been called the first pastoral and casuistic Theology, and which the Synod of Mainz (806) prescribed to all for use.
For the study and practice of Moral Theology, the diverse collections of Canons and the "Penitential Books" were also of great importance; their ordinances indeed chiefly had force for the external forum, yet in some measure they served in the internal forum.44 Books of this kind were published among the Greeks by John the Faster, Theodore the Studite, Nicephorus of Constantinople,45 etc. John the Faster gives a complete method of questioning and absolving the penitent and, in addition, instructs what penances are to be imposed for diverse sins. Among the Latins, however, many authors wrote books of this kind, for example, St. Columbanus,46 Egbert,47 and Rabanus Maurus.48
32 Cf. Funk, Patres apostolici I, 2-37.
33 Hermas lived around the year 140.
34 Cf. Benedict XIV, Const. "Postquam intelleximus" n. 19-36, dated 1 July 1748. Several wrote special dissertations on the ethics or morality of Clement of Alexandria, for example, Winter, Die Ethik des Clemens von Alexandrien; Ernesti (same title); Capitaine, Die Moral des Clemens von Alexandrien (1903).
35 Migne, Patr. lat. 4, 503.
36 You may see a more perfect enumeration, although not an adequate one, in Bouquillon, Theol. mor. fund. n. 130 sqq.
37 Ethica, canonical epistles.
38 De perfectione, De virginitate.
39 Poems, orations.
40 Catecheses.
41 Orations and hymns.
42 Cf. Bittner, Commentatio de Ciceronianis et Ambrosianis offic. libris, Braunsberg in Prussia, 1849.
43 De natura et gratia (Migne, Patr. lat. 44, 290).
44 Cf. Sagmuller, Kirchenrecht I, § 37; Schmitz, Die Bussbucher und die Bussdisziplin der Kirche (Mainz 1883).
45 Migne, Patr. graec. 88, 1889-1918; 99, 1721-1734.
46 Migne, Patr. lat. 80, 228-230.
47 Ibid. 89, 401-436.
48 Ibid. 102, 1334-1424.