Article — Noldin, Summa of Moral Theology
Article Third. On the Precept of Laboring
1 Manual labor, which pagans in general contemned as a dishonorable thing, is not at all contemptible, but rather prescribed by the law of nature, ennobled by the example of Christ and the Apostles, and therefore is for everyone a highest ornament.
1 St. Thomas, II-II, q. 187, a. 3. Encyclical letters of Leo XIII concerning the condition of workers: Rerum novarum, 15 May 1891. Ed. Genicot, Theologiae moralis institutiones, Louvain: Polleunis and Ceuterick, 1902, I, n. 365. S. Weber, Evangelium und Arbeit, Freiburg: Herder, 1898.
67. Preliminary notions.* 1. The name of labor is taken in a broader and a stricter sense: in the broader sense it is understood as any occupation, whether it is exercised by body or mind, whether it is useful to others or useless; in the stricter sense it is understood as human activity, both bodily and spiritual, by which goods in some way profitable are produced.
In the former sense even prayer, both vocal and mental, exercises of piety, works of mercy toward the neighbor, and things of this kind are counted by the name of labor, in general any human activity, with only that excluded which is undertaken merely for the sake of delight. In the latter sense only productive and gainful labor is called labor, which is useful to the laborer himself or to others or to society, and therefore is also called "social labor."
There are some who contend that on all and individual men who are fit for this there has been imposed a natural and divine precept of laboring, not indeed always with productive and gainful labor, but nevertheless with serious and constant labor, ordinarily undergone through the greater part of the day. Although there does not exist a divine precept directly obliging all and individual men to labor, nevertheless there exists a universal precept of labor for the human race, so that labor pertains to the duties of human life; but indirectly labor is prescribed more or less to all and individual men.
To labor there belongs a. social moment, since it begets temporal prosperity, perfects culture, and increases the comforts of life; b. moral moment, since it is a means of exercising virtue and self-denial; c. supernatural moment, since it renders us like Christ our Savior, who was in labors from His youth.
68. Whence the obligation of labor arises. 1. From several reasons there exists a true obligation of laboring, which binds each one more or less.
a. From the precept of conserving life. The obligation of laboring certainly arises from the duty of conserving life by ordinary means: for since most men lack the means necessary for preserving life either simply or fittingly unless they acquire them for themselves by continual labor, and since labor is a means equally ordinary and necessary for this end, all who from another source do not have a sufficient abundance of goods by which they can honorably nourish themselves are bound by the obligation of undertaking labor.
a. The precept of laboring indeed requires that man by labor proportioned to his powers acquire for himself the necessary means by which he can lead a life fitting to the dignity of human nature; but it by no means requires that he procure for himself a more abundant supply of things, by which he can also enjoy the comforts and luxuries of those nations which are chiefly praised for material culture and progress.
b. Just as those who already have the things necessary for conserving life are immune from the precept of laboring insofar as it arises from this head, so those are immune from the same who are nourished by the piety of others, even if they could acquire the necessary livelihood for themselves by their own labor, as religious who live by begging: for labor is not prescribed for its own sake, but as a means necessary for preserving life; therefore for those who receive the necessities of life from elsewhere and do not indulge idleness, the precept of seeking them by their own labor ceases.
c. Besides the obligation of preserving one's own life, other precepts induce a necessity of labor in many men, which cannot be observed without manifold labor, such as duties of piety of parents and children, duties of religion of clerics, etc.
b. From the obligation of avoiding idleness. Idleness exposes man to the imminent danger of falling into various sins: for with experience as witness, this is the condition of corrupted human nature, that an idle life is defiled by very many vices, which Sacred Scripture signifies by these words: idleness has taught much malice;1 but the only means of avoiding idleness is labor; therefore man is bound, for avoiding the dangers of sinning which arise from idleness, to apply himself to some honorable labor.
It is clear that any labor whatever suffices for fulfilling this obligation, even if it is useful to no one, as the anchorites teach us by their example. But certainly occupation which consists in mere games and recreations does not suffice: for with experience as witness, those who are intent upon hunting merely after delights and pleasures are no less defiled by vices than those who are given to idleness.
- Whether from positive divine precept. Although labor is especially fitting to human nature2 and ennobles and perfects it, while on the contrary idleness and sloth are unbecoming to man, nevertheless it cannot be affirmed that a divine precept of labor, especially gainful labor, independent of all other obligations, has been enjoined in Sacred Scripture upon absolutely all men.
a. A natural precept of laboring is demonstrated neither from the innate inclination to working, nor from the destination of the human race to culture, which otherwise it cannot attain except by tireless labor of men, nor from tranquility of soul, which labor produces, while on the contrary idleness generates disgust. But the highest fittingness and utility of labor and the natural destination of men for working are rightly inferred from these reasons.
b. There are indeed many testimonies of Sacred Scripture, both of the Old and New Testament, by which labor is extolled with the highest praises and earnestly commended,3 but none by which labor itself as such is strictly prescribed.
a. The words of Genesis: In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread4 do not signify that no man can licitly obtain those things which are necessary for life except by arduous labor, but indicate the punishment imposed upon the human race because of sin: namely, that the human race, which before sin in the earthly paradise would have obtained in abundance the necessities for nourishing life by easy and pleasant labor, afterwards as punishment for sin would obtain them only by arduous labor. In a similar way the words are to be understood: in sorrow you shall bring forth children.5
b. The words in Job (5:7), man is born to labor, and the bird to flight, have an entirely different sense; for labor from the context signifies hardships and pain, so that the sense is either this: as the bird is born for flight, so man is born for pain; or this: as the bird is incited by nature to fly, so man by the inclination of nature is incited to sin, from which hardships and pains arise.6 Outside the context, the cited words have this sense: as the bird is incited by natural instinct to flying, so man is incited by natural inclination to motion and labor.
c. But the words of St. Paul: If anyone is not willing to work, neither let him eat,7 are to be understood concerning those who, since they were doing nothing but indulging idleness, wished to live at another's expense, namely that these are not even worthy of food.8
- Whether from the obligation of contributing to the common good. Serious labor of men, especially that which is expended in cultivating arts and sciences, indeed contributes much to promoting the prosperity and culture of human society; wherefore to those who enjoy an abundance of necessary things, labor of this kind can never be commended enough. But man is not held by strict obligation to contribute by his labor to the progress of culture. Nor can any argument be brought forward by which it is demonstrated that individual men are strictly obliged, according to their powers, to contribute to promoting social progress. For the rest, what individual members of society ought to contribute from obligation to the common good and therefore to procuring and promoting the temporal prosperity of society, the precepts of charity and the precepts enacted by public authority for the common good determine.
2 Gen. 2:15.
3 Prov. 22:29; 31:13 ff.; Eccles. 11:6; 9:10; Eph. 4:28; 1 Thess. 4:10; 2 Thess. 3:10, 12.
4 Gen. 3:19.
5 Gen. 3:16.
6 Cf. Knabenbauer, Commentarius in librum Iob, Paris: Lethielleux, 1886.
8 B. Justiniani, Explanationes in omnes B. Pauli Ap. epistolas, on this place. C. Estius, Commentaria in omnes B. Pauli epistolas, on this place.
69. On the right to labor. With the obligation of laboring is connected the right to labor, which socialists interpret badly. The social and economic conditions of our time bring it about that from time to time very many workers lack labor and therefore also necessary sustenance. Therefore socialists proclaim a right to labor, by which right either private men or the republic are held to provide for workers lacking labor at any time the occasion of laboring and of gaining wages by which they can live. Concerning this matter it is useful to note these things:
a. Each one has a right of laboring, that is, he has a right of seeking licit labor for himself by just means and of exercising it, and therefore he has the right of demanding that he not be impeded by others in the exercise of this right. This right is founded on another right, that of conserving and perfecting life, for which end economic labor in general is altogether necessary.
Therefore an injury is inflicted upon one willing to labor if he is impeded from seeking and exercising labor as he wishes, which is done by socialists especially in strikes. But upon civil power falls the obligation of protecting the right of laboring of him who does not voluntarily yield his right.
b. No one has a right to labor, that is, a right of demanding that another, whether a private person or the republic, provide or procure labor for him, even if he lacks the means necessary for sustenance. For he who lacks labor and at the same time sustenance cannot by right demand from the neighbor that he provide labor for him, though from charity the neighbor can sometimes be bound to this: the obligation of supplying gainful labor in every case is opposed to the right of property. But neither is the political power bound to provide or procure labor for him, since it does not pertain to its office to procure the temporal good of individuals.
c. But if the multitude of those who lack labor is so great that from it the common good suffers detriment, the public power is bound from legal justice, lest the common good be brought into danger, to procure for them the occasion of laboring.
Note. To the right and obligation of laboring corresponds the right and obligation to religious days of rest. For neither can the life of the body be preserved safe, nor the salvation of the soul be placed in safety, unless at stated times rest is granted to the body, so that the soul through prayer and contemplation of religious truths may look after eternal salvation. For this reason God prescribed: Six days you shall work ... but on the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord your God; you shall not do any work on it.1
1 Ex. 20:9-10.