First Question. On The Nature Of Moral Theology

1. Definition. 1. Moral theology can be defined: the science of human activity, insofar as it is directed to the ultimate supernatural end.

a. The material object of moral theology is human acts, that is, the whole free human activity; for moral theology undertakes to direct this activity to the end of human life. The formal object is the human act in order to the ultimate supernatural end; for moral theology considers human acts not under just any respect, but insofar as they are ordered to the ultimate end of human life, or insofar as by them man tends to the end of eternal life.

b. It belongs to moral theology to teach in what way human actions ought to be arranged, so that through them man may attain his ultimate end. But a twofold ultimate end of man can be considered: the natural, which befits man insofar as he is a creature of God, and such as it would have been if God had left man in the order of nature; and the supernatural, which befits man insofar as he is a son of God, and which in the present supernatural order is proposed to us as to be attained. Which actions bring man to the natural end can be known by the natural light of reason, and this is taught by moral philosophy; but which actions befit the supernatural end can be known only from divine revelation, and this is taught by moral theology. Nevertheless the natural and supernatural end, or order, do not exclude each other, but the supernatural supposes the natural and elevates it to a greater dignity.

2. The proposed definition is to be proved: for the definition of any science ought to set forth its proper object, so that it may be distinguished from every other science. But the proposed definition sets forth the proper object of moral theology, and indeed in such a way that moral theology is easily distinguished from ethics, which is occupied with the same object: for ethics orders human actions to the ultimate natural end, whereas moral theology orders the same actions to the ultimate supernatural end.

¹ Bouquillon, Theologia moralis fundamentalis, 3rd ed. (Bruges: Beyaert, 1903). Lehmkuhl, Theologia moralis, 10th ed. (Freiburg: Herder, 1902). Muller, Theologia Moralis, 2nd ed. (Vienna: Meyer, 1894). Schwane, Allgemeine Moraltheologie (Freiburg: Herder, 1885). Simar, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie (Freiburg: Herder, 1893). Pruner, "Moraltheologie" (Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed.). Gopfert, Moraltheologie, 6th ed. (Paderborn: Schoningh, 1905). Kraunitzky, Moraltheologische Einleitung, 2nd ed. (Breslau: Aderholz, 1898). Schindler, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie (Vienna: Opitz, 1897).

2. Other definitions. Moral theology can be defined in two other ways:

a. The science of the laws and means by which human actions are ordered to the ultimate supernatural end.

In order that man may come to the supernatural end of eternal life, God has given precepts which must be observed, and has instituted means which must be employed. Hence, in order to direct human actions to their ultimate end, norms to be observed from the will of God and means to be employed from the same will must be proposed. Since, therefore, the task of moral theology consists in this, that it direct human actions to the ultimate end, moral theology must teach both the laws given by God and the means instituted by God.

b. The science of the virtues which man must exercise in order to come to the ultimate supernatural end.

Every moral action of man is in the genus of some virtue; for by any human action by which a norm is observed or a means is employed, through which man is directed to the ultimate end, some virtue is exercised. Therefore the proper task of moral theology can also be set forth in this way: that it teaches the virtues which man, according to the will of God, must exercise in order to attain his ultimate end. Hence moral theology can truly be called the doctrine concerning Christian virtues; and because the complex of all virtues is signified by the name of justice, moral theology is rightly called the doctrine concerning Christian justice - die Lehre von der christlichen Gerechtigkeit.

Note. It can be asked whether moral theology is properly a doctrine concerning virtues, or rather a doctrine concerning duties. Both can be truly and rightly affirmed: for the proper task of moral theology is so to direct man that he may obtain the end of eternal life. Now man can be directed to this end in two ways: either by deducing from Christian revelation and declaring the virtues which must be exercised for obtaining the ultimate end; or by collecting and explaining the norms or precepts which, according to the will of God, must be observed for obtaining the ultimate end. The former was done by St. Thomas in the second part of the second part of the Summa Theologica; the latter was accomplished by St. Alphonsus in moral theology. The former is more suited to theory and speculation, the latter to the practice of the confessional and to popular instruction. Nevertheless moral theology does not set forth the doctrine of the virtues absolutely and perfectly, but it teaches the virtues only insofar as they are prescribed and insofar as their exercise is necessary for obtaining eternal life or for avoiding sin. The doctrine of the virtues, complete in every respect up to the highest perfection, belongs to Ascetic Theology.

3. Practical theology. Moral theology is a theological science, and indeed a practical one.

a. It belongs to the nature of moral science that it set forth truths pertaining to morals not in any manner whatever, but in such a way that it demonstrates them from principles or sources, shows the connection by which they cohere both with each other and also with the ultimate end, confirms one from another, and by reasoning from them deduces new truths; this is what moral theology, if it deserves to be marked by this name, must accomplish.

b. In order that it may be called a theological science in the strict sense, it must not only treat of God, but must also be known from divine revelation. But moral theology treats of God insofar as He is the ultimate supernatural end to be attained by man, and insofar as He is the lawgiver and institutor of the means of salvation; and this is known chiefly from divine revelation.

c. A practical science is one which does not intend mere knowledge of truth, but rather operation. But moral theology is wholly concerned with directing human actions, since from its task it teaches which precepts are to be observed and which virtues are to be exercised for obtaining the end of eternal life.

4. On the progress of moral science. Although the moral truths to be proposed in moral theology always remain unchanged in themselves, nevertheless moral theology itself, insofar as it is a theological science, can and must make continual progress. For, in the first place, the conditions of human life are continually changed and developed; hence moral truths must be applied to new conditions of life, so that human life may be in every respect consonant with moral norms. Moreover the sciences, both sacred and profane, daily increase and are perfected; indeed new sciences repeatedly arise. But the advances of these sciences and their discoveries are also of use to moral theology and perfect it. Finally, in the course of time, different adversaries arise and assail moral truths with new weapons. But by the fact that their attacks are rejected and their difficulties solved, moral truths themselves shine with greater clarity and are established with more perfect certitude.

5. The relation of moral theology to related sciences. a. To ethics. Ethics agrees with moral theology in many things; indeed the latter partly contains the former in itself. For since the supernatural end does not exclude the natural end, but rather supposes and contains it, what is evil with respect to the natural end will necessarily also be evil with respect to the supernatural end, although what is good with respect to the natural end cannot yet be good with respect to the supernatural end unless it is elevated to the supernatural order.

Nevertheless ethics and moral theology differ in several respects:

a. By reason of the means of knowledge: for the means of knowing for ethics is natural reason; but the primary means of knowing for moral theology is divine revelation, while the secondary means is reason enlightened by faith.

b. By reason of the object: for moral theology adds to ethical truths many truths drawn from divine revelation, especially those which refer to supernatural life and to the theological virtues.

c. By reason of the end: for ethics directs man to natural perfection and the natural end; but moral theology directs him to supernatural perfection and the supernatural end.

d. By reason of the means: for moral theology teaches man the supernatural helps, and especially the sacraments instituted by God, so that by their aid he may be able to come to the end of eternal life. Likewise it supplies supernatural motives of acting - fear, hope, charity - and finally shows supernatural examples - the life of Christ and of the saints - so that the faithful may attain their end in an easier and more perfect way, as is shown by the highest Christian perfection which the saints of the Church have attained.

b. To dogmatic theology.

a. The older theologians did not distinguish dogmatic theology from moral theology, but brought together all revealed truths under the name of speculative theology into one body of doctrine.

b. Afterwards, however, they separated moral theology from dogmatic theology and treated it separately, so that they assigned to moral theology the truths which pertain to directing morals, and to dogmatic theology those truths which do not proximately refer to morals. They called the latter theoretical theology, and the former practical theology.

From this it is clear that many moral truths are drawn from divine revelation and, as dogmas, pertain to the object of faith, such as the truths concerning the exercise of the theological virtues. Indeed there are several truths about which discourse can be undertaken with equal right both in dogmatic theology and in moral theology, such as truths concerning the sacraments, justification, merit, the end of man, the virtues, sins, and so forth.

c. Dogmatic theology, with regard to truths which pertain to faith alone and not to morals, is the foundation of moral theology, so that one ought to support and illuminate the other. And indeed the moral actions of man themselves are understood more accurately and more perfectly from dogmatic truths concerning justice and original sin, creation, redemption, and the grace of the Redeemer. Moreover, there are many other dogmatic truths which shed much light on moral truths.

c. To pastoral theology. Pastoral theology is the doctrine concerning the care of souls. Therefore it teaches pastors how they ought to exercise the care of souls according to the example of Christ the Lord, who is the prince of pastors,¹ namely through the exercise of the threefold office: of teacher, priest, and king, or pastor. Moral theology, among all theological disciplines, is most closely related to pastoral theology. For moral theology treats of the obligations which are incumbent upon all men, so that by their observance they may come to the end of eternal life; but pastoral theology treats of the duties which are incumbent specifically upon pastors, so that they may rightly exercise the care of souls and by its exercise lead the faithful committed to them to the end of eternal life.

d. To juridical sciences. Ecclesiastical law directs the external activity of ecclesiastical society and orders the relation of individual faithful to that same society; it more accurately determines and perfects the law, both natural and positive divine. Since a true legislative power has been granted to the Church by God, her laws have force in the forum of conscience and, according to the will of God, must be observed, so that we may obtain the end of eternal life. Therefore moral theology must frequently also attend to the dispositions of ecclesiastical law. Civil law rules the external activity of civil society and determines the external relation of citizens both among themselves and to society itself; it explains and perfects the social law of nature. Since civil authority also is furnished with the power of making laws that bind in conscience, its laws too must be observed according to the will of God. Of these laws, those pertain especially to moral theology by which rights are established and determined.

Among the philosophical and juridical sciences in our time the social and economic sciences are diligently cultivated; their investigations must be attended to in moral theology, so that by their aid false or obsolete notions and opinions may be corrected and moral theology itself may be fittingly perfected.

Note 1. Theologians, with Clement of Alexandria leading the way,² reduce the relation between Christian ethics and ancient ethics, and the perfection of the former, to these three heads. Christian ethics: a. contains all moral truths, and these fittingly connected; b. supplies greater certitude, drawn both from evident internal reasons and from the highest authority of Christ; c. confers force and virtue, by which even the most difficult and most perfect moral precepts may be expressed in the life of the faithful.³

Note 2. The relation between Catholic and Protestant ethics is determined by these five heads. Catholic ethics: a. is governed by the infallible magisterium of the Church; on the contrary, Protestant ethics, which lacks such a magisterium, necessarily falls into subjectivism and error; b. its source is not Scripture alone, but besides Scripture it also acknowledges ecclesiastical tradition; c. it teaches that liberty is necessary for the moral life, and that neither sin nor grace removes it; d. it teaches that the justification of sinners consists in internal conversion and sanctification through divine grace, not in the subjective apprehension of the justice by which Christ is just; e. we obtain justification through the sacraments received in reality or in desire, which the Church alone instituted by Christ administers.

From these points two things are made manifest. The first is that the difference between Catholic and Protestant ethics must be called entirely essential; the second is that the reason for the difference must be taken from the dogmatic truths which are rejected by Protestants.⁴

¹ 1 Pet. 5:4.

² Stromata 1, 20.

³ Cf. Mausbach, Christentum und Weltmoral (Munster: Aschendorff, 1897), pp. 1-35.

⁴ Cf. Mausbach, Die katholische Moral (Cologne: Bachem, 1901), p. 70 ff.

6. Method. Moral theology, by reason of its task, proposes norms and laws by which the moral and Christian life of man must be directed. Now the method of moral theology is the mode and form which is observed in proposing these laws, or in treating moral theology. A threefold method is distinguished: positive, scholastic, and casuistic.

a. The positive method is that by which moral truths, drawn from the proper sources of this science and proved from them, are proposed in systematic order. Therefore the positive method supplies a simple knowledge of moral truths from their sources.

b. The scholastic or speculative method is that by which moral truths taken from their proper sources are explained more accurately, confirmed from theological and philosophical principles, vindicated from attacks, the connection by which they cohere with one another and with the ultimate end is investigated, and finally conclusions are deduced from them. Therefore the scholastic method supplies a deeper and more scientific knowledge of the same truths.

c. The casuistic method is that by which, systematic order being neglected, moral truths are applied to particular cases, and these the rarer cases of human life, and practical questions, especially the more difficult ones, are resolved from moral principles, so that in individual cases it may be known what is lawful and what unlawful, what is grave sin and what light sin.

a. Others, passing over the positive method as being joined with the scholastic method by an inseparable bond, distinguish this threefold way of treating moral theology: scholastic, casuistic, and mystical. The mystical method is that by which moral truths are treated in such a way that they arouse and direct one to pursue virtue, and that perfect virtue. Therefore the mystical method sets forth the individual virtues and their diverse grades of perfection, and from moral truths deduces reasons and motives by which man may be moved and determined to pursue Christian perfection. Since there exists a special theological discipline, namely ascetic theology, which treats of virtues in this way, the mystical method is not a way of treating moral theology.

b. Moral theologians who chiefly follow the casuistic method are called casuists. Some of them, with the exposition of principles almost entirely neglected, devote themselves almost exclusively to solving cases, especially the more difficult and intricate ones (Bucceroni, Genicot); others, however, after a more or less accurate and scientific exposition of principles has been set forth, give their effort to discussing cases (Elbel, Lehmkuhl).

7. The method of recent authors. Recent authors of moral theology do not follow only one method in preference to the others, but most of them fittingly join all three. Therefore, although in the different parts of moral theology, according as the matter itself requires, one method prevails over the others, nevertheless generally there is discerned a method composed and mixed from these three.

And rightly indeed the casuistic method is joined also with the positive-scholastic method.

For where moral theology is proposed to future confessors, the mere exposition of moral principles is not sufficient, but the resolution of diverse cases and questions drawn from practical life is altogether necessary. For the application of principles to practical questions, especially those entangled by diverse circumstances, is not without difficulty for beginners; and this difficulty cannot be overcome except by long and varied exercises.

Moreover, the solution of many practical questions is taken not so much from certain principles as from the prudent judgment and estimation of experts. But such a prudent estimation is not acquired except by the manifold consideration and study of cases which authors discuss and resolve.

Hence it happens that in moral theology, especially in questions whose solution depends upon prudent estimation, not only is much deference given to the authority of those theologians who excel the rest in prudent judgment, but also the opinion of several authors is usually cited, because the conforming judgment of several in questions of this sort offers a very clear testimony of truth.

8. Division. In order that moral theology may suit the practical end which we chiefly intend, it can fittingly be divided into three parts. The first is concerning the foundations of moral theology, or concerning the first and general principles of this science. The second is concerning precepts, which sets forth the norms drawn from Christian revelation which man, according to the will of God, must observe in order to attain the ultimate end of eternal life. The third is concerning the sacraments, which are so many means or helps of salvation instituted by God, so that man by their use may come to eternal life. God commands the use of these means by positive law, and the Church determines it by her decrees.

This division does not differ from that by which moral theology is commonly divided into two parts, of which one is called general or fundamental, the other special. The former sets forth the general principles of morals, namely those properties which must belong to all human actions so that they may be apt for the ultimate end. The latter teaches what man in particular must do or omit, namely both the obligations which, according to the will of God, man must fulfill, and the means which he must employ in order to obtain eternal life. For this reason special moral theology comprises those two parts which we mentioned above: concerning precepts and concerning the sacraments.