Question First. On the Nature of the Sacraments

2. Definition. A sacrament of the new law can be defined: a visible sign divinely instituted for signifying and effecting the sanctification of men.

A visible sign, that is, sensible, which can be perceived by some external sense. Divinely instituted, because the author of the sacraments is Christ Jesus: for God alone can institute a sacrament, because God alone can give to material things the power of producing sanctifying grace. For signifying and effecting sanctification: for the sacraments are not only signs of grace, but also causes of the same. Besides this, by these words the end of the sacraments is shown, all of which tend to this, that they sanctify man through grace. Moreover, the grace which all the sacraments signify and confer is principally sanctifying grace: for they either first confer this grace or increase it once already conferred.

¹ St. Thomas III, q. 60-65. St. Alphonsus, bk. 6, n. 1-89. Fr. Suarez, De sacramentis in genere, disp. 1-18. Io. de Lugo, De sacramentis in genere, disp. 1-9. Sporer-Bierbaum, Theologia moralis decalogalis et sacramentalis, tom. III, pars 1, De sacramentis in genere, n. 1-196. Aeg. Coninck, De sacramentis, quaest. 60-64. Chr. Pesch, Praelectiones dogmaticae^3, tom. VI, VII. A. Lehmkuhl, Theologia moralis^10, II, n. 1-54 (n. 1-74). The numbers added within parentheses refer to the twelfth edition. Ballerini-Palmieri, Opus theologicum morale^3, IV, n. 642-710. Nik. Gihr, Die hl. Sakramente der kath. Kirche^2 (Freiburg: Herder, 1903). I. B. Pruner, Lehrbuch der Pastoraltheologie (Paderborn: Schoningh, 1900), I. Bd. Dom. Prummer, Manuale Theologiae Moralis (Freiburg: Herder, 1915), t. III. The new Code of Ecclesiastical Law, for the sake of brevity, is cited in this manner, e.g. cn 371, or cn 859, 3.

3. Effect of the sacraments in general is threefold: one is common to all the sacraments: sanctifying grace, supernatural virtues, and the gifts of the Holy Spirit; another is peculiar to the individual sacraments: sacramental grace, by which name is understood both the right of obtaining all helps necessary for pursuing the end proper to each sacrament, and these helps themselves actually conferred in their own time; finally, the third is proper to three sacraments, baptism, confirmation, and order, namely character.

Character is an indelible sign impressed upon the soul, by which the soul is conformed to Christ and is specially deputed and consecrated to His service in a diverse state and grade: for through the character of baptism a man is constituted a sheep and member of Christ, and is conformed to Christ the head and supreme shepherd; through the character of confirmation he is constituted a soldier of Christ and is conformed to Christ the supreme leader of our warfare; through the character of order he is constituted a minister of Christ and is conformed to Christ the supreme prince of shepherds, the bishop of our souls, the high priest.¹

Concerning the grace which the diverse sacraments confer, these things can be established from the more common doctrine of theologians.

a. If sacraments diverse in species, baptism, confirmation, etc., are compared with one another, they do not all produce the same grace, but one sacrament produces a grace greater and more perfect than another: for one is in itself more worthy and perfect than another, and therefore it also produces a greater and more perfect effect; and since the most holy sacrament of the eucharist is the most worthy of all, it confers an effect more perfect than all the others. And indeed the end of diverse sacraments is more perfect in one case than in another; therefore it also demands that one sacrament produce a more perfect effect than another. Since, for example, the end of order is more perfect than the end of confirmation, order confers a more perfect grace upon those receiving it.

b. If sacraments diverse only in number are considered, for example, several baptisms, it must be said that in subjects of the same disposition they of themselves, as to grade, always produce the same effect: for any sacrament whatever, from divine institution, is ordered of itself to producing a certain and determinate effect. But in subjects of diverse disposition, all teach that a diverse effect, as to grade, is produced, namely a greater effect in a better-disposed subject and a lesser effect in a less-disposed subject. Yet some say that the effect of the individual sacraments is limited according to a certain grade and measure from divine institution, so that a certain measure is not exceeded even in him who is disposed to receive a greater one. Others, on the contrary, think that the effect of individual sacraments is determined to a certain grade not from divine institution, but only from the disposition of the receiver, so that those unequally disposed obtain unequal grace according to the perfection of their disposition, which is limited only by the disposition, finite by its own nature.²

¹ Cf. Sporer-Bierbaum III, pr. 1, n. 57.

² Cf. Laymann, bk. 5, tr. 1, c. 6, n. 6; Sporer-Bierbaum III, pr. 1, n. 49 ss.

4. Division of sacramental effects. Of the effects which are conferred by the individual sacraments, some are called effects per se, others effects per accidens. An effect per se is that for producing which the sacrament has been instituted, and which therefore is always and in every case produced; thus the remission of original sin is the effect per se of baptism. An effect per accidens is that for obtaining which the sacrament has not been instituted, and which therefore is produced by the sacrament only in some extraordinary case; thus the remission of mortal sin is an effect per accidens of the eucharist. An effect per se is distinguished into primary, which God principally intends in the institution of the sacrament, and which therefore is the adequate reason for instituting the sacrament; and into secondary, which God intends only remotely, and which therefore is not the reason for instituting the sacrament. Thus the remission of mortal and venial sin is produced per se and by force of institution by the sacrament of penance, but the former primarily, the latter only secondarily.

5. Mode of effecting. The sacraments produce their effect ex opere operato, that is, by force of the sacramental action itself, which has this from the will and institution of Christ, that of itself it can confer grace and sufficiently sanctify; not ex opere operantis, that is, not from the dignity and merit of him who administers the sacrament, nor of him who receives the sacrament. For the dispositions of the receiver which are required constitute a necessary condition, but not an efficient cause of grace; and the dispositions of the minister are required so that the sacrament may be administered worthily, not so that it may be administered validly. Therefore, once the sacramental action has been placed, the sacraments infallibly produce their effect and confer it on the receiver, provided no obstacle is present which impedes it.

Sacraments are said to produce their effects ex opere operato negatively indeed, so that they do not have their force from the merit of the minister conferring or of the subject receiving; positively, however, it signifies that the sacramental action itself has the force of causing grace.

6. Number of the sacraments. There are seven sacraments of the new law, neither more nor fewer: baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme unction, order, and matrimony. This is certain by faith from the definition of the Church: "If anyone shall say that the sacraments of the new law were not all instituted by Jesus Christ our Lord, or that there are more or fewer than seven, let him be anathema."¹

a. The number seven of the sacraments can be gathered not from the nature of the thing, but only from the will and good pleasure of God. Yet it was most fittingly done that seven sacraments were instituted: for the end of the sacraments is supernatural life, which has a likeness with this natural life. Now for natural life, both private and public, seven things are necessary: that a man be generated, strengthened, nourished, freed from infirmity and its remnants; because he lives in society, superiors must be constituted who rule society; because he is mortal, the legitimate conjunction of male and female is necessary for propagating the human race, lest society fail. In like manner, for supernatural life seven things are necessary: generation through baptism, increase and strengthening through confirmation, nourishment through the eucharist, remedy against sin through penance, remedy against the remnants of sins through extreme unction, power of ruling the Church through order, and propagation of the human race destined for the worship of God through matrimony.²

b. The individual sacraments differ especially by the end for which they have been instituted. Therefore, although all the sacraments confer sanctifying grace, nevertheless they confer it as diverse according to the diverse end. Namely, the sanctifying grace which is conferred in the individual sacraments is the principle and foundation of the helps which afterward conduct to obtaining the peculiar end of the sacrament. In baptism, therefore, there is conferred sanctifying grace insofar as it contains a right to divine helps by which man can worship God and observe His precepts; in confirmation there is conferred sanctifying grace insofar as it contains a right to divine helps by which man is strengthened for preserving and defending the faith; in the eucharist there is conferred sanctifying grace insofar as it contains a right to divine helps by which man can possess Christ through greater charity in union with Christ; in penance there is conferred sanctifying grace insofar as it contains a right to divine helps by which a man who has relapsed into sin may arise again; in extreme unction there is conferred sanctifying grace insofar as it contains a right to divine helps by which man is aided to bearing with a calm soul the annoyances of sickness and of the last struggle; in order there is conferred sanctifying grace insofar as it contains a right to divine helps by which one ordained may be able worthily and fruitfully to exercise the offices of his order; in matrimony there is conferred sanctifying grace insofar as it contains a right to divine helps by which married persons may fulfill the duties of the common life rightly and worthily. Hence it follows that a man who by mortal sin loses sanctifying grace at the same time loses the right to the helps which is contained in it.

¹ Council of Trent, sess. 7, can. 1.

² Cf. St. Thomas III, q. 65, a. 1.

7. Division of the sacraments. The seven sacraments of the new law are:

a. Repeatable, which can be received often because they do not imprint upon the soul an indelible character: eucharist, penance, extreme unction, matrimony; and non-repeatable, which can be validly received only once, because they imprint an indelible character upon the soul: baptism, confirmation, order.

b. Sacraments of the dead, which per se and primarily have been instituted for conferring first grace, and therefore for infusing spiritual or supernatural life into a man spiritually dead: baptism and penance; and sacraments of the living, which per se and primarily have been instituted for conferring second grace, and therefore for increasing supernatural life of grace in him who already lives by grace: confirmation, eucharist, extreme unction, order, and matrimony.

alpha. It happens per accidens that even sacraments of the dead confer second grace, namely if the one who receives them, through perfect contrition, is already in the state of grace. Likewise it can per accidens happen that sacraments of the living confer first grace, namely if he who receives them is in the state of mortal sin but in good faith thinks himself to be in the state of grace, provided he has attrition; this indeed is certain concerning extreme unction, but concerning the others it is not equally certain.

beta. Those who affirm that the sacraments of the living confer first grace per accidens use this argument: sacraments confer grace ex opere operato on those who do not place an obstacle; but he who in good faith and with attrition receives a sacrament does not place an obstacle; otherwise the sacraments of the dead would not produce an effect. But those who deny this answer that this very thing is in question, whether in sacraments of the living only the culpable obstacle or also an inculpable obstacle is constituted by the lack of the state of grace.¹ Since the whole matter depends upon the will of Christ instituting the sacraments, but the will of Christ in this matter has not been manifested, beyond extreme unction nothing certain can be defined concerning it.²

c. Necessary and non-necessary: alpha. baptism and penance are necessary for all men who after baptism have lapsed into grave sin, by necessity of means; beta. the eucharist is necessary by necessity of precept; gamma. the remaining four sacraments per se are not necessary to individuals, either by necessity of means or by necessity of precept.

d. Invalid, in which the sacrament itself is null and only its external rite is performed; and fruitless, in which the sacrament itself is validly conferred, but nevertheless lacks the effect of grace.

alpha. Invalid sacraments produce no effect in the soul of the receiver; fruitless sacraments produce some effect: some imprint a character, and all confer a right to the grace suited to the sacrament received.

beta. It happens that he who administers or receives an invalid sacrament sins more gravely than he who receives or administers a fruitless sacrament.

e. Formed, which produce their effect, sanctifying grace or the form of the soul, when they are received; and unformed, which indeed are validly received, but on account of an obstacle existing in the receiver do not produce their effect.

alpha. Obstacle or fiction is called the defect of the necessary disposition which in the receiver impedes the sacrament from being able to produce the effect of grace. It consists in mortal sin, or rather in adhesion to and affection for the will of mortal sin. Yet an obstacle does not impede the imprinting of character.

beta. Sacraments can be unformed through fault or without fault, because the obstacle can be found in the soul culpably or in good faith. Moreover, all sacraments can be unformed; concerning penance alone several doubt whether this is possible, as will be said below.

¹ Cf. St. Thomas III, q. 79, a. 3.

² Benedict XIV, De synodo, bk. 7, c. 11, n. 1.

8. On the reviviscence of the sacraments. For sacraments to revive signifies that they afterward, once the obstacle has been removed, confer the same grace which they would have conferred if the obstacle had not been present in the soul. To remove the obstacle signifies to acquire for oneself the necessary dispositions which, when the sacrament was conferred, should have been present, but were not present either culpably or without fault.

1. All indeed readily concede that there is no repugnance in the reviviscence of the sacraments, since reviviscence is explained in this way: every validly conferred sacrament produces its proper effect, that is, it confers upon the receiver either the grace itself or a right to grace to be produced through the sacrament. Since this grace cannot be applied to the soul on account of an obstacle existing in it, it remains meanwhile suspended until the obstacle is removed; but once the obstacle has afterward been removed, that grace is applied to the soul itself. Now it can easily be understood that by the reception of a sacrament there is acquired a right to grace to be conferred by force of the sacrament, which is actually conferred as soon as the obstacle is removed. The only question is whether, and which, sacraments in fact revive from the institution of Christ. For some teach that baptism alone revives; others, on the contrary, affirm that all sacraments revive once the obstacle is removed; others finally attribute reviviscence to some sacraments, namely those which imprint a character, but deny it to the others.¹

2. It is certain that baptism revives once the obstacle has been removed: for a character impressed demands the complement of the sacramental effect. Besides, since baptism cannot be repeated, if it did not revive, many would have to lack graces very necessary to salvation and ordinary to it.

It is very probable that confirmation and order also revive once the obstacle has been removed: for since these sacraments on the one hand produce an effect altogether proper to them, and on the other hand cannot be repeated, if they did not revive, there would be men who would have to lack graces ordinary and necessary to the state constituted for them; besides, character seems to demand reviviscence.

It is also probable that extreme unction and matrimony revive once the obstacle has been removed, because these sacraments have certain effects proper to them which endure during the same sickness or the same marriage and cannot be repeated.²

But because in favor of the eucharist, which can be received daily, a similar reason does not hold, it is not very probable that this sacrament also revives once the obstacle has been removed.

The reviviscence of penance depends on whether it can be unformed or not; but whether the sacrament of penance can be unformed will be stated below.

3. As to the disposition which is required that unformed sacraments afterward revive, one must distinguish among the sacraments of the living, the sacraments of the dead, and extreme unction. In the sacraments of the living, except extreme unction, contrition or attrition with absolution is required; in the sacraments of the dead and in extreme unction, attrition suffices, unless sacrilege or grave sin committed in the reception was present: for in this case contrition, or attrition with absolution, is required.

¹ Coninck, q. 62, n. 64 ss.

² Several teach that extreme unction certainly revives.