Virtues and Vices › Justice › The Vices Against It

Opposed to Justice

The Vices Against Justice

Each vice in the authors' own words, with its kinds and gravity. The arrangement is ours; every reference opens the passage.

Covetousness, opposed to liberality, is a capital vice with a page of its own. Perjury and blasphemy also appear among the daughters of capital vices. Blasphemy is set out with the vices against faith.

A vice with no remedies here has none named for it in the works read. Remedies against sin in general are on the map, and the means of gaining each virtue are on its page.

Injustice in General

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas and Merkelbach name the same two: an “illegal” injustice against the common good and a particular injustice (II-II, q. 59, a. 1, II, n. 241).
Killing one who consents. Wouters holds, “against many”, that injustice is done to the one consenting himself, since his right persists (n. 976). Noldin says the act “is unjust against God, but cannot be unjust against him who consents” (n. 411); McHugh-Callan, that it is unjust “to God and to the State” (n. 1725). Prümmer and Marc say injustice is done, Marc because the right is inalienable and cannot be yielded “without injury to others” (II, n. 76, n. 723). Vermeersch holds the opposite: the rule “suffers no exception”, since one who cannot transfer an inalienable right can still not oppose it, though such consent is not always honest nor removes the act's other malice (n. 575).

What It Is

Injury, the act: “the voluntary and efficacious violation or injury of another's right properly so called”	Merkelbach II, n. 237In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 408; Wouters n. 976; Marc n. 722; Prümmer II, n. 74
Injustice, the habit: “injustice is the wicked habit which is contrariwise opposed to the virtue of justice”	Noldin n. 408In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 236; Marc n. 722; Prümmer II, n. 73
Injury most properly, against commutative justice: “Injury is a sin grave from its genus, because it is opposed to commutative justice”	Noldin n. 410In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 241

What It Is Not

Not here: injustice as any sin: “improperly and metaphorically so called, it is the complex of vices and every transgression of law”	Merkelbach II, n. 236In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1719; Prümmer II, n. 73; Bontempi What kind of sin injustice is, and, n. 2
Not material injustice, done unknowingly: “he does an unjust thing, not directly, but only indirectly, and, as it were, doing materially that which is unjust: hence such an operation is not called an injustice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 238; Wouters n. 977; Marc n. 722; Prümmer II, n. 76
An unjust act does not make an unjust man: “but a man may do what is unjust, unintentionally or through passion, without having the habit of injustice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 240
Not to one who knows and consents: “When one man gives voluntarily to another that which he does not owe him, he causes neither injustice nor inequality.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 3, ad 1In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 411; Prümmer II, n. 76; Marc n. 723; McHugh-Callan n. 1725; Wouters n. 976
Not toward oneself: “if he inflict an injury on himself, it may come under the head of some other kind of sin, intemperance for instance or imprudence, but not injustice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 3, ad 2In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 346
Not the bare intention of harming: “If the intention does not make the external act a violation of strict right, even though that act be harmful to the other party, it does not make the external act unjust.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1726In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 412; Marc n. 727; Prümmer II, n. 76; Merkelbach II, n. 237

Its Kinds

Illegal injustice, contempt of the common good: “First there is illegal injustice which is opposed to legal justice: and this is essentially a special vice, in so far as it regards a special object, namely the common good which it contemns”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 242; McHugh-Callan n. 1720; Bontempi What kind of sin injustice is, and, n. 6; Vermeersch n. 566
Noldin, without a name: “injury of the right of legal justice, which lacks a proper name”	Noldin n. 408
Particular injustice: “Secondly we speak of injustice in reference to an inequality between one person and another, when one man wishes to have more goods, riches for example, or honors, and less evils, such as toil and losses”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 243; McHugh-Callan n. 1720; Bontempi What kind of sin injustice is, and, n. 7
Against distributive justice, acceptance of persons: “injustice concerning distributions, which is the violation of distributive justice and is called acceptance of persons”	Merkelbach II, n. 241In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 408
By doing or by omitting: “Into positive, which is inflicted by doing something against another's right, and negative, which is inflicted by omitting what is owed to another by strict right.”	Noldin n. 409In nearly the same words: Marc n. 722; McHugh-Callan n. 1724
Personal or real: “Into personal and real, according as the right of another is injured in the person, that is, in goods of soul or body, or in external goods.”	Noldin n. 409In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 977; Merkelbach II, n. 238
With or without damage: “Into mere and damaging, according as the right of another is injured without damage or with damage of him to whom the right pertains.”	Noldin n. 409In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 238; McHugh-Callan n. 1724
In thought, word or deed: “it is divided into mental, verbal, and real injury, according as it is done by a merely internal mental act, by word or writing, or by deed and work”	Merkelbach II, n. 238In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 409; Marc n. 722
Species by the goods injured: “But first four genera of goods must be distinguished: a. spiritual goods, both natural and supernatural; b. internal goods (of life and members); c. mixed goods (of reputation and honor); d. external goods (of fortune).”	Noldin n. 410In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1723; Merkelbach II, n. 243
Taking and damaging, one species: “Unjust taking away and damaging do not differ in specific malice”	Noldin n. 410In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1724
An indifferent act made unjust by intention: “If the action of itself is indifferent toward a just or unjust effect, it can become unjust through the wicked intention of the agent”	Noldin n. 412In nearly the same words: Marc n. 727; McHugh-Callan n. 1726
Consent that cannot excuse, of a right one cannot yield: “that the one consenting can yield his right; for if he cannot yield it, the yielding is invalid”	Noldin n. 411In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1725; Prümmer II, n. 76; Marc n. 723
Consent that cannot excuse, not free: “that he in reality wishes to yield his right, that is, that the yielding be altogether free”	Noldin n. 411In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1725; Prümmer II, n. 76; Marc n. 723

Its Gravity

Mortal from its genus: “it is evident that to do an injustice is a mortal sin according to its genus”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 74; Merkelbach II, n. 239; Noldin n. 410; Wouters n. 978; Marc n. 725; McHugh-Callan n. 1721; Bontempi What kind of sin injustice is, and, n. 7
Because contrary to charity: “every injury inflicted on another person is of itself contrary to charity”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 239; Prümmer II, n. 74; McHugh-Callan n. 1721
Noldin, one malice, not two: “Nevertheless sins of injustice (for example, thefts) do not contain a twofold malice, one against charity and another against justice, but only one against justice, in which the injury of charity is contained as a genus.”	Noldin n. 408
Venial from the act or from small matter: “but it can be a light sin either from imperfection of act (i.e. from inadvertence or imperfect consent), or from smallness of matter”	Prümmer II, n. 74In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 239; Bontempi What kind of sin injustice is, and, n. 7; Noldin n. 410; Marc n. 725; McHugh-Callan n. 1721
Small matters, not wholly against the owner's will: “He who does an injustice in small matters falls short of the perfection on an unjust deed, in so far as what he does may be deemed not altogether contrary to the will of the person who suffers therefrom”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 4, ad 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 239
Grave matter weighed by the harm to the neighbor and to the community: “from the damage which is inflicted on the neighbor; b. from the damage which would arise for the community if such matter were not prohibited under grave obligation”	Noldin n. 410In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 74; Merkelbach II, n. 239; McHugh-Callan n. 1722
The sign, reasonable grave unwillingness: “injustice is a grave sin as often as both he who suffers the damage and the governor of the community are reasonably gravely unwilling”	Prümmer II, n. 74In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 410; McHugh-Callan n. 1722; Marc n. 725; Wouters n. 978
A trifle dear to the owner, grave against charity only: “then the voluntary injury of such a thing can indeed be a grave sin against charity, but not against justice”	Prümmer II, n. 74In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 410; McHugh-Callan n. 1722
Wouters, by the relation between the parties: “so that if, for example, there is question of a son of a family, a graver matter is required for mortal sin than if there is question of another”	Wouters n. 978
In doubt of grave matter: “In doubt whether the thing or quantity to be taken away or consumed by you is grave, you are bound under grave obligation to abstain”	Wouters n. 978
Graver by the good injured: “Diverse injustices are graver, some than others, according to the species of good and right which is injured”	Merkelbach II, n. 244

Its Remedies

Satisfaction and restitution: “Offense is repaired by satisfaction; damage by restitution.”	Marc n. 722In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 76; Noldin n. 274
Restitution of itself only for commutative injustice: “nevertheless of themselves they do not oblige with the burden of restitution”	Noldin n. 274In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 71

Where It Comes From

From passion or from choice: “For an injustice may sometimes arise from a passion, for instance, anger or desire, and sometimes from choice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 240
Contempt of the common good, a cause of every sin: “since contempt of the common good may lead to all kinds of sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 59, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 242

Respect of Persons (acceptance of persons)

How the Authors Compare

Burdens. McHugh-Callan counts partiality in imposing burdens as favoritism (n. 1809); Vermeersch and Noldin say an inequitable distribution of burdens violates commutative justice itself (n. 572, n. 274). Merkelbach says distributive justice regards “first and directly” the distribution “not of burdens but of the goods of the community” (II, n. 618). Billuart is with Vermeersch and Noldin: in the bad distribution of burdens “there is found a violation of commutative justice even toward private persons” (What is respect of persons, n. 4).
The worthy or the worthier. St. Thomas: the elector in conscience must elect “one who is better” (II-II, q. 63, a. 2, ad 3), and Merkelbach rejects the opinion that only a worthy man is owed as “not conformable to the mind of St. Thomas” (II, n. 622). Bontempi holds the worthier is owed “for any Ecclesiastical benefice whatever” (Whether, and how, it is a sin of a, n. 12). Vermeersch requires the more worthy for public offices but grants the contrary opinion “extrinsic probability” (n. 571); Wouters says naming a worthy man, though less worthy, does not injure commutative justice toward the society (n. 1048). Billuart: conferring a benefice on the less worthy, the more worthy passed over, “regularly speaking, is illicit, but valid”, the common opinion; mortal where the care of souls is annexed, “venial only, more probably” for simple benefices of lesser moment (On respect of persons in the…, n. 4, On respect of persons in the…, n. 10, On respect of persons in the…, n. 12).
Restitution to the worthier passed over. Vermeersch, Merkelbach, McHugh-Callan and Wouters owe none unless a competition gave a strict right (n. 571); Bontempi reports Molina, Salon and Bannes holding that distributive injustice itself binds to restitution to the worthier (Whether, and how, it is a sin of a, n. 43). Billuart: outside the concursus nothing is owed the worthier passed over, who has “not strict right to the benefice, but only a right of aptitude and proportion”; to the Church restitution is owed of itself, “But it seems that the Church neither demands this restitution nor binds to it” (On respect of persons in the…, n. 19, On respect of persons in the…, n. 17).
Where it belongs. Bontempi holds that denying due honor is against distributive justice (Whether acceptance of persons has, n. 6), against Cajetan and Lessius, who say it is against observance only (Whether acceptance of persons has, n. 5).

What It Is

Against distributive justice: “Respect of persons is opposed to distributive justice.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 617; Noldin n. 271; Wouters n. 1047; Bontempi On the Acceptance of Persons, n. 1
Regarding the person, not the cause: “but if, in conferring something on someone, you consider in him not the fact that what you give him is proportionate or due to him, but the fact that he is this particular man (e.g. Peter or Martin), then there is respect of the person”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 1In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 271; McHugh-Callan n. 1804; Vermeersch n. 571; Bontempi What acceptance of persons is, and, n. 1; Merkelbach II, n. 616
St. Bonaventure's definition: “Acceptance of persons is an injustice, whereby person is preferred to person for an undue cause in distributions of what is owed.”	Bontempi What acceptance of persons is, and, n. 1
McHugh-Callan's names: “Favoritism (i.e., acceptance of persons, partiality)”	McHugh-Callan n. 1804

What It Is Not

Not regard for the due cause: “this is respect not of the person but of the cause”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 1
Not a circumstance that makes worthy in this matter: “thus consanguinity makes a man worthy to be appointed heir to an estate, but not to be chosen for a position of ecclesiastical authority”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 1
Not in giving one's own: “On such a giving there is no place for respect of persons, because anyone may, without injustice, give of his own as much as he will, and to whom he will”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1804; Bontempi What acceptance of persons is, and, n. 5; Merkelbach II, n. 622
Not preferring one less holy who serves the common good better: “it follows that in the dispensation of spiritualities the simply less good are sometimes preferred to the better, without respect of persons”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1810; Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin of a, n. 44
Not preferring kin as worthy as others: “Sometimes however the prelate's kinsfolk are as worthy as others, and then without respect of persons he can lawfully give preference to his kindred”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 2, ad 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 622
Not honoring office or age: “thus princes and prelates, although they be wicked, are honored as standing in God's place”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 621; McHugh-Callan n. 1813
Not a heavier penalty for a crime against a greater person: “When a person is more severely punished on account of a crime committed against a greater person, there is no respect of persons”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 4, ad 2
Not the applicant's doubt of his own fitness: “The applicant need not think that he is worthy or the most worthy”	McHugh-Callan n. 1811

Its Kinds

In offices: “for instance if a man promote someone to a prelacy or a professorship, because he is rich or because he is a relative of his, it is respect of persons”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 616; McHugh-Callan n. 1804; Bontempi What acceptance of persons is, and, n. 2
Passing over the worthier: “But as regards the conscience of an elector, it is necessary to elect one who is better, either absolutely speaking, or in relation to the common good.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 619; Vermeersch n. 571; Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin of a, n. 12
In honors: “but if they be honored merely for their wealth, it will be the sin of respect of persons”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 621; McHugh-Callan n. 1813; Bontempi Whether acceptance of persons has, n. 3
In judgment: “Wherefore it is evident that judgment is rendered corrupt by respect of persons.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 4In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1814; Bontempi Whether acceptance of persons find, n. 1
In what is left to the judge's discretion: “In the course of a trial there may be favoritism in matters left to the judge’s discretion.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1814In nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether acceptance of persons find, n. 15
In burdens: “Partiality in imposing burdens is also sinful”	McHugh-Callan n. 1809In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 572
Wouters, on the subjects' part, murmuring: “and on the part of the subject, every sin of murmuring, whether internal or external”	Wouters n. 381
With commutative injustice besides: “but sometimes by accident to commutative justice, insofar as it injures the strict right either of society, for example, by naming incapable ministers”	Merkelbach II, n. 617In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 274; Wouters n. 1048; McHugh-Callan n. 1808; Vermeersch n. 571; Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin of a, n. 41

Its Gravity

Mortal from its genus: “from its genus it is a mortal sin”	Merkelbach II, n. 617In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1807; Bontempi What acceptance of persons is, and, n. 2; Noldin n. 274
Venial in small matters: “Nevertheless it can be venial from lightness of matter, as if in a small matter, for example, in a place for sitting, one less worthy is preferred to one more worthy”	Merkelbach II, n. 617In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1807
Graver in spiritual things: “respect of persons is a more grievous sin in dispensing spiritualities than in dispensing temporalities”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 622
Trent, on electors of bishops: “it is asserted that the Electors of Bishops, communicating in the sins of others, sin mortally, unless they take care to prefer those whom they themselves judge worthier”	Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin of a, n. 25
In honors, mortal when it turns to contempt: “and consequently, if it verges toward contempt of the poor studious man, it will be mortal”	Bontempi Whether acceptance of persons has, n. 4

Its Remedies

Meditating St. Thomas's rule: “These words should be subjected to meditation by all those who must distribute ecclesiastical benefices”	Merkelbach II, n. 622
Forgoing even lawful preference for fear of scandal: “Yet he would have to forego so doing for fear of scandal”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 63, a. 2, ad 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 622
Seneca, weighing a man by his soul: “consider the soul, what and how great it is”	Bontempi Whether acceptance of persons has, n. 11
Restitution to the community for the unworthy: “he who was unjustly elected is not held to restitution unless: 1. he is incapable”	Merkelbach II, n. 622In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1808; Vermeersch n. 571
None to the worthier passed over, save after a competition: “But no restitution is owed to those who are passed over, unless, from a competition having been announced, the victor acquired a right to nomination.”	Vermeersch n. 571In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1808; Wouters n. 1048; Merkelbach II, n. 619

Where It Comes From

St. Bonaventure, from inordinate love: “And he says the whole disordination of this Justice proceeds from inordinate love”	Bontempi On the Acceptance of Persons, n. 1
St. Isidore, four corruptions of judgment: “In four ways human judgment is perverted: by fear, by covetousness, by hatred, by love.”	Bontempi Whether acceptance of persons find, n. 7
St. Gregory, honoring what surrounds a man: “we often venerate a man not for what he himself is, but for what surrounds him”	Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin of a, n. 18

Theft and Robbery

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas, Prümmer and Wouters agree on the distinction: theft hidden, robbery open or by force (II, n. 78, n. 1027, II-II, q. 66, a. 4).
Grave necessity. Prümmer, Merkelbach and Marc: it is not lawful to take another's goods in grave necessity, as Innocent XI's condemned proposition 36 shows; Merkelbach adds that it lessens the sin (II, n. 86, II, n. 411, n. 913). Sabetti-Barrett says it depends on how “grave” is meant: a quasi-extreme necessity is treated as extreme (n. 407). Vermeersch: one in grave necessity who takes “some modest thing” after asking in vain does not steal (n. 660). Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure: “in urgent necessity it is lawful to take what is necessary” (Whether in extreme, or urgent, nec, n. 11).
Things of great value in extreme necessity. Merkelbach and Marc allow even a thing of the greatest value, though the owner is not bound to give it (II, n. 411, n. 914), and Sabetti-Barrett a great sum to escape death (n. 407). Wouters allows extraordinary things in extreme necessity but not in quasi-extreme (n. 1032). Prümmer distinguishes, and holds that one in more remote extreme necessity probably cannot take a great sum (II, n. 87).
Whether extreme necessity makes the thing one's own. Prümmer and Noldin say the needy man makes it his own (II, n. 86, n. 425), and Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure, that dominion passes (Whether in extreme, or urgent, nec, n. 1). Merkelbach: this necessity “does not make the poor man the owner of another's thing” but gives only a right to take it (II, n. 412).
How small thefts coalesce. Prümmer names two ways, intention and repetition (II, n. 82); Merkelbach three, intention, moral conjunction and physical conjunction (II, n. 407), setting conspiracy aside as another question (II, n. 407); Noldin three, intention, conspiracy and multiplication (n. 419); Marc four, adding grave damage (n. 908); Vermeersch five (n. 660).
Thefts by religious. Merkelbach reports that many treat religious as sons, requiring double, but finds this “too lax”, though a greater quantity than for others is required (II, n. 406); Marc says the rule for sons cannot be applied (n. 907); Vermeersch allows the matter to be increased “at least by half” (n. 660); Bontempi treats them as sons of moderately rich parents (On the thefts of religious, n. 3).
A thing that is not sacred, stolen in a church. Merkelbach counts it local sacrilege only if it had been handed over to the custody of the place (II, n. 403), as most authors do (What quantity is required for mort, n. 24); Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure, makes any non-sacred thing taken from a sacred place a species of sacrilege (What quantity is required for mort, n. 25).
Restitution for small thefts that coalesced. Wouters binds under grave sin only so far “that there no longer remains grave matter to be restored” (n. 1031); Bontempi rejects this, since the injury is grave by reason of the whole (Whether theft is mortal when, afte, n. 24).

What It Is

Theft, the hidden taking: “it belongs properly to theft that it consists in "taking another's thing secretly."”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 78; Noldin n. 414; Vermeersch n. 660; McHugh-Callan n. 1890; Bontempi What theft is, n. 1; Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment
Theft taken generically, hidden or open: “Theft, taken generically, is the unjust taking of another's thing, for the sake of gain, the owner being reasonably unwilling.”	Merkelbach II, n. 403In nearly the same words: Marc n. 903; Sabetti-Barrett n. 402; Wouters n. 1026
In the broadest sense: “Theft, taken in the broader sense, is taken for every unjust injury in goods of fortune.”	Wouters n. 1026
Robbery: “Robbery implies a certain violence and coercion employed in taking unjustly from a man that which is his.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 8In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 413; Merkelbach II, n. 403; Wouters n. 1027; McHugh-Callan n. 1892; Sabetti-Barrett n. 402; Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment; Bontempi On Theft and Robbery, n. 1
Keeping back what is owed: “To keep back what is due to another, inflicts the same kind of injury as taking a thing unjustly: wherefore an unjust detention is included in an unjust taking.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 3, ad 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 78; Merkelbach II, n. 403; McHugh-Callan n. 1890; Bontempi What theft is, n. 2; Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment; Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment

What It Is Not

Not taking without the mind to keep: “for if the taking away was done from another intention, for example of lending the thing, or of soon returning it, or of destroying it, it is not theft strictly so called”	Prümmer II, n. 78In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 403; Noldin n. 414; Marc n. 903; Wouters n. 1026
Not when the owner minds only the manner: “He who takes something away while the owner is unwilling only as to the mode sins venially, because in the mode of taking he acted against the will of the owner, but he does not commit theft.”	Noldin n. 414In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1026; Prümmer II, n. 78
Not when the owner is unreasonably unwilling: “But he is unreasonably unwilling only if he is bound to give or leave it from justice or from piety, not however if he is bound from mere charity.”	Noldin n. 414In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 78; Wouters n. 1026; Merkelbach II, n. 403
Not taking in extreme necessity: “then it is lawful for a man to succor his own need by means of another's property, by taking it either openly or secretly: nor is this properly speaking theft or robbery”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 86; Merkelbach II, n. 411; Noldin n. 424; Wouters n. 1032; Marc n. 914; Sabetti-Barrett n. 406; Vermeersch n. 660; Bontempi Whether in extreme, or urgent, nec, n. 1; Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment
Nor taking for a neighbor in extreme need: “In a case of a like need a man may also take secretly another's property in order to succor his neighbor in need.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 7, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 86; Merkelbach II, n. 411
Not hidden compensation under its conditions: “Occult compensation, clothed with due conditions, is indeed a) licit, but b) rarely to be exercised, and c) even more rarely to be counseled by a confessor.”	Prümmer II, n. 88In nearly the same words: Marc n. 916; Noldin n. 426; Merkelbach II, n. 415; Sabetti-Barrett n. 410; McHugh-Callan n. 1928; Wouters n. 1033; Vermeersch n. 660
Taking back one's own by stealth, a sin against legal justice, not theft: “but he sins against general justice by disregarding the order of justice and usurping judgment concerning his own property”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 5, ad 3In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1033; Merkelbach II, n. 414
Not just exactions by public authority: “It is no robbery if princes exact from their subjects that which is due to them for the safe-guarding of the common good, even if they use violence in so doing”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 8, ad 3

Its Kinds

Robbery a distinct species: “Therefore the sinful aspect of robbery differs from that of theft: and consequently they differ specifically.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 413; Merkelbach II, n. 403; Wouters n. 1028; McHugh-Callan n. 1892; Sabetti-Barrett n. 403; Bontempi What theft is, n. 4
Sacrilegious theft: “a) changing the species, by reason of religion, namely, sacrilegious theft”	Merkelbach II, n. 403In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 6, ad 2; McHugh-Callan n. 1893; Wouters n. 1027; Sabetti-Barrett n. 402
Robbery more widely, withholding the laborer's hire: “Robbery is more comprehensive than theft. Those who pay not the laborer his hire are guilty of robbery”	Roman Catechism The Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1893
Theft in desire: “besides actual theft, that is, the outward commission, the will and desire are also forbidden by the law of God”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
Small thefts coalescing: “Small thefts can morally be united and coalesce, both by reason of intention into one grave injustice, and by reason of moral conjunction into one gravely unjust damage, and by reason of physical conjunction into one gravely unjust detention.”	Merkelbach II, n. 407In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 419; Marc n. 908; Vermeersch n. 660; Prümmer II, n. 82; Sabetti-Barrett n. 404; McHugh-Callan n. 1908
By the intention of reaching grave matter: “I assert first that he who from the beginning intends to take from one a grave quantity sins mortally by that intention”	Bontempi Whether theft is mortal when, afte, n. 3In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 420; Prümmer II, n. 82; Wouters n. 1029
By conspiracy: “If several, by common plan and consent, either together or successively, commit small thefts against the same owner or against various owners, their matter coalesces into one”	Noldin n. 421In nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether theft is mortal when, afte, n. 26; McHugh-Callan n. 1908
By multiplication, close in time and not restored: “provided that a) the thefts are not too distant, so that they cannot morally coalesce into one; b) the individual thefts have not been efficaciously revoked or restored; c) and the thief notices that relatively grave matter is being completed”	Merkelbach II, n. 407In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 82; Noldin n. 422; Sabetti-Barrett n. 404
Still unlawful, from one in the same necessity: “Even in extreme necessity it is not lawful to take from another a thing, if from the taking away that other person also is going to fall into extreme necessity.”	Prümmer II, n. 86In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 411; Noldin n. 424; Marc n. 914
Condemned, servants compensating themselves for wages they judge too low: “Domestic male and female servants can secretly take from their masters for compensating their labor, which they judge greater than the salary which they receive.”	Prümmer II, n. 90In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 416; Marc n. 918; Sabetti-Barrett n. 411; McHugh-Callan n. 1928; Deshon Guide, ch. LVIII

Its Gravity

Mortal from its genus: “Therefore theft, as being opposed to charity, is a mortal sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 6In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 79; Merkelbach II, n. 404; Wouters n. 1028; Marc n. 904; Sabetti-Barrett n. 403; Vermeersch n. 660; McHugh-Callan n. 1894
Society would be undone: “and if men were to rob one another habitually, human society would be undone”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 6In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 404; Marc n. 904
Its train of evils: “It gives rise to hasty and rash judgments, engenders hatred, originates enmities, and sometimes subjects the innocent to cruel condemnation.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 404
Venial in small things: “Reason accounts as nothing that which is little: so that a man does not consider himself injured in very little matters”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 6, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 404; Marc n. 904; Prümmer II, n. 79
Mortal even in little, from the intention: “Yet if his intention is to rob and injure his neighbor, there may be a mortal sin even in these very little things”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 6, ad 3In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1029; Marc n. 908; Bontempi What quantity is required for mort, n. 18
A little thing gravely harmful: “Theft of absolutely light matter, which brings upon another grave sadness or annoyance or notable damage, is by accident a grave sin against charity toward one's neighbor, or also against justice.”	Merkelbach II, n. 406In nearly the same words: Marc n. 908; Wouters n. 1028; Bontempi What quantity is required for mort, n. 19
Robbery graver than theft: “Therefore robbery is a more grievous sin than theft.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 9In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1892; Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment; Bontempi What theft is, n. 4
Princes who extort, graver than robbers: “and by so much do they sin more grievously than robbers, as their actions are fraught with greater and more universal danger to public justice whose wardens they are”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 66, a. 8, ad 3
Grave matter, relative and absolute: “Grave matter of theft (and damaging) must be determined both relatively and absolutely.”	Noldin n. 415In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 405; Prümmer II, n. 80; Sabetti-Barrett n. 404; Wouters n. 1028; Marc n. 905; McHugh-Callan n. 1899; Vermeersch n. 660
The older opinion, one measure for all: “an older opinion held that the standard should be an absolute one”	McHugh-Callan n. 1899In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 405
Relatively grave, a day's support: “This is generally judged to be that which suffices someone for one day for the support of himself or also of his own”	Merkelbach II, n. 405In nearly the same words: Marc n. 906; Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment; Vermeersch n. 660
By times and places, morally not mathematically: “the standard for measuring gravity of matter is not an invariable one, but will differ according to circumstances of times and places”	McHugh-Callan n. 1897In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 81; Merkelbach II, n. 405; Bontempi What quantity is required for mort, n. 17
Prümmer, the sums measure the obligation of restitution: “it seems that here there is question not so much of the gravity of the sin of theft - which depends much on the lax or scrupulous conscience of the agent - as rather of the grave obligation of restitution arising from the taking away of another's thing”	Prümmer II, n. 80
Thefts at home, a greater quantity: “With respect to thefts of sons, ordinarily a quantity twice greater is required for constituting grave sin than in thefts of strangers”	Noldin n. 417In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 406; Marc n. 907; McHugh-Callan n. 1903; Sabetti-Barrett n. 404; Vermeersch n. 660
Relics, weighed by dignity: “Therefore it would be mortal to steal the smallest particle of the Holy Cross”	Noldin n. 416In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1901
Wild things of public woods, lighter: “Civil laws prohibiting dry branches, grass, fungi, clusters, and other wild fruits from being gathered in public forests are commonly only penal laws.”	Prümmer II, n. 84In nearly the same words: Marc n. 910; McHugh-Callan n. 1906; Noldin n. 418
Wouters, with intent to restore at once: “It is not mortal, speaking per se, to steal any sum whatever with the intention of restoring immediately”	Wouters n. 1028
Little thefts after grave matter is reached: “Light thefts following upon grave matter already completed do not constitute a new mortal sin, unless they again reach a new grave quantity”	Merkelbach II, n. 407In nearly the same words: Marc n. 909; Sabetti-Barrett n. 405; Vermeersch n. 660
Grave necessity lessens, does not excuse: “although grave necessity does not excuse from theft, nevertheless it lessens its gravity”	Merkelbach II, n. 411In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 86; Marc n. 913
Bontempi, urgent necessity excuses: “I assert therefore that in urgent necessity it is lawful to take what is necessary.”	Bontempi Whether in extreme, or urgent, nec, n. 11In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 660

Its Remedies

The Roman Catechism answers the thief's excuses one by one and sets restitution, labor and almsgiving as the positive part of the commandment; the Guide adds the excuses of charity and low wages. Merkelbach, Noldin, Marc, Sabetti-Barrett and McHugh-Callan give the confessor's part. The remedies are set under those heads.

The excuses answered
No excuse accepted: “these are to be admonished that God will accept no excuse for sin”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The excuses answered
To the plea of rank: “the only means to preserve and augment their wealth and to enhance the glory of their ancestors is to obey the will of God and observe His Commandments”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The excuses answered
To the plea of ease: “Confusion and repentance, says Ecclesiasticus, is upon a thief.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The excuses answered
To the plea that the owner is rich: “Such an excuse is as wretched as it is baneful.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LII
The excuses answered
To the plea of habit: “let them recollect that one day, whether they like it or not, they will become accustomed to an eternity of torments”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The excuses answered
To the plea of opportunity: “it is our duty to resist every evil propensity”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The excuses answered
To the plea of revenge: “no one is allowed to return injury for injury; next that no person can be a judge in his own cause”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The excuses answered
To the plea of debt: “Hence it is the height of folly to be willing to increase our debt to God by new sin, in order to be able to pay our debts to men.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The excuses answered
To the pretext of charity: “Make it then your rule, and keep to it, to give away nothing that you do not own yourself”	Deshon Guide, ch. LVI
The excuses answered
To the plea of low wages: “It is a wide door of sin to undertake to recompense yourself on any plea of low wages or extra work.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LVIII
Restitution
Restitution: “Without restitution, says St. Augustine, the sin is not forgiven.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1918
Restitution
Some restitution even for small thefts: “Even if small thefts do not attain grave sin, some restitution under light obligation is to be imposed, lest penitents make a step from small thefts to greater ones”	Merkelbach II, n. 408In nearly the same words: Marc n. 911; McHugh-Callan n. 1918
Restitution
Zacchaeus: “Lord, if I have done any man wrong I return him fourfold”	Deshon Guide, ch. LIV
Labor and contentment
Labor, and giving to the needy: “He that stole, let him steal no more; but rather let him labour working with his hands the thing which is good, that he may have something to give to him that suffereth need.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
Labor and contentment
Content with food and raiment: “But having food and raiment, let us be therewith content”	Deshon Guide, ch. LII
Labor and contentment
Poverty of spirit: “In short, be poor in spirit, that is, according to the explanation in the Bible, humble, and not set upon riches, but upon pleasing God”	Deshon Guide, ch. LIV
In small things
Refusing the first pin's worth: “The only way is, to stop at the very beginning; to refrain from taking a pin’s worth.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LIIIn nearly the same words: Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment
In small things
Fidelity in little things: “Fidelity in small things is most important, for God punishes little sins, and unfaithfulness in small things leads to grave sins.”	Spirago Sins against the Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 406
The confessor's part
Of habitual pilferers: “he will warn him concerning his obligations: of restoring, of laboring, and of abstaining from thefts in the future”	Noldin n. 422
The confessor's part
More strictly before the deed: “before the fact, one must speak more rigorously, so that the faithful may be turned away from theft”	Merkelbach II, n. 405
The confessor's part
Not publishing the sums: “but they are not to be proposed ex professo to penitents, nor a fortiori to the faithful in a sermon: for they would easily be badly understood and become a stimulus to stealing”	Merkelbach II, n. 405In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 81; McHugh-Callan n. 1919
The confessor's part
Of hidden compensation, only privately: “let him never speak of it publicly, but only privately”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 411In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1938

Where It Comes From

From covetousness: “THEFT and Robbery, allied by a close bond, spring from Avarice”	Bontempi On Theft and Robbery, n. 1In nearly the same words: Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment; Deshon Guide, ch. LII
From opportunity: “Occasion makes the thief.”	Spirago Sins against the Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
From small beginnings, as with Judas: “He let a covetous spirit have its way, first, in small things.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LII
From gluttony: “a sort of dishonesty arises from gluttony”	Deshon Guide, ch. LVII

Unjust Damage

How the Authors Compare

Prümmer and Noldin set damage apart from theft by the same mark: the one who causes it takes no profit (II, n. 91, n. 429). Merkelbach and Noldin carry it into goods of the soul as well (II, n. 344, n. 464).
Damaging the wrong owner by mistake, as when one burns Paul's house thinking it Peter's. Merkelbach binds to restitution and calls the contrary “a mere subtlety” (II, n. 296); Prümmer says the contrary “conflicts too much with men's moral sense” (II, n. 99); Noldin binds in theory (n. 463) but says one who follows St. Alphonsus cannot in practice be obliged (n. 463); McHugh-Callan: the error “probably does not excuse” (n. 1764). Marc and Sabetti-Barrett, with St. Alphonsus, hold that there is probably no obligation before a judge's sentence (n. 950, n. 425).
Grave damage from light fault. Prümmer sets out four opinions (II, n. 97) and prefers a light obligation to repair the whole (II, n. 97); Merkelbach binds lightly and only to partial repair, in proportion to the fault (II, n. 294); Sabetti-Barrett: “More probably he is held to nothing” (n. 425); McHugh-Callan reports that some deny and others affirm the duty (n. 1765). Billuart: “It is more probable that he who gravely damaged his neighbor through venial fault is held to some restitution”, against Lessius; to the whole under venial sin “is probable”, to a part only “equally probable”; and since grave damage rarely comes from a fault truly venial, “unless it be certainly established that the inadvertence was venial, it must be held in practice to be mortal” (Whether vehement theological fault…, n. 2, Whether vehement theological fault…, n. 5, Whether vehement theological fault…, n. 9).
Repairing personal harm with money. St. Thomas: where the equivalent cannot be restored, compensation is owed “as far as possible” (II-II, q. 62, a. 2, ad 1). Merkelbach reports that many recent authors with St. Alphonsus deny it (II, n. 297), and judges St. Thomas more probable in speculation but the other opinion usable in practice (II, n. 297). Concina joins St. Thomas: “The other opinion, which is the more probable, affirms it” (IX, diss. II, ch. V, n. II).

What It Is

Unjust damage, without gain: “Unjust damaging is an action by which someone causes damage to another, without himself taking material profit from it.”	Prümmer II, n. 91In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 429; Marc n. 919; Sabetti-Barrett n. 423; McHugh-Callan n. 1762; Merkelbach II, n. 289
Broadly, theft included: “Whoever brings a loss upon another person, seemingly, takes from him the amount of the loss”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 90; Merkelbach II, n. 289

What It Is Not

Not harm done in using one's own right: “he is not bound to restitution who, while he uses his own right, harms others”	Merkelbach II, n. 291In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1763
Not hindering by just means a good not owed: “not so if he does this by just means, for example, by prayers and persuasions, although he does it from hatred”	Noldin n. 430In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 94; Sabetti-Barrett n. 425
Not an occasion, condition or accidental cause: “Therefore the obligation of repairing damage is not had: a. if the damaging action is only the occasion of the damage”	Noldin n. 456In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 95; Merkelbach II, n. 292; Wouters n. 993
Not example alone: “He who by his example entices others to inflict damage is not bound to repair the damage inflicted by them”	Noldin n. 457In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 292
Not intended harm that did not follow: “who, with the intention of harming, posits a damaging act when the effect has not followed”	Merkelbach II, n. 292
Not damage without fault, before a sentence or a contract: “From material damaging there does not arise an obligation of restitution except in two cases, namely 1) after the sentence of a judge; 2) if it has been freely stipulated so.”	Prümmer II, n. 98In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 293; Wouters n. 995; McHugh-Callan n. 1766; Noldin n. 459

Its Kinds

Destroying what another has: “First, by being deprived of what he actually has”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 429; Prümmer II, n. 92
Hindering what another would obtain: “Secondly, a man may damnify another by preventing him from obtaining what he was on the way to obtain.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 429; Prümmer II, n. 92
A good strictly owed, by any means: “He who impedes another from obtaining a good to which he has a strict right (whether the right is in the thing or to the thing), acts against justice and is bound to restitution, whether he impedes him directly or indirectly, by just or unjust means”	Noldin n. 430In nearly the same words: Marc n. 921; Merkelbach II, n. 291; Sabetti-Barrett n. 425
A good not owed, by unjust means: “everyone has a right not to be impeded by unjust means from obtaining a good of which he is not unworthy”	Noldin n. 430In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 291; Prümmer II, n. 94; McHugh-Callan n. 1763; Sabetti-Barrett n. 425
By silence, not hindering, not disclosing, when bound: “He is called silent who ought to have spoken in order to prevent the damage.”	Bontempi On the indirect causes of loss, n. 1In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 576
By not stopping a harm one set going without fault: “But he who inculpably posited the cause of another's damage is bound to impede such a cause from producing the harmful effect, provided it can be done without relatively grave inconvenience”	Merkelbach II, n. 296In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 454; Wouters n. 994; Sabetti-Barrett n. 425; McHugh-Callan n. 1769; Vermeersch n. 579
Alone or with others: “By reason of the cause, damaging is divided into solitary and cooperative”	Prümmer II, n. 92
In goods of the soul: “The worst damaging is in supernatural goods.”	Prümmer II, n. 92
Damaging the wrong owner by mistake: “he who, wishing to burn Peter's house, burns Paul's house, is bound to restore to Paul, because his damaging action is truly, efficaciously, and formally unjust”	Merkelbach II, n. 296In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 99; Noldin n. 463; McHugh-Callan n. 1764

Its Gravity

Grave from its kind: “Damaging is a sin grave from its kind. It is grave or light according as the damage which is inflicted on the neighbor is grave or light.”	Noldin n. 429In nearly the same words: Marc n. 919; Prümmer II, n. 93
Prümmer, usually graver than theft: “Other things being equal, damaging is usually a graver sin than theft, because it often proceeds from hatred of neighbor”	Prümmer II, n. 91
Absolutely grave matter here too: “It must be affirmed, because the act, for example, of destroying another's thing as such, according to its proper concept, that is, with abstraction made from the damage which is inflicted on the neighbor, involves disorder.”	Wouters n. 1034In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 415
Grave fault, grave damage: “He who from grave fault has caused grave damage is obligated under grave sin to repair it insofar as it truly was caused by him.”	Merkelbach II, n. 294In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 97
Light damage, light obligation: “He who from either light or grave fault has caused light damage is obligated under venial sin to repair it.”	Merkelbach II, n. 294In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 97

Its Remedies

The authors treat the remedy of unjust damage as restitution and the duty of stopping a harm once set going; Prümmer and Merkelbach (from Billuart), and Noldin, add how the confessor is to handle disputed cases. The remedies are set under those heads.

Restitution
Restoring the loss: “Therefore a man is bound to make restitution according to the loss he has brought upon another.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 4In nearly the same words: Marc n. 948; Sabetti-Barrett n. 424; Vermeersch n. 656
Restitution
When it binds, three conditions: “if it is truly, efficaciously, and formally unjust, or, as others say, if it is unjust, effective of damage, and theologically culpable”	Prümmer II, n. 93In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 290; Noldin n. 454; Marc n. 949; Sabetti-Barrett n. 424; Wouters n. 992; McHugh-Callan n. 1763
Restitution
For a good only hoped for, its hope: “However he is bound to make some compensation, according to the condition of persons and things.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 453; Vermeersch n. 657; Merkelbach II, n. 291
Restitution
Where no equivalent can be given: “Wherefore when that which has been taken cannot be restored in equivalent, compensation should be made as far as possible”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 2, ad 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 297
Preventing the harm
Stopping what one has set going, and repairing it if it goes on: “He who culpably posited a cause of another's damage, if that damage has not yet followed, is bound to retract his fault, and in every way in which he can to impede the cause from producing the harmful effect”	Merkelbach II, n. 296In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 99; Noldin n. 459; Sabetti-Barrett n. 425; McHugh-Callan n. 1769
The confessor's part
Billuart's rule for confessors: “Hence, unless it is certainly established that the inadvertence was venial, in practice it is to be held as mortal, namely, conformable to the damage, and the obligation of restoring under mortal sin is to be inculcated.”	Prümmer II, n. 97In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 294
The confessor's part
Not imposing what is truly disputed: “Yet if someone, relying on the authority of theologians and especially of St. Alphonsus, can form his conscience according to the contrary opinion and intends to follow it, practically he cannot be obligated to make restitution.”	Noldin n. 463In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 297

Where It Comes From

From hatred: “because it often proceeds from hatred of neighbor”

Prümmer II, n. 91

Cooperating in Another’s Injustice

How the Authors Compare

How many ways. St. Thomas's nine ways (II-II, q. 62, a. 7) are repeated in his verse by all the manuals, six positive and three negative. The Roman Catechism instead counts seven classes bound to restitution (The Seventh Commandment), and adds that those who approve and commend thefts are not “entirely innocent of this crime” (The Seventh Commandment).
The confessor who does not warn of restitution. Prümmer, Merkelbach and Marc say mere omission does not bind him to restitution, since his office does not guard temporal goods (II, n. 110, II, n. 316, n. 989); Noldin binds him if he positively frees with grave fault one who must restore (n. 497). McHugh-Callan counts among negative cooperators bound to restitution “confessors who culpably neglect to give penitents needed spiritual advice” (n. 1780). Bontempi reports Navarrus and others binding him (On the indirect causes of loss, n. 8) and holds with St. Bonaventure that he is not bound (On the indirect causes of loss, n. 10).
Servants. Merkelbach and Prümmer bind a servant for goods specially committed to his care (II, n. 316, II, n. 110), Merkelbach whether the damage comes from strangers or from fellow servants; Sabetti-Barrett holds that servants are probably not bound, except those set over a special thing (n. 441). Concina binds servants who keep silent while “strangers filching their master's goods” whatever the goods, but against fellow servants only for goods “entrusted to their own custody”; of common things stolen by domestics they sin against charity but “are free from the burden of restitution” (IX, diss. II, ch. II, n. XX).

What It Is

Cooperation in injustice: “concurrence with another unjustly inflicting damage”	Noldin n. 477In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 309; Marc n. 976
Every cause of the injustice: “Hence whoever is cause of an unjust taking is bound to restitution.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment; Noldin n. 478
The nine ways: “"By command, by counsel, by consent, by flattery, by receiving, by participation, by silence, by not preventing, by not denouncing."”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 100; Noldin n. 479; Wouters n. 997; Vermeersch n. 661; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 5; Sabetti-Barrett n. 425
Six positive, three negative: “Directly, when a man induces another to take, and this in three ways.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 997; Prümmer II, n. 100; Vermeersch n. 661; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 6

What It Is Not

Not without influence on the deed: “On the contrary, a cooperator is not bound to restitution if in fact he does not influence the damage”	Merkelbach II, n. 310In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 485; Marc n. 977; Sabetti-Barrett n. 430; Prümmer II, n. 103
Not after a revocation made known in time: “The one mandating is not held to restitution if he revoked the mandate before the damage was inflicted and the revocation became known to the mandatary before execution of the mandate”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 428In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 662; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 7; McHugh-Callan n. 1779; Marc n. 982
Not counselling a lesser harm to the same person: “He who counsels a lesser evil to him who is already determined to inflict a greater one is not bound to restitution, if the damage is inflicted on the same person”	Merkelbach II, n. 312In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 487
Not sheltering as a friend or out of mercy: “if he receives and favors him not as a thief or evildoer, but as a friend, or kinsman, or one worthy of mercy, he is not a receiver or one providing recourse”	Prümmer II, n. 107In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 493; Wouters n. 1003; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 11; Merkelbach II, n. 314
Not silence without a duty of justice: “He that fails to denounce a thief or does not withstand or reprehend him is not always bound to restitution, but only when he is obliged, in virtue of his office, to do so”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7, ad 3In nearly the same words: Marc n. 989; Noldin n. 478; Sabetti-Barrett n. 440
Not material help for a grave cause: “He who only materially concurs with another in the infliction of damage can be excused from sin and from restitution, if namely he acts from a just and proportionate cause, without a depraved mind of harming.”	Marc n. 987In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 108; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 12; Merkelbach II, n. 315

Its Kinds

Command: “First, in the case of command: because he that commands is the chief mover, wherefore he is bound to restitution principally.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 101; Noldin n. 480; Wouters n. 999; Vermeersch n. 662; Sabetti-Barrett n. 427
Counsel: “Hence the counsellor or flatterer is bound to restitution, only when it may be judged with probability that the unjust taking resulted from such causes.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 102; Noldin n. 483; Marc n. 979
Counsel given by office: “He who is deputed by force of office to give counsels and with evil intention or from gravely culpable ignorance gave harmful counsel, must repair damages which arise from the evil counsel both to the one seeking counsel and to a third person”	Noldin n. 488In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 431; Wouters n. 1000; Merkelbach II, n. 312
Consent, by vote or sentence: “Secondly, in the case of consent; namely of one without whose consent the robbery cannot take place.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 491; Prümmer II, n. 104; Wouters n. 1001; Sabetti-Barrett n. 432
Flattery: “A flatterer is said to be he who by praising or blaming moves another to inflict damage on the neighbor.”	Noldin n. 492In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 106; Marc n. 985; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 10; Vermeersch n. 665
Receiving: “Thirdly, in the case of receiving; when, to wit, a man is a receiver of thieves, and gives them assistance.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 107; Wouters n. 1003; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 11
Participation, in the deed or the spoil: “Fourthly, in the case of participation; when a man takes part in the theft and in the booty.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 108; Noldin n. 494; Vermeersch n. 667; Marc n. 986
Silence, not hindering, not denouncing, when bound by office: “Fifthly, he who does not prevent the theft, whereas he is bound to do so; for instance, persons in authority who are bound to safeguard justice on earth, are bound to restitution, if by their neglect thieves prosper”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 109; Noldin n. 496; Sabetti-Barrett n. 440; Marc n. 988; Wouters n. 1005; McHugh-Callan n. 1780; Vermeersch n. 669
Approving it afterwards, a sin, not a cause: “Neither are those who approve and commend thefts entirely innocent of this crime.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Marc n. 978

Its Gravity

Bound as causes; Innocent XI's condemned proposition 39: “Not only is he bound to restitution who commits the sin, but also he who is in any way cause of the sin, whether by counselling, or by commanding, or in any other way whatever.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7, ad 1In nearly the same words: Marc n. 980
Bound when efficacious, unjust and culpable: “1° that the cooperation was an efficacious cause, whether physical or moral, of the damage; 2° that it was an unjust cause of the damage; 3° that it was theologically culpable”	Wouters n. 998In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 100; Marc n. 977; McHugh-Callan n. 1778
Even if another would have done it: “He who cooperated in damage is obligated to restitution, even if, failing him, another would have cooperated”	Wouters n. 998In nearly the same words: Marc n. 977; McHugh-Callan n. 1778; Bontempi Whether one is a true cause of los, n. 3
For the whole, or for one's part: “He is held in solidum who has so influenced the whole damage that the whole must be imputed to him; others are held only pro rata for their own part.”	Wouters n. 1006In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 317; McHugh-Callan n. 1783; Bontempi Who is bound to restore, n. 13
By conspiracy, each for the whole: “Those who, from conspiracy, i. e. moved by an express or tacit compact, have given a vote, are the authors of the damage by one morally single action, so that the whole damage is imputed to each”	Vermeersch n. 664In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 491; Sabetti-Barrett n. 434

Its Remedies

St. Thomas and the manuals give the order of restitution among cooperators and what each must do to undo his part; the Guide gives the servant's refusal to cooperate, and Prümmer the instruction of voters. The remedies are set under those heads.

Restitution
In order: “He is bound chiefly to restitution, who is the principal in the deed; first of all, the "commander"; secondly, the "executor," and in due sequence, the others”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 7, ad 2In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1007; McHugh-Callan n. 1784; Sabetti-Barrett n. 451; Vermeersch n. 674
Restitution
Once, not twice: “when he has received sufficient compensation from one, the others are not bound to any further restitution in his regard”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 62, a. 6, ad 3In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 452
Restitution
Exhorted to it: “All these are bound to make restitution to those from whom anything has been stolen, and are to be earnestly exhorted to the discharge of so necessary a duty.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 672
Undoing one's part
Retracting counsel: “Whoever has given unjust counsel to another is held to retract it”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 429In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 484; Marc n. 982
Undoing one's part
Warning the one in danger: “But if he cannot turn the executor away from inflicting damage, he is bound to warn the one to be damaged so that he may guard himself”	Noldin n. 484In nearly the same words: Marc n. 982; Merkelbach II, n. 311
Undoing one's part
Revoking a vote: “He who culpably gave consent for inflicting damage is bound to revoke it”	Noldin n. 490In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 433
Refusing to cooperate
Having nothing to do with it: “No matter what the motive may be that leads them to drag you into their dishonesty, have nothing whatever to do with it.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LIX
Refusing to cooperate
Even at the cost of one's place: “Never mind; suffer yourselves to be turned out of the place, but do not steal.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LIX
Refusing to cooperate
Making it known: “In truth, there is nothing mean, nothing dishonorable in informing when wickedness is going on, and your information will stop it.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LIX
Refusing to cooperate
Instructing voters: “But nevertheless the faithful are to be diligently and prudently instructed that they uprightly exercise the right of suffrage, lest wicked deputies be elected.”	Prümmer II, n. 105

Killing the Innocent

What It Is

Homicide, the unjust killing: “But if there is speech simply of homicide, illicit homicide is understood, or the killing of an innocent person, who has committed no crime and is not going to commit one on account of which he would be worthy of death.”	Noldin n. 336In nearly the same words: Bontempi What homicide is, and of how many, n. 2; Merkelbach II, n. 355
Taken broadly, St. Bonaventure's definition: “Homicide is the killing of a man, done by a man.”	Bontempi What homicide is, and of how many, n. 1In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 336
Never directly to kill the innocent: “Therefore it is in no way lawful to slay the innocent.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 6In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 131; Noldin n. 338; Marc n. 738; Sabetti-Barrett n. 270; McHugh-Callan n. 1844; Merkelbach II, n. 355; Vermeersch n. 635
Spiritual homicide, so called: “SPIRITUAL homicide is called, first, that by which a detractor unjustly blackens reputation.”	Bontempi What homicide is, and of how many, n. 4

What It Is Not

Not at God's command: “Hence he who at God's command kills an innocent man does not sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 6, ad 1In nearly the same words: Marc n. 738; McHugh-Callan n. 1844
Not a death permitted for a grave cause: “From a proportionately grave cause it is lawful to do or omit something indifferent in itself, from which, besides the intention, the death of an innocent person follows.”	Prümmer II, n. 132In nearly the same words: Marc n. 739; McHugh-Callan n. 1844; Sabetti-Barrett n. 270; Merkelbach II, n. 355
Not chance, with due care: “it follows that chance happenings, as such, are not sins”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 8In nearly the same words: Marc n. 740; Noldin n. 337; McHugh-Callan n. 1863; Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
Not the judge who sentences on the evidence: “he does not sin if he pronounce sentence in accordance with the evidence, for it is not he that puts the innocent man to death, but they who stated him to be guilty”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 6, ad 3
Not killing animals: “In itself, the killing of animals is not sinful”	McHugh-Callan n. 1818In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment; Bontempi What homicide is, and of how many, n. 15

Its Kinds

Direct and indirect: “Homicide, namely voluntary homicide, is one thing direct and another indirect, according as it is intended in itself or only in the cause from which it is foreseen that it will at least probably follow.”	Noldin n. 337In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 355; Marc n. 737
Accidental, yet guilty: “first when a man causes another's death through occupying himself with unlawful things which he ought to avoid: secondly, when he does not take sufficient care”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 8In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment; Merkelbach II, n. 363; McHugh-Callan n. 1863
Qualified homicide: “but this is simple, or qualified, that is, involving a specially sinful circumstance to be declared in confession, for example, sacrilegious homicide”	Merkelbach II, n. 355In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1817; Bontempi On homicide of deliberate purpose, n. 2
Killing the dying to end their suffering: “Therefore it is not licit to kill those lethally wounded or any other dying persons so that they may not suffer longer”	Noldin n. 338In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 731; Marc n. 738; Sabetti-Barrett n. 271; McHugh-Callan n. 1846; Prümmer II, n. 131
Hostages and envoys: “It is not licit to kill envoys or hostages, even if the enemies who sent them have not kept the pledge given”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 271In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1846; Vermeersch n. 635
By omission, where bound: “A parent who denies his child the food, remedies or climate which it needs and which he can afford commits homicide by omission”	McHugh-Callan n. 1816
Of the unborn: “Therefore those procuring abortion are of themselves guilty of homicide.”	Noldin n. 336In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1816

Its Gravity

Grave from its whole genus, crying to heaven: “Direct killing of an innocent person is a grave sin from its whole genus.”	Wouters n. 731In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 131; McHugh-Callan n. 1845; Bontempi What homicide is, and of how many, n. 6
Against God, the neighbor and the community: “1. destroys what is not his, but God's; 2. deprives his neighbor of the use of life and of the faculties, to which the neighbor has a right from divine ordination; 3. cuts off a member of the commonwealth”	Wouters n. 731In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1845; Noldin n. 338
Graver than theft and adultery, being beyond repair: “BUT THE TRUE reason of the whole thesis is, because the harm inflicted by death is irreparable”	Bontempi What homicide is, and of how many, n. 11
Graver against the just: “he who kills a just man, sins more grievously than he who slays a sinful man”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 6, ad 2
McHugh-Callan, with the victim's consent: “If the person killed desired or asked for death, no injustice is done to him, since he waived his right, but uncharitableness is committed”	McHugh-Callan n. 1845

Its Remedies

The Roman Catechism gives the remedies against the violation of this commandment and then its positive part, peace, charity, patience and the forgiveness of injuries; the remedies against hatred are on that entry. The remedies are set under those heads.

The Roman Catechism's remedies
Seeing how wicked it is: “Of these remedies the most efficacious is to form a just conception of the wickedness of murder.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
The Roman Catechism's remedies
The enemy of his kind: “The murderer is the worst enemy of his species, and consequently of nature.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
The positive part of the commandment
Peace with all: “requires that we have peace with all men”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
The positive part of the commandment
Forgiving injuries: “is to pardon and forgive from the heart the injuries which we may have received from others”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment

Where It Comes From

From anger and hatred: “Sinful Anger Is Also Forbidden By The Fifth Commandment”

Roman Catechism The Fifth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Bontempi What homicide is, and of how many, n. 4

Killing and Mutilating Oneself

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas gives three reasons: it is against the love of self, against the community and against God (II-II, q. 64, a. 5). Merkelbach names the same three: “harmful not only to the individual, but also to society, and injurious to God” (II, n. 350).
Prümmer observes that “strictly speaking the suicide does not commit injury against his own body”, and places the injury toward God (II, Section 1). Noldin likewise rests the sin on “the supreme and exclusive dominion of God” (n. 327). Wouters sets it among the sins against charity toward self (n. 523).
Wishing for death to escape a grave earthly evil. Noldin: licit, for example to escape a long illness (n. 329); Merkelbach: “of itself it is not sinful”, though imperfect (II, n. 354); Prümmer: something imperfect “and a venial sin” (II, n. 117).
A condemned man ordered by the judge to kill himself. St. Thomas: “no man is judge of himself”, though he may commit himself to the judgment of others (II-II, q. 64, a. 5, ad 2). Merkelbach would “not dare to condemn as certainly illicit” the case of one who does so at public command (II, n. 350); Sabetti-Barrett reports that the common opinion denies it and calls the other probable (n. 264); McHugh-Callan reports that some authors allow it (n. 1856).
Mutilating oneself to escape death at a tyrant's hands. Marc, after Lugo, allows it (n. 756); Bontempi, with St. Thomas and Soto, says no one is bound or able to do it, though Bassaeus allows it (Whether the mutilation of a limb i, n. 4).
Self-killing at God's inspiration. Merkelbach says it “certainly is licit” (II, n. 350), and Marc likewise, citing the virgins honored by the Church (n. 753); McHugh-Callan says “whether God has ever done this is uncertain”, and some explain those cases by invincible ignorance (n. 1856).

What It Is

Never to kill oneself: “It is altogether unlawful to kill oneself, for three reasons.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 5In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 112; Noldin n. 327; Sabetti-Barrett n. 263; Marc n. 753; Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
Direct self-killing: “Direct is that which is intended in itself as an end or means, whether explicitly or implicitly, as when an action or omission can tend immediately to no other end”	Merkelbach II, n. 349In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 111; McHugh-Callan n. 1853; Noldin n. 327
Mutilating oneself: “By almost the same right by which suicide is prohibited, mutilation of oneself is also prohibited.”	Prümmer II, n. 116In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 328; Marc n. 756; Vermeersch n. 323; Bontempi Whether the mutilation of a limb i, n. 1

What It Is Not

Not a death risked for a proportionate cause: “Indirect killing of oneself is illicit, unless there accedes a just and proportionate cause, that is, a greater good which follows immediately from the action itself and not by means of the killing.”	Merkelbach II, n. 352In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 113; Marc n. 754; Sabetti-Barrett n. 263; McHugh-Callan n. 1857; Vermeersch n. 321
Such as the public good: “1) A public good, for the common good is preferable to a private good.”	Merkelbach II, n. 352In nearly the same words: Marc n. 754; McHugh-Callan n. 1857; Prümmer II, n. 113; Sabetti-Barrett n. 264
Or the good of virtue: “2) The spiritual good of virtue, or of science and art, or the progress of culture.”	Merkelbach II, n. 352In nearly the same words: Marc n. 754; Prümmer II, n. 113
Or escaping a worse or more certain death, with hope of escape: “Thus it is licit to cast oneself down from a tower for fleeing, not indeed captivity, but a certain capital sentence or a more atrocious death which malefactors are actually about to inflict; or to leap from a window for fleeing flames actually burning: provided, however, that there is hope of escape”	Merkelbach II, n. 352In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 114
Not refusing extraordinary means: “but not those who are unwilling to employ extraordinary, refined, unusual, more costly, very difficult means”	Merkelbach II, n. 353In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 264; Marc n. 752; McHugh-Callan n. 1860
Not removing a member for the whole body: “If, however, the member be decayed and therefore a source of corruption to the whole body, then it is lawful with the consent of the owner of the member, to cut away the member for the welfare of the whole body”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 65, a. 1In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 328; Prümmer II, n. 116; Marc n. 756; Vermeersch n. 323
Not desiring death for God: “Death can licitly be desired in order to enjoy eternal beatitude, to love God more perfectly, never again to offend God”	Noldin n. 329In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 117; Merkelbach II, n. 354

Its Kinds

Indirect self-killing: “but it is called indirect when it is not intended, but is foreseen as going to follow from an action placed, which nevertheless does not directly cause death but only induces a most grave danger of death”	Prümmer II, n. 111In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1853
Needless danger to life: “Hence they sin gravely a) who for light causes throw themselves into danger of death, as any rash tightrope walkers”	Merkelbach II, n. 353In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1859; Vermeersch n. 322
Shortening life by excess: “b) who gravely harm health or notably hasten death for themselves by gluttony, drunkenness, immoderate passion of lust, by abuse of morphine, cocaine, opium”	Merkelbach II, n. 353In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1859; Marc n. 755
Starving oneself: “d) a fortiori those who abstain from taking necessary foods, even for an excellent end”	Merkelbach II, n. 353
Mutilation for other ends: “Hence it is not lawful for an adolescent to mutilate himself in order to escape military service, nor for a poor man in order to obtain greater alms”	Prümmer II, n. 116
Helping another to it: “Cooperation in suicide has the guilt of unlawful homicide.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1855
Wishing death from impatience: “But it is illicit if it arises from a wicked motive, e.g., if someone with rebellion against the divine will wishes death for himself, if someone from impatience now no longer wishes to tolerate this life.”	Prümmer II, n. 117In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 354; Noldin n. 329

Its Gravity

Always mortal: “Hence suicide is always a mortal sin, as being contrary to the natural law and to charity.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 5In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 350; Prümmer II, n. 112; McHugh-Callan n. 1854
Above all against God's dominion: “Thirdly, because life is God's gift to man, and is subject to His power, Who kills and makes to live.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 5In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 327; Vermeersch n. 320; McHugh-Callan n. 1854
No excuse, not misery nor disgrace: “There is no assignable cause on account of which it is licit to kill oneself, but all the excuses which are brought forward are vain pretexts.”	Merkelbach II, n. 351In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 5, ad 3
Mutilation, light in small matter: “Yet in light matter, as if someone without cause cuts off for himself a little part of the ear or a joint of the little finger, grave sin is not committed.”	Noldin n. 328In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 323; Marc n. 756
The Church's penalties: “Those who attempt suicide are irregular”	McHugh-Callan n. 1861In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 326; Merkelbach II, n. 350
Often without full freedom: “It would be a mistake to say that no person who commits suicide is free, but no doubt a large percentage of those who kill themselves are not responsible for their act.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1852In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 350

Its Remedies

The happiness to come: “the happiness for which we are destined is to be obtained only in the future life, for which the misery of the present age provides an occasion of greater merit or penitence”	Merkelbach II, n. 351
The time left for repentance: “both because by so doing one does oneself a very great injury, by depriving oneself of the time needful for repentance”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 5, ad 3
Patience and its reward: “because by patiently tolerating such very grave evils of earthly life a man will have a precious reward in heaven”	Prümmer II, n. 117In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 354
Ordinary care of life and health: “and we must preserve life safe by ordinary means”	Vermeersch n. 324In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 353

Where It Comes From

Against charity toward oneself: “Wherefore suicide is contrary to the inclination of nature, and to charity whereby every man should love himself.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 5In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 320
From flight from the afflictions of life: “Therefore to bring death upon oneself in order to escape the other afflictions of this life, is to adopt a greater evil in order to avoid a lesser.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 5, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 351

Killing a Criminal or an Aggressor

How the Authors Compare

Whether the aggressor's death may be intended. St. Thomas: “it is not lawful for a man to intend killing a man in self-defense”, except for those with public authority (II-II, q. 64, a. 7); Merkelbach holds bloody defense to be “nothing except indirect killing”, against Lugo and Waffelaert (II, n. 361), and McHugh-Callan that one must intend only to stop the attack (n. 1834). Wouters reports Cajetan and Billuart allowing only indirect killing and holds the contrary, that the killing may be taken as a means (n. 746). On the reason, Sabetti-Barrett says the aggressor “cannot retain the right to his own life” against the innocent (n. 268); Vermeersch rejects any “conflict of rights” and rests it on the double effect (n. 607).
Striking first against a planned attack. Noldin: it is not lawful to kill one who lays snares and will attack later (n. 332); Merkelbach: to kill before the aggression is to forestall it, not to defend (II, n. 361), and McHugh-Callan requires at least a moral aggression (n. 1830). Marc calls the contrary more probable, though with St. Alphonsus scarcely to be held in practice (n. 734).
Lesser goods defended by killing. Prümmer, Noldin, Wouters, Marc and Sabetti-Barrett allow it for goods of great value and for chastity (II, n. 122); Merkelbach calls the defense of great goods already possessed only probable (II, n. 362) and the defense of chastity “very doubtful” (II, n. 362); McHugh-Callan reports both as disputed where life is not also threatened (n. 1840, n. 1841).

What It Is

A criminal, by public authority for the common good: “Therefore if a man be dangerous and infectious to the community, on account of some sin, it is praiseworthy and advantageous that he be killed in order to safeguard the common good”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 118; Merkelbach II, n. 356; Noldin n. 330; Wouters n. 741; Marc n. 729; Sabetti-Barrett n. 265; McHugh-Callan n. 1819; Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
An aggressor, in defense: “Accordingly the act of self-defense may have two effects, one is the saving of one's life, the other is the slaying of the aggressor.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 120; Noldin n. 332; Wouters n. 743; Marc n. 734; Sabetti-Barrett n. 268; Merkelbach II, n. 361; McHugh-Callan n. 1819; Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
With the moderation of blameless defense: “"it is lawful to repel force by force, provided one does not exceed the limits of a blameless defense."”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 7In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 332; Marc n. 734

What It Is Not

Not by private authority: “Now the care of the common good is entrusted to persons of rank having public authority: wherefore they alone, and not private individuals, can lawfully put evildoers to death.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 3In nearly the same words: Marc n. 730; Sabetti-Barrett n. 267; Noldin n. 331
Not after the attack is over: “It is not licit after the aggression to kill the aggressor, because that would not be defense but”	Noldin n. 332In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1832
Not against the ministers of justice: “Hence, it is not lawful to kill an officer of the law who is making an arrest, or guarding a prisoner, or leading him to execution.”	McHugh-Callan n. 1831In nearly the same words: Marc n. 733; Merkelbach II, n. 361
Not for honor, Innocent XI's condemned proposition 30: “It is not licit to kill the aggressor of reputation or honor either to impede an imminent injury or to recover honor taken away.”	Noldin n. 334In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 123; Wouters n. 744; Marc n. 737; Sabetti-Barrett n. 269; Merkelbach II, n. 362
The condemned proposition: “It is lawful for an honorable man to kill an attacker who strives to inflict calumny, if otherwise this ignominy cannot be avoided”	Wouters n. 744
Not a fleeing criminal, without public mandate: “It is not licit for guardians of public order to kill fleeing criminals, even if they have already been condemned to death”	Noldin n. 331In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 266; Merkelbach II, n. 356

Its Kinds

For life, limbs and goods of great value: “It is lawful to defend oneself, even by the killing of an unjust aggressor, if this is necessary a) for preserving one's own life; b) for preserving the life of the neighbor, and especially of a connected person; c) for protecting the integrity of members and other goods of great value.”	Prümmer II, n. 120In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 744; Noldin n. 333
Goods of fortune, actually possessed: “a) Goods of fortune of great value, provided nevertheless that those goods are truly possessed.”	Prümmer II, n. 121In nearly the same words: Marc n. 735; Sabetti-Barrett n. 269; Merkelbach II, n. 362
In defense of another: “Finally, it is lawful, even by killing the aggressor, to defend the life, integrity of members, chastity, and great goods of one's neighbor”	Wouters n. 745In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 269; McHugh-Callan n. 1838
Against one drunk or mad: “but licit against a materially unjust aggression attempted by a drunken man or a madman, unless that man certainly is in the state of sin and the one attacked is certainly in the state of grace”	Merkelbach II, n. 361In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 269; McHugh-Callan n. 1831
Lesser punishments by public authority: “Public authority, just as it can kill a criminal, so a fortiori can mutilate, imprison, and beat him.”	Wouters n. 742In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 119; Marc n. 729

Its Gravity

Not intending the death: “But as it is unlawful to take a man's life, except for the public authority acting for the common good, as stated above (Article 3), it is not lawful for a man to intend killing a man in self-defense, except for such as have public authority”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 7In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 361; McHugh-Callan n. 1834
Excess in defense, unlawful: “Wherefore if a man, in self-defense, uses more than necessary violence, it will be unlawful”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 7In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 335; Merkelbach II, n. 361
Defense from hatred, a sin: “although even these sin if they be moved by private animosity”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 7In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1835
Only for a grave and certain crime, by due process: “the crime must be external and of such a character that the public welfare requires the supreme punishment”	McHugh-Callan n. 1822In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 356; Marc n. 731
Alexander VII's condemned proposition 19: “A husband does not sin who kills by his own authority his wife detected in adultery.”	Marc n. 730

Its Remedies

The authors' counsels here are the moderation of defense, the perfect way of bearing the attack, and freedom from revenge; they are set out in that order.

Flight, a cry, a wound, before a blow that kills: “that life not be attacked unless the aggression is actually, morally, at hand; b. that the life of the aggressor not be attacked if the danger can be avoided in another way, such as by crying out or fleeing; c. that the aggressor not be killed if his wounding suffices for defense”	Noldin n. 335In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1833
The perfect way, to bear it: “Indeed, it is an act of perfection to permit one's own killing, lest the aggressor be deprived of”	Marc n. 734In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1837; Merkelbach II, n. 361
No spirit of revenge: “Our Lord reprobated the teaching of the Scribes that it is lawful to return injury for injury in a revengeful spirit”	McHugh-Callan n. 1835

Where It Comes From

From the duty to one's own life: “Nor is it necessary for salvation that a man omit the act of moderate self-defense in order to avoid killing the other man, since one is bound to take more care of one's own life than of another's.”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 7In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1819

The Duel

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas has no question on the duel. He mentions it only among kinds of sortilege (II-II, q. 95, a. 8). A combat ordered by public authority is another matter: Prümmer, “not morally evil” (II, n. 125), and Wouters, “lawful” when “in place of war” (n. 749).
One word, two senses: “duel”. Prümmer and Merkelbach define it without regard to its end, “for the sake of vainglory, of saving honor, of preserving an office, of taking revenge” (II, n. 124, II, n. 365); Bontempi defines it by its end, a combat “to redeem the truth of some matter, or to purge a crime”, the judicial duel (Whether, and how, the duel is unla, n. 2).
Fighting when refusal means certain death. Sabetti-Barrett allows one “to fight for mere defense, even by accepting weapons from the adversary”, if no other escape exists (n. 275), and McHugh-Callan likens the case to unjust aggression, though hard to picture (n. 1436). Bontempi calls it “altogether false” that a duel may be held to protect life (Whether, and how, the duel is unla, n. 19), and rejects Sanchez, Bannes and Cajetan, who allow accepting a duel offered to protect one's goods or life (Whether, and how, the duel is unla, n. 23).

What It Is

The duel: “Dueling is a contest between two or a few persons, done by agreement concerning place, time, and lethal weapons (or at least weapons gravely wounding).”	Prümmer II, n. 124In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 347; Merkelbach II, n. 365; Wouters n. 747; Sabetti-Barrett n. 273; McHugh-Callan n. 1435; Marc n. 745
Whatever its purpose: “For constituting a true duel, it makes no difference with what intention it was done, e.g., for the sake of vainglory, of saving honor, of preserving an office, of taking revenge.”	Prümmer II, n. 124In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 347; Merkelbach II, n. 365
Bontempi, by its end: “DVELLUM is a combat of two or more, by agreement, in a fixed and appointed place and time, to redeem the truth of some matter, or to purge a crime or an imputed infamy.”	Bontempi Whether, and how, the duel is unla, n. 2

What It Is Not

Not a combat by public authority in place of war: “A duel undertaken by public authority for the common good is not morally evil”	Prümmer II, n. 125In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 749; Marc n. 746; Merkelbach II, n. 365; Sabetti-Barrett n. 274; McHugh-Callan n. 1436
Not a sudden brawl: “Therefore it is not a duel if two men, from an impulse of anger, provoke each other to a fight and immediately engage”	Noldin n. 347In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 124; Marc n. 745; Sabetti-Barrett n. 275; Merkelbach II, n. 365
Not a fight with weapons unfit to wound gravely: “Thus a fight which is done with the fist, a rod, a staff, or a sword with blunted edge, so that of itself neither is gravely wounded, is not a duel, although it can be a mortal sin.”	Merkelbach II, n. 365In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 124

Its Kinds

Solemn and simple: “A duel is divided: a. Into solemn, which is done with certain solemnities, namely letters of provocation and employed seconds, etc., and simple, which is done without solemnity.”	Noldin n. 348In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 748; Marc n. 745
To death or to first blood, both forbidden: “Into fatal, which is to death or with the intention of killing, and non-fatal, which is done only with the intention of wounding.”	Noldin n. 348In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 124; Merkelbach II, n. 367; Sabetti-Barrett n. 275
Academic duels: “The single combats of students are true duels”	Noldin n. 350In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 124; Merkelbach II, n. 367
A feigned duel: “Those who undertake a fictitious duel indeed do not incur censures, but are not excused from sin”	Marc n. 745
The judicial duel, a tempting of God: “Thus therefore ordeals, judgments of God, formerly commonly in force, are illicit, even if they were prescribed by public authority.”	Marc n. 746In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 8, ad 3; McHugh-Callan n. 1437; Merkelbach II, n. 366

Its Gravity

A private duel, always gravely wrong: “A private duel is of itself and intrinsically and always gravely evil and unjust.”	Merkelbach II, n. 366In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 125; Noldin n. 349; Marc n. 747; Sabetti-Barrett n. 274; McHugh-Callan n. 1436; Bontempi Whether, and how, the duel is unla, n. 1
Suicide, homicide and wrong to society at once: “1) the injustice of suicide toward God, the author and lord of life;”	Merkelbach II, n. 366In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 349; McHugh-Callan n. 1436
No excuse in fear of shame or loss, Benedict XIV's condemned propositions: “Hence those are not excused who accept a duel in order to avoid very grave evils, or lest they be held sluggish or cowardly.”	Merkelbach II, n. 367In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 276; McHugh-Callan n. 1436
Excommunication, for seconds and spectators too: “Excommunication simply reserved to the Apostolic See”	Wouters n. 750In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 126; Merkelbach II, n. 366; McHugh-Callan n. 1438

Its Remedies

Judges and prudent arbiters: “recourse can be had to judges or other prudent men who are able to compose the matter”	Merkelbach II, n. 366
Seeing that arms prove strength, not honor: “recourse to arms is incapable of vindicating honor or reputation”	Merkelbach II, n. 366In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 123; McHugh-Callan n. 1437
Answering the challenge as a Christian: “These would best satisfy the cartel by saying that they are Christians, to whom the Duel is forbidden because of infamy”	Bontempi Whether, and how, the duel is unla, n. 29
Keeping out of dueling societies: “Certainly no Catholic young man can become a member of corporations of this kind unless a) there is a most urgent cause”	Prümmer II, n. 127

Where It Comes From

From a false point of honor: “held, namely, for the sake of vindicating honor”	Merkelbach II, n. 365In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 124
The Council of Trent, a device of the devil: “introduced by the contrivance of the Devil”	Bontempi Whether, and how, the duel is unla, n. 8In nearly the same words: Marc n. 747; Sabetti-Barrett n. 274

Abortion

How the Authors Compare

All the manuals separate direct abortion from indirect and allow the indirect for a grave cause (II, n. 140, II, n. 363, n. 343, n. 734). St. Thomas has no question on abortion, but holds one who strikes a pregnant woman guilty of homicide if the animated fetus dies (II-II, q. 64, a. 8, ad 2).
When the soul is infused. Prümmer and Marc say that animation at or soon after conception is now commonly admitted (II, n. 138, n. 740); Wouters calls it “freely disputed” (n. 732); McHugh-Callan says the theory of Aristotle and St. Thomas, of later animation, “still has great probability physically”, though in practice life must be held to begin at conception (n. 1848); Vermeersch warns against concluding that the soul is present from the first moment (n. 622). All forbid the direct abortion of a fetus not yet animated.
A doubtful or ectopic pregnancy. Noldin, with Genicot, and Sabetti-Barrett allow removing what may be a fetus or a tumor when the mother is in danger (n. 341, n. 273); Wouters holds that the same rules as for a certain fetus apply (n. 738); McHugh-Callan accepts as safe in practice the excision of the diseased tube in a tubal pregnancy (n. 1848).

What It Is

Abortion: “Abortion is the ejection of an immature living fetus from the maternal womb.”	Prümmer II, n. 137In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 342; Wouters n. 733; Marc n. 741; Sabetti-Barrett n. 271; Vermeersch n. 622; McHugh-Callan n. 1848
Direct abortion: “It is called direct if the means employed of themselves and immediately kill and expel the fetus.”	Prümmer II, n. 138In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 734; Marc n. 741
Craniotomy, or embryotomy: “is a surgical operation by which an infant in the maternal womb is cut up and, once cut up, extracted in parts”	Prümmer II, n. 133In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 340

What It Is Not

Not hastening the birth of a viable child: “The acceleration of birth of a viable fetus is licit for grave reasons.”	Prümmer II, n. 139In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 343; Merkelbach II, n. 363; Wouters n. 739; Sabetti-Barrett n. 273; Vermeersch n. 624; McHugh-Callan n. 1848
Not a loss permitted in curing the mother: “For grave reasons it is lawful indirectly to procure abortion.”	Prümmer II, n. 140In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 343; Merkelbach II, n. 363; Marc n. 743; Vermeersch n. 627; McHugh-Callan n. 1848; Sabetti-Barrett n. 273
Not removing a child certainly dead: “For if the fetus is certainly dead, it is lawful to extract it from the womb of the mother”	Prümmer II, n. 141

Its Kinds

Craniotomy: “Craniotomy and other surgical operations directly causing the death of the fetus are altogether illicit.”	Prümmer II, n. 134In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 340; Merkelbach II, n. 363; Wouters n. 737; Sabetti-Barrett n. 273; Vermeersch n. 620
The child no aggressor: “for who would call an innocent little child an unjust aggressor?”	Merkelbach II, n. 363In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 273; Vermeersch n. 620
Before animation too, Innocent XI's condemned proposition 34: “It is lawful to procure abortion before the animation of the fetus, lest a girl discovered to be pregnant be killed or dishonored.”	Prümmer II, n. 141In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 735; Sabetti-Barrett n. 272; Marc n. 742
By a blow: “He that strikes a woman with child does something unlawful: wherefore if there results the death either of the woman or of the animated fetus, he will not be excused from homicide”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 64, a. 8, ad 2In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment; Marc n. 742

Its Gravity

Never lawful directly: “It is never lawful directly to procure the abortion of a living fetus.”	Prümmer II, n. 141In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 735; Marc n. 742; Vermeersch n. 623; McHugh-Callan n. 1848
Excommunication, the mother not excepted: “Those procuring abortion, the mother not excepted, incur, the effect having followed, a latae sententiae excommunication reserved to the Ordinary”	Prümmer II, n. 142In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 736; Vermeersch n. 626
Irregularity, cooperators included: “everyone who voluntarily procured the abortion of a fetus or culpably cooperated in this, e.g., by advising, preparing medicines, incurs irregularity in the same way as if he had committed homicide”	Prümmer II, n. 144In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 736
Craniotomy, not under the excommunication: “Nevertheless those do not incur this who commit the crime of craniotomy.”	Marc n. 745In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 143

Its Remedies

The manuals' remedies here are the licit operations that save both lives, the provision for the child's baptism, and the confessor's part with physicians; they are set under those heads.

Saving both lives
Operations that save both: “the physician can licitly do two other surgical operations by which the life both of the mother and of the offspring is preserved”	Prümmer II, n. 135
Saving both lives
The child's baptism provided for: “and d) provision is made for the Baptism of the infant”	Merkelbach II, n. 363In nearly the same words: Marc n. 743; McHugh-Callan n. 1848
Saving both lives
After the mother's death: “immediately after the death of the mother, Caesarean section will be licit, indeed per se obligatory”	Vermeersch n. 625
The confessor's part
The surgeon's good faith: “authors warn that it is to be permitted to the prudence of priests that, in extreme cases which, alas! occur, they not disturb the good faith of the surgeon”	Vermeersch n. 621In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 136; Sabetti-Barrett n. 273
The confessor's part
The whole truth, to one who will hear it: “The whole truth must be manifested with a courageous spirit, if the question is made in good faith, and the person who questions is foreseen to wish to acquiesce”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 273In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1850

Where It Comes From

For the mother's safety or to escape disgrace: “for example the safety of the mother or avoiding disgrace”

Wouters n. 735In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 141

Contumely (reviling, insult)

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas's “reviling” is the manuals' contumely or insult. Prümmer, Merkelbach, Noldin and St. Thomas agree that it is done to the person in some way present (II, n. 183, II, n. 436, n. 662, II-II, q. 73, a. 1).
Whether contumely is graver than detraction. St. Thomas: reviling is more grievous, “in as much as it implies greater contempt of one's neighbor” (II-II, q. 73, a. 3, ad 2); so Sabetti-Barrett, Bontempi and Vermeersch (n. 318, What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 15, n. 599). Noldin: graver only when reputation is injured with it; “But if honor alone is injured, it is a lighter sin than detraction” (n. 662).
Whether a superior who has insulted a subject must ask pardon. Noldin: superiors “are never obliged” (n. 665); McHugh-Callan: “an apology is never necessary” (n. 2025); Prümmer and Wouters likewise, at least for a contumely not so grave (II, n. 185, n. 1083); Merkelbach: rarely, though sometimes useful for edification (II, n. 447). Bontempi objects: “what turns my stomach is that some of the authorities cited compel subjects to ask pardon, but never superiors”, for restitution must equal the injury (Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 40).
Whether an insult given privately, with no one by, must be repaired in justice. McHugh-Callan reports two opinions, one owing only satisfaction, and that not before a judge's sentence (n. 2022); Vermeersch rejects Molina's view that only charity binds, “because dishonoring, as such, is damnose” (n. 596); Marc: it must be repaired, “according to the common and true opinion” (n. 1215); Merkelbach: repaired privately (II, n. 447).
Whether asking pardon always suffices. Noldin, after Lessius, and Merkelbach: by asking pardon any injury, even to the most noble, is sufficiently repaired (n. 665, II, n. 447); Marc, with St. Alphonsus, holds it “more probable” that for a very grave injury to a superior one must ask it on bent knees (n. 1215); McHugh-Callan: so humiliating a satisfaction, being penal, can await an order from authority (n. 2022).

What It Is

Contumely, dishonor to one's face: “Reviling denotes the dishonoring of a person”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 183; Merkelbach II, n. 436; Noldin n. 662; Wouters n. 1081; Marc n. 1211; Sabetti-Barrett n. 317; Vermeersch n. 595; McHugh-Callan n. 2010; Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 5; Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
By deeds as by words: “it follows that reviling in a wider sense extends also to deeds”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 436; Wouters n. 1081; Vermeersch n. 595; McHugh-Callan n. 2012
Even with no one else by: “and yet there may still be reviling if he reproach him by himself”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 436; Noldin n. 662; Sabetti-Barrett n. 317; McHugh-Callan n. 2010

What It Is Not

Not a hard word in correction, used sparingly: “for the purpose of correction, may one say a mocking word to a person whom one has to correct”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 2, ad 2In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1212; Wouters n. 1082; Vermeersch n. 595; McHugh-Callan n. 2010; Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 23
Not a light jest among friends: “It belongs to wittiness to utter some slight mockery, not with intent to dishonor or pain the person who is the object of the mockery”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 2, ad 1In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1212; Vermeersch n. 595; McHugh-Callan n. 2010
Not repelling an insult, with moderation: “Nevertheless it sometimes behooves us to withstand against being reviled”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 186; Merkelbach II, n. 442; Marc n. 1213; McHugh-Callan n. 2019; Noldin n. 665

Its Kinds

Reviling, railing, taunts: “Railing and taunts consist in words, even as reviling, because by all of them a man's faults are exposed to the detriment of his honor.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 317; McHugh-Callan n. 2012; Prümmer II, n. 183; Merkelbach II, n. 437
By omission, when it shows contempt: “Whence the privative omission of due honor is not contumely, unless because of special circumstances it is equivalent to a positive act of contempt”	Merkelbach II, n. 436In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 183; Noldin n. 662; Wouters n. 1081; Marc n. 1211; Vermeersch n. 595; McHugh-Callan n. 2010
One species, however done: “All insults, although some are more grave than others, are of the same moral species”	Noldin n. 663In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 183; Wouters n. 1082; Marc n. 1211; Vermeersch n. 595; Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 24
With other malices joined: “Contumely often has other malices joined to it”	Prümmer II, n. 184In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1211; McHugh-Callan n. 2013; Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 25

Its Gravity

Mortal in its kind, against justice: “this is a mortal sin no less than theft or robbery, since a man loves his honor no less than his possessions”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 184; Noldin n. 663; Merkelbach II, n. 438; Wouters n. 1082; Marc n. 1212; Sabetti-Barrett n. 318; Vermeersch n. 595; McHugh-Callan n. 2014; Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 14
Graver than detraction: “Reviling is a more grievous sin than backbiting, in as much as it implies greater contempt of one's neighbor”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 3, ad 2In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 318; Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 15; Vermeersch n. 599; McHugh-Callan n. 2044
Venial by the speaker's mind: “Since the sin of railing or reviling depends on the intention of the utterer, it may happen to be a venial sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 184; Merkelbach II, n. 438; McHugh-Callan n. 2014; Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 22
Light where no one believes it: “abusive words by which women and men of the lowest populace call themselves harlots, adulteresses, rogues, commonly are not grave sins”	Noldin n. 664In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 184; Merkelbach II, n. 438; Wouters n. 1082; Marc n. 1212; Vermeersch n. 595; McHugh-Callan n. 2015
Graver against a superior: “whence the same contumely brought upon a father, bishop, or king is much graver than if it is brought upon an equal”	Merkelbach II, n. 439In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2015

Its Remedies

The authors give restoring the honor taken, publicly if it was taken publicly, by signs of honor or by asking pardon; St. Thomas and all the authors, with St. Alphonsus and Spirago, patience in bearing insult; Marc, Wouters, Sabetti-Barrett, McHugh-Callan and Bontempi, the confessor's part. They are set under those heads.

Restoring the honor
Restoring the honor taken: “He who has inflicted true contumely upon another is held to sufficient reparation of honor.”	Prümmer II, n. 185In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 665; Merkelbach II, n. 447; Wouters n. 1083; Marc n. 1214; Sabetti-Barrett n. 318; McHugh-Callan n. 2023; Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 33
Restoring the honor
Quickly, as Christ and St. Augustine's Rule bid: “let him remember to cure as quickly as possible by satisfaction what he did”	Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 12In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 185; Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 34
Restoring the honor
Publicly if done publicly: “Honor taken away publicly is to be repaired by public reparation”	Merkelbach II, n. 447In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 185; Noldin n. 665; Wouters n. 1083; Marc n. 1215; Sabetti-Barrett n. 319; McHugh-Callan n. 2024
Restoring the honor
By signs of honor or by asking pardon: “to greet in a friendly way or first, to speak kindly, to visit at home, to invite to table, to drink to someone, to ask pardon, to fall upon the knees”	Noldin n. 665In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 447; Vermeersch n. 596; McHugh-Callan n. 2023; Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 37
Patience under insult
Readiness to bear it: “For we are bound to hold our minds prepared to submit to be reviled, if it should be expedient.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 186; Merkelbach II, n. 442; Marc n. 1213; Noldin n. 665; McHugh-Callan n. 2018; Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
Patience under insult
A mild answer, or silence: “A mild answer breaketh wrath.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 3, ad 3; St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
The confessor's part
Not stirring up old quarrels: “In practice it is often expedient that the confessor omit to warn a penitent existing in good faith”	Marc n. 1216In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1083; Sabetti-Barrett n. 319; McHugh-Callan n. 2027
The confessor's part
But not absolving the unwilling: “that absolution must be denied to one who is unwilling to restore the honor he took away”	Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 41

A daughter of Anger, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Contumely is among the daughters of anger.

From anger: “Therefore reviling arises chiefly from anger.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 4In nearly the same words: Bontempi What contumely is, and whence it a, n. 3; McHugh-Callan n. 2017
Pride disposing: “Nevertheless pride disposes a man to revile”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 4, ad 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2017
Folly: “Hence reviling arises from folly on account of the latter's kinship with anger.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 4, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2017

Detraction and Calumny (backbiting)

How the Authors Compare

Telling a grave hidden sin, without cause, to one prudent man who will keep it. St. Thomas says such a man's good name is destroyed “not altogether but partly” (II-II, q. 73, a. 1, ad 2); Prümmer reads him as favoring the grave opinion and leaves the matter “uncertain” (II, n. 191); Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure, holds it mortal, since “reputation is often more harmed if it is said to one weighty person than if to many of the common people” (Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 16); McHugh-Callan finds both opinions probable, the grave one “more common and more likely” (n. 2065). Noldin, who cites St. Thomas for this side, Wouters, Marc, Vermeersch, Sabetti-Barrett and Merkelbach hold it not grave, since reputation is the estimation of many (n. 647, n. 1069, n. 1200, n. 600, n. 316, II, n. 427).
A crime established by a judge's sentence, told in another region. Noldin, Wouters, Marc, Vermeersch and McHugh-Callan allow it anywhere, the sentence having taken away the right to reputation in that matter (n. 651, n. 1069, n. 1200, n. 600, n. 2054); Merkelbach forbids it as against justice, “because there the accused has not been deprived of the right to reputation” (II, n. 430).
A crime public in one place by the fact, told where it is unknown and would not soon be known. Merkelbach and Wouters hold it unjust, except for crimes that make a man dangerous to others (II, n. 430, n. 1069); Noldin finds probable the opinion allowing it for all crimes (n. 651); Marc gives three opinions and calls the more common, that it is not grave, “very probable” when limited to crimes which make a man pernicious (n. 1200); Sabetti-Barrett, with St. Alphonsus, probably not mortal (n. 316); Vermeersch follows Lugo in allowing it (n. 600); Prümmer counts it against charity, not justice (II, n. 194); McHugh-Callan reports the opinions and judges that one who speaks of it without necessity sins against charity, “if not against justice” (n. 2056).
Recalling a crime once public, now amended and forgotten. If it was public by a judge's sentence, Noldin, Merkelbach and McHugh-Callan find no injustice, only a sin against charity (n. 651, II, n. 430, n. 2058), and Wouters allows it (n. 1069); Vermeersch judges the mind of today's legislator to be against stirring up “the memory of an ancient condemnation” (n. 600). If it was public only in fact, Noldin and Merkelbach hold it against justice, the right to reputation having revived (n. 651, II, n. 430), Wouters “as it seems” (n. 1069), and McHugh-Callan reports many holding the same (n. 2058); Prümmer finds no violation of justice (II, n. 194); Marc, mortal “at least against charity” (n. 1200).
How the detractor, who told the truth, may take it back. Noldin allows equivocal words, “that he erred, that he was deceived” (n. 656), and so Sabetti-Barrett (n. 315) and Marc, who gives St. Alphonsus's counsel to say “I drew this out of my head” (n. 1206); Merkelbach allows amphibology but prefers praise, the other way being one which “smells of mental restriction” (II, n. 445). Vermeersch: “The use of mental restrictions, which others concede and even command, cannot be approved by us” (n. 603); McHugh-Callan has him say only that his statements “were unjust” (n. 2093).
Money for a good name that cannot be restored. Noldin, Marc and Wouters: he is not bound, “because reputation and money are not goods of the same order” (n. 655, n. 1205, n. 1074); Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure: it “cannot be made” (Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 11); Merkelbach: it “can be counseled” where the defamed man is poor and willing (II, n. 445); McHugh-Callan: he “should make a profitable compensation by the bestowal of a benefit”, money if the defamed man is satisfied with it (n. 2094). Wouters lets the defamed man take money from a defamer who unjustly refuses to restore (n. 1074).
Whether the calumniator must swear to his retraction or bring witnesses. Noldin and Merkelbach require these means if the retraction would not otherwise be efficacious, “because they are not considered very difficult” (n. 656, II, n. 445); so Wouters and Marc (n. 1073, n. 1206), and McHugh-Callan an affidavit (n. 2093). Bontempi reports the moderns binding to this and wonders at it: the ancient theologians “require only a simple retraction” (Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 6).
Revealing, for a grave cause, a crime learned unjustly, as by reading another's letters. Merkelbach: unlawful, unless one already had a right to use that means (II, n. 429); Marc and McHugh-Callan set it among the conditions of lawful revelation that the knowledge not be unjustly gained (n. 1198, n. 2070). Prümmer reports Lugo and St. Alphonsus denying, Lessius and Concina affirming, because to use the knowledge once acquired “is contrary to no natural or positive law” (II, n. 192).
Defaming oneself without cause. Merkelbach: of itself “only a sin of prodigality and of defect of charity toward oneself”, against justice only by accident (II, n. 432); Marc: regularly not mortal (n. 1200). Bontempi holds with St. Bonaventure that it is mortal, the Fathers' sayings on good name being “precepts for guarding against grave evils” (Whether anyone can defame himself, n. 3, Whether anyone can defame himself, n. 13).
Whether calumny is another species than detraction. Marc: it “differs in species from simple detraction” (n. 1195); Merkelbach, Prümmer, Wouters and Vermeersch hold them one species of injury, calumny adding a lie (II, n. 428, II, n. 190, n. 1068, n. 599); Noldin calls them specifically diverse only by the lie, which is not mortal (n. 648). Noldin and Sabetti-Barrett reject St. Alphonsus's view that detractions about crimes of different kinds differ in species (n. 648, n. 316); McHugh-Callan sets out both questions (n. 2039).

What It Is

Detraction, the secret injury to a good name: “and in another way secretly, and this is done by backbiting”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 187; Merkelbach II, n. 423; Noldin n. 644; Wouters n. 1066; Marc n. 1195; McHugh-Callan n. 2028; Sabetti-Barrett n. 314; Vermeersch n. 597; Bontempi What detraction is, and of how man, n. 1
Simple detraction and calumny: “but calumny is the unjust and hidden lesion of another's reputation which is done by narration of a false crime”	Noldin n. 644In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1067; Merkelbach II, n. 424; Vermeersch n. 597; Marc n. 1195; McHugh-Callan n. 2030; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
A right even to a good name not deserved: “Each one has a right to his own reputation, not only true but also false.”	Noldin n. 643In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 426; Marc n. 1190; McHugh-Callan n. 2037; Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
Even of the dead: “This right indeed is preserved even for dead men, since their immortal soul still exists.”	Prümmer II, n. 187In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 643; Wouters n. 1069; McHugh-Callan n. 2060; Vermeersch n. 599; Bontempi Whether it is ever lawful to defam, n. 9; Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
Of a community or religious order: “to detract from a family or community is unlawful, because the disgrace redounds to the whole community”	Merkelbach II, n. 427In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 647; Marc n. 1201; McHugh-Callan n. 2060; Vermeersch n. 600; Bontempi Whether it is ever lawful to defam, n. 11

What It Is Not

Not revealing for a just cause: “it is not backbiting to reveal a man's hidden sin in order that he may mend, whether one denounce it, or accuse him for the good of public justice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 2, ad 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 192; Noldin n. 650; Merkelbach II, n. 429; Wouters n. 1070; Marc n. 1198; Sabetti-Barrett n. 315; Vermeersch n. 600; McHugh-Callan n. 2068; Bontempi Whether it is ever lawful to defam, n. 4
Not telling a friend one's own injury, for comfort or counsel: “Therefore those are excused who for the sake of consolation or counsel narrate to a friend an injury done to themselves by another”	Noldin n. 650In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1069; Merkelbach II, n. 429; Vermeersch n. 600; Marc n. 1200; Bontempi On the various cases in which detr, n. 1
Not speaking of a crime already public: “To manifest a public or notorious crime to others who are ignorant of it generally and of itself is not against justice”	Merkelbach II, n. 430In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1199; McHugh-Callan n. 2038; Prümmer II, n. 194; Noldin n. 651
Not unmasking an undeserved renown: “Wherefore manifestation of the error on which extraordinary reputation rests is not against justice”	Merkelbach II, n. 426In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 643; McHugh-Callan n. 2037; Vermeersch n. 599
Not the historian's true record: “A certain greater license is customarily conceded to historians in narrating the vices and crimes of the dead”	Noldin n. 653In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 194; Merkelbach II, n. 426; Wouters n. 1070; Vermeersch n. 599; McHugh-Callan n. 2072; Bontempi On the various cases in which detr, n. 16
Not a crime told of no one who can be known: “If there is nothing to indicate the individual and no reflection is cast on a body to which he belongs”	McHugh-Callan n. 2059In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 647; Merkelbach II, n. 427; Wouters n. 1069; Vermeersch n. 600

Its Kinds

Directly, in four ways: “Directly, in four ways: first, by saying that which is false about him; secondly, by stating his sin to be greater than it is; thirdly, by revealing something unknown about him; fourthly, by ascribing his good deeds to a bad intention.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 188; Noldin n. 644; Sabetti-Barrett n. 314; Marc n. 1195; McHugh-Callan n. 2032; Bontempi What detraction is, and of how man, n. 6
Indirectly, by denying, silence, faint praise: “Indirectly, this is done either by gainsaying his good, or by maliciously concealing it, or by diminishing it.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 188; Merkelbach II, n. 424; McHugh-Callan n. 2031; Bontempi What detraction is, and of how man, n. 7
Formal and material: “This is not backbiting strictly and formally speaking, but only materially and accidentally as it were.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 188; Merkelbach II, n. 424; Vermeersch n. 597; Bontempi What detraction is, and of how man, n. 5
Repeating what one has heard: “To narrate a grave matter about someone as heard from others”	Noldin n. 647In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1069; Marc n. 1200; Sabetti-Barrett n. 316; McHugh-Callan n. 2062; Vermeersch n. 601; Bontempi On the various cases in which detr, n. 3
In writing, libel: “God is also grievously offended by those attacks and slanders which are termed lampoons, and other defamatory publications of this kind.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2030; Bontempi Whether it is ever lawful to defam, n. 16
The hearer who draws it out or delights in it: “And if he induces him to backbite, or at least if the detraction be pleasing to him on account of his hatred of the person detracted, he sins no less than the detractor, and sometimes more.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 4In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Prümmer II, n. 195; Merkelbach II, n. 433; Noldin n. 654; Wouters n. 1075; Marc n. 1204; McHugh-Callan n. 2077
The hearer who fails to withstand it: “he sins indeed, but much less than the backbiter, and, as a rule venially”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 654; Merkelbach II, n. 433; Marc n. 1202; Sabetti-Barrett n. 316; McHugh-Callan n. 2079

Its Gravity

Mortal in its kind, against justice: “Therefore backbiting, properly speaking, is a mortal sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 189; Noldin n. 645; Merkelbach II, n. 425; Wouters n. 1068; Marc n. 1196; Sabetti-Barrett n. 315; Vermeersch n. 599; McHugh-Callan n. 2042; Bontempi Whether detraction is a mortal sin, n. 1
Graver than theft, less than murder: “Therefore backbiting according to its genus is a more grievous sin than theft, but is less grievous than murder or adultery.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 425; Marc n. 1196; McHugh-Callan n. 2044; Bontempi Whether detraction is a mortal sin, n. 12
Less than contumely: “Reviling is a more grievous sin than backbiting, in as much as it implies greater contempt of one's neighbor”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 3, ad 2In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 599; McHugh-Callan n. 2044
Weighed by the harm done: “The essential gravity of sins committed against one's neighbor must be weighed by the injury they inflict on him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 3In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 646; Merkelbach II, n. 427; Marc n. 1197; Sabetti-Barrett n. 315; Vermeersch n. 599; McHugh-Callan n. 2046; Bontempi On the various cases in which detr, n. 10
Light from talkativeness, unless grave harm follows: “But if they be uttered out of lightness of heart or for some unnecessary motive, it is not a mortal sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 191; Noldin n. 645; McHugh-Callan n. 2042; Vermeersch n. 601; Bontempi Whether material detraction, which, n. 4
Natural defects, ordinarily light: “To manifest natural defects, for example, to say that someone is ignorant, unlearned, imprudent, illegitimate, etc., ordinarily is not a grave sin”	Noldin n. 647In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 191; Merkelbach II, n. 427; Wouters n. 1068; Marc n. 1201; McHugh-Callan n. 2047; Bontempi On the various cases in which detr, n. 9
Calumny never lawful: “Calumny is never licit”	Wouters n. 1070In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1196; Sabetti-Barrett n. 315; Merkelbach II, n. 429; McHugh-Callan n. 2067; Prümmer II, n. 192; Bontempi Whether it is ever lawful to defam, n. 2

Its Remedies

The authors give, first, restoring the good name and repairing the damages, the calumniator by retracting and the detractor by praise and excuse; the Roman Catechism, Spirago and St. Alphonsus add guarding the tongue against talkativeness; St. Thomas and all the authors, withstanding detraction when it is heard; Prümmer, Marc, Sabetti-Barrett and McHugh-Callan, the confessor's part. They are set under those heads.

Restoring the good name
Restoring the good name: “And one is bound to restore a man his good name, no less than any other thing one has taken from him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 2In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO; Noldin n. 655; Merkelbach II, n. 444; Wouters n. 1071; Marc n. 1205; Sabetti-Barrett n. 315; McHugh-Callan n. 2085; Vermeersch n. 603; Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 3
Restoring the good name
The calumniator, by retracting: “The calumniator is held openly and effectively to retract his calumnious lies”	Prümmer II, n. 197In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 656; Merkelbach II, n. 445; Wouters n. 1073; Marc n. 1206; McHugh-Callan n. 2093; Sabetti-Barrett n. 315; Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 3
Restoring the good name
The detractor, by praise and excuse: “he ought also deliberately to praise and treat honorably before others him from whom he detracted”	Prümmer II, n. 197In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 656; Merkelbach II, n. 445; Marc n. 1206; Sabetti-Barrett n. 315; Vermeersch n. 603; McHugh-Callan n. 2093; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V; Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 7
Restoring the good name
And the damages that followed: “to repair all temporal damages which he foresaw at least in confusion would follow from the defamation”	Noldin n. 655In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 444; Wouters n. 1072; Marc n. 1205; Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 19
Guarding the tongue
Avoiding talkativeness: “The pastor should also teach that loquacity is to be avoided.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago THE MEANS OF PREVENTING SINS OF THE TONGUE
Guarding the tongue
From St. Mary Magdalene de Pazzi: “Never to utter in their absence what you would not say in their presence.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
Guarding the tongue
Looking to one's own faults: “It is those who are blind to their own faults who are most keenly alive to the faults of others.”	Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
Guarding the tongue
St. Augustine's table: “St. Augustine, that he might deter his guests from this vice, had an inscription placed above the table”	Prümmer II, n. 189In nearly the same words: Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
Against hearing it
Withstanding it when heard: “by our pained demeanor show him that we are displeased with his backbiting”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 4, ad 2In nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII; Merkelbach II, n. 433; Marc n. 1202; McHugh-Callan n. 2084; Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
Against hearing it
The hearer feeds it: “kindles a fire, and he who listens to him throws fuel on it”	Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
The confessor's part
Not indulging the habit: “let the confessor fight with all his strength against this evil manner of acting”	Prümmer II, n. 191In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2061
The confessor's part
Restitution before absolution: “Let the confessor take care that restitution of reputation, when it can conveniently be made, be made before absolution”	Marc n. 1209In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2096
The confessor's part
Not asking what was said: “the confessor ought not to inquire concerning what matters the penitent detracted about”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 316In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 190; McHugh-Callan n. 2040

A daughter of Envy, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Detraction is among the daughters of envy.

From envy: “backbiting which takes place in secret, is not the daughter of anger, as reviling is, but rather of envy”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 73, a. 3, ad 3In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 36, a. 4, ad 3
Calumny from revenge and hatred: “The motives that actuate the slanderer are generally revenge, hatred or ingratitude”	Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBOIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. V
From talkativeness or indiscreet zeal: “Yet it matters greatly whether this vice proceeds from envy, or from an indiscreet Zeal of justice”	Bontempi Whether, and how, restitution of f, n. 32In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 191

Whispering (tale-bearing)

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas, Prümmer and Wouters agree that it differs from detraction in its end, the breaking of friendship (II-II, q. 74, a. 1, II, n. 188, n. 1078).
Whether whispering is of itself against justice. Merkelbach: always, “because it takes away from another the good of friendship, for preserving which, once friendship has been entered, he has a strict right by reason of possession” (II, n. 434); Wouters, with St. Alphonsus against many, likewise where a friendship already acquired is taken away even by means not unjust (n. 1079). McHugh-Callan: by its nature “only a sin against charity, for the injured party has no strict right to friendship” (n. 2104); Bontempi counts it against justice at least when done by deceit, fraud, lies or revealing secrets (On the malice of whispering, n. 9).

What It Is

Whispering, to break a friendship: “whereas a tale-bearer intends to sever friendship”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 74, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 188; Noldin n. 645; Merkelbach II, n. 434; Wouters n. 1078; Marc n. 1195; McHugh-Callan n. 2103; Bontempi On the malice of whispering, n. 2; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The double-tongued: “A double-tongued person is properly speaking a tale-bearer.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 74, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 188; McHugh-Callan n. 2103; Bontempi On the malice of whispering, n. 1
Not always by evil told: “but to say anything that may stir one man against another, though it be good simply”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 74, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2103

What It Is Not

Not ending a harmful friendship: “on the contrary, it is not a sin to remove a friendship which is not true but harmful or dangerous”

Merkelbach II, n. 434In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 188; McHugh-Callan n. 2103

Its Kinds

Carrying what one said of another: “Be careful never to mention to any sister that another has spoken ill of her”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 434
Between spouses, parents and children, graver: “thus it is very grave if discord is sown between spouses, between parents and children”	Merkelbach II, n. 434In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2105
Joined to another sin by its aim: “he who separates husband and wife, intending to secure the wife for himself, is guilty also of adultery”	McHugh-Callan n. 2105In nearly the same words: Bontempi On the malice of whispering, n. 10

Its Gravity

Graver than detraction and contumely: “Therefore tale-bearing is a greater sin than backbiting or even reviling, because a friend is better than honor, and to be loved is better than to be honored”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 74, a. 2In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1079; Merkelbach II, n. 434; McHugh-Callan n. 2104; Noldin n. 645; Bontempi On the malice of whispering, n. 4
Mortal in its kind: “But it is a grave sin from its genus”	Merkelbach II, n. 434In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1079; McHugh-Callan n. 2104; Bontempi On the malice of whispering, n. 3
More directly against charity: “while he that strives to sever friendship seems to act more directly against this precept”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 74, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Venial when it harms friendship little: “Yet it can be venial on account of slightness of matter, for example if it is apt only to lessen friendship a little.”	Wouters n. 1079In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2105
Unjust by unjust means: “To whispering there is added a sin of injustice if it is done by an unjust means”	Wouters n. 1079In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2104; Bontempi On the malice of whispering, n. 9

Its Remedies

Wouters gives restitution where whispering used unjust means; St. Alphonsus, letting what is heard of another die within one and never carrying it; set under those heads.

Repairing
Restitution where unjust means were used: “but in that case it obliges to restitution properly so called”	Wouters n. 1079
Guarding the tongue
Letting what is heard die within: “let it die within thee”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII

A daughter of Envy, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

A daughter of envy: “The beginning is that a man strives to lower another's reputation”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 36, a. 4, ad 3

Derision

How the Authors Compare

The authors describe the same sin and share out the names differently: Merkelbach's “Mockery” is Wouters's “Derision” (II, n. 440, n. 1084).
Whether derision is its own species. St. Thomas: “derision is a special kind of sin”, since its end, to shame, is distinct (II-II, q. 75, a. 1, ad 3); so Merkelbach, “of a diverse species” from contumely (II, n. 440), Wouters and McHugh-Callan (n. 1084, n. 2106). Prümmer reduces mockery and derision “to the same moral species of contumely” (II, n. 183), and Marc and Noldin count them among the ways contumely is given (n. 1211, n. 662).
A light jest that the other is foreseen to take very hard. Bontempi: “IF, however, you judge that he will be most gravely moved, it will be mortal” (On the malice of mockery, n. 4); Noldin: the jester “does not sin gravely, even if he knows that the other takes a light joke gravely”, the cause being the other's foolishness (n. 664); McHugh-Callan reports both opinions (n. 2109).

What It Is

Derision, to put to shame: “so too the derider intends to shame the person he derides”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 75, a. 1In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1084; Merkelbach II, n. 440; McHugh-Callan n. 2106; Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 1; Sabetti-Barrett n. 317
Robbing the peace of conscience: “Wherefore he that disturbs another's conscience by confounding him inflicts a special injury on him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 75, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2106; Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 1

What It Is Not

Not jest for correction or fair recreation: “Derision is free from fault”

Wouters n. 1086In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 440; McHugh-Callan n. 2107; Prümmer II, n. 184; Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 8

Its Kinds

By words, by looks, by deeds: “Laughing to scorn and derision agree as to the end but differ in mode”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 75, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1085; Merkelbach II, n. 440; McHugh-Callan n. 2108; Noldin n. 662; Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 6

Its Gravity

Mortal, and graver than contumely, when it scorns: “On this way derision is a mortal sin, and more grievous than reviling”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 75, a. 2In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1086; McHugh-Callan n. 2109; Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 5
Venial over a slight defect: “because it is a slight evil in itself, this is a venial sin by reason of its genus”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 75, a. 2In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1086; Merkelbach II, n. 440; Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 3
Of God, of parents, of the just: “Consequently it is an exceedingly grievous sin to deride God and the things of God”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 75, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 440; McHugh-Callan n. 2110; Wouters n. 1086; Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 7; Spirago Transgressions of the Fourth Commandment

Its Remedies

The authors give one remedy, care in jesting: St. Alphonsus, never to wound by jests, with St. Thomas and Merkelbach on jesting soberly.

In jesting
Never wounding by jests: “you must be careful never to wound even by jests the feelings of a sister”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIIn nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 72, a. 2, ad 1; Merkelbach II, n. 440

Where It Comes From

From pride and contempt: “that mockeries, ironies, and scoffings mostly arise from pride and contempt”

Bontempi On the malice of mockery, n. 3

Cursing

How the Authors Compare

Whether cursing is against justice or only charity. St. Thomas: to wish another evil is “of its very nature, contrary to charity” (II-II, q. 76, a. 3); Noldin: “ordinarily is opposed only to charity” (n. 208); McHugh-Callan: “essentially opposed to charity” (n. 2113). Merkelbach adds justice, cursing being “a dishonoring” of the one cursed (II, n. 441); Prümmer: opposed “only to charity or justice” (II, n. 534); Bontempi: against charity when the evil is wished by God or the elements, against justice when it is wished unjustly, as by homicide (On curses, n. 25).
Cursing things without reason. St. Thomas allows it in their relation to man, as Job cursed his day and David the mountains of Gelboe (II-II, q. 76, a. 2); Noldin: “if there is an honorable end of cursing creatures, there is no sin” (n. 208); McHugh-Callan allows cursing them as figures of evil (n. 2117). Bontempi reports St. Bonaventure as holding “universally that it is not lawful to curse these”, and reads Job and David otherwise (On curses, n. 17), though he also reports Tanner's distinctions (On curses, n. 23).
Wishing several evils in one curse. McHugh-Callan: several sins, by the specific difference of the evils wished, though some count one (n. 2116); Merkelbach: one sin when they are wished under the general aspect of evil, several only by an efficacious desire to inflict them (II, n. 441); Vermeersch: the one who hated need not, for the most part, declare the species of evil wished (n. 90).

What It Is

Cursing, wishing evil as evil: “if a man commands or desires another's evil, as evil, being intent on the evil itself, then evil speaking will be unlawful in both ways, and this is what is meant by cursing”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 534; Noldin n. 101; Merkelbach II, n. 441; Marc n. 504; McHugh-Callan n. 2111; Bontempi On curses, n. 2
By command or by wish: “Cursing is expressed in two ways”	McHugh-Callan n. 2111In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 1; Merkelbach II, n. 441; Bontempi On curses, n. 2

What It Is Not

Not a just sentence, or evil wished for good: “On the other hand if a man commands or desires another's evil under the aspect of good, it is lawful”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 441; McHugh-Callan n. 2112; Bontempi On curses, n. 5
Not wishing a sinner sickness for his amendment: “Sometimes evil is spoken under the aspect of useful, as when one wishes a sinner to suffer sickness or hindrance of some kind, either that he may himself reform, or at least that he may cease from harming others.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 1In nearly the same words: Bontempi On curses, n. 15; McHugh-Callan n. 2112
Not cursing the devil, or evil as such: “To curse the devil, with anger, impatience, or another defect excluded, is not a sin”	Noldin n. 208In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2117

Its Kinds

Of God or His creatures as His, blasphemy: “But to curse irrational beings, considered as creatures of God, is a sin of blasphemy”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 534; Noldin n. 208; Sabetti-Barrett n. 221; Merkelbach II, n. 441; McHugh-Callan n. 2119; Bontempi On curses, n. 23
Of parents and superiors: “and so much the graver, as the person whom we curse has a greater claim on our love and respect”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 441; McHugh-Callan n. 2115; Vermeersch n. 262; Noldin n. 101
Of things without reason, idle: “while to curse them considered in themselves is idle and vain and consequently unlawful”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 534; Noldin n. 208; Merkelbach II, n. 441; McHugh-Callan n. 2119; Bontempi On curses, n. 23

Its Gravity

Mortal in its kind: “Consequently it is a mortal sin, according to its genus”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 441; Noldin n. 101; McHugh-Callan n. 2113; Bontempi On curses, n. 7; Marc n. 504
Often venial, from anger or habit: “because he may say such words through some slight movement, or in jest, or without deliberation”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 534; Noldin n. 101; McHugh-Callan n. 2113; Bontempi On curses, n. 12; Vermeersch n. 90
Less than detraction, when it only wishes: “Hence backbiting considered in its generic aspect is a graver sin than the cursing which expresses a mere desire”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 4In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2113; Merkelbach II, n. 441
Graver by scandal: “venial curses of this kind may become mortal by reason of scandal”	McHugh-Callan n. 2113In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 441

Its Remedies

Prümmer warns parents and superiors especially; Sabetti-Barrett commends the Holy Name Society; the Roman Catechism and Bontempi give the motive that the tongue which blesses God should not curse men. They are set under those heads.

Guarding the tongue
Parents and superiors especially: “Such curses are especially to be avoided by parents and other superiors”	Prümmer II, n. 534
Guarding the tongue
The Holy Name Society: “It is greatly to be commended to the faithful that they associate themselves with those Sodalities”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 221
Motives
The tongue that blesses God: “with the same tongue, by which we bless God and the Father, to curse men, who are made after the image and likeness of God”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Bontempi On curses, n. 17

Where It Comes From

From hatred or anger: “therefore malediction is an external sin which proceeds from hatred or anger”

Noldin n. 101In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 76, a. 3; Prümmer II, n. 534; Marc n. 504; McHugh-Callan n. 2113

Rash Judgment and Suspicion

How the Authors Compare

Noldin and Wouters differ on which virtue the lesser degrees offend. Noldin: “Suspicion and doubt, if they are voluntary, are sins against charity” (n. 659). Wouters: “Judgment, opinion, and doubt, rashly conceived, are sins, and indeed against justice” (n. 1077). Billuart counts rash suspicion against both: “Therefore against justice. Also against charity” (On suspicion and rash judgment, n. 10).
On the gravity of suspicion, St. Thomas calls the first degree “a venial and a light sin” (II-II, q. 60, a. 3), Merkelbach says “doubt or suspicion from its genus is not a grave sin but a light one” (II, n. 420), and Wouters says that they “ordinarily are only slight sins” (n. 1077). Prümmer reports that theologians “dispute greatly” whether rash suspicion is mortal from its genus (II, n. 200). Billuart takes the stricter side: “It is more probable that rash suspicion concerning the evil of one's neighbor, insofar as it comprehends doubt and opinion, is of its genus mortal sin”, when fully deliberate concerning a grave evil, and reads St. Thomas so, since suspicion too is “with contempt of one's neighbor” (On suspicion and rash judgment, n. 9, On suspicion and rash judgment, n. 15).
Whether a rash judgment calls for restitution. Noldin: “the obligation of restitution does not arise from rash judgment as such”, it being an internal violation of justice (n. 659); Wouters: such judgments oblige “to a certain species of restitution, namely that one lay aside the aforesaid judgment” (n. 1077); Marc: one is “held from justice to reform his suspicion and his judgment” (n. 1194); Merkelbach: bound to put them away and to conceive a good estimation (II, n. 444).
Whether rash judgment is another species than detraction. Merkelbach, after Lugo, says that as detraction takes away a good name among others, so rash judgment among ourselves, “And thus it differs in species from detraction” (II, n. 420); Wouters reports it disputed, some holding the difference merely material (n. 1077).
Whether the same matter is grave in rash judgment as in detraction. Wouters: grave matter is that which, “if it were revealed, would contain grave detraction” (n. 1077); Noldin: “graver matter is required to constitute grave judgment than grave detraction” (n. 661). Vermeersch makes a rash judgment grave even where telling one man would not be, since by it a crime is imposed “as if falsely” (n. 600). Billuart is with Wouters: “grave evil in this matter, as in the matter of detraction”, is whatever is highly disgraceful to the neighbor's good name, the quality of persons considered (On suspicion and rash judgment, n. 26).

What It Is

Judging evil of another on slight signs: “suspicion denotes evil thinking based on slight indications”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 199; Merkelbach II, n. 418; Noldin n. 658; Wouters n. 1076; Marc n. 1191; Sabetti-Barrett n. 320; McHugh-Callan n. 1734; Vermeersch n. 604; Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 7
Taking to oneself God's judgment of hearts: “For this is to usurp the scrutiny of hearts, which is proper to God”	Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 7In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 200; Merkelbach II, n. 420

What It Is Not

Not judging on sufficient signs: “THEREFORE I suppose that to judge something for a just cause is not a sin.”	Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 418; Marc n. 1194; Sabetti-Barrett n. 322
Not taking precautions: “In the external manner of acting we are by no means prohibited, for forestalling our own or another's damage, from employing due precautions”	Merkelbach II, n. 422In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 4, ad 3; Prümmer II, n. 201; Noldin n. 661; Sabetti-Barrett n. 322; McHugh-Callan n. 1744; Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 13
Not suspending judgment: “nevertheless we are not bound positively to esteem him good”	Merkelbach II, n. 422In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 661; Prümmer II, n. 201; McHugh-Callan n. 1743

Its Kinds

Doubt, suspicion, opinion, judgment: “it is useful to distinguish four degrees, which are: doubt, suspicion, rash opinion, and rash judgment”	Prümmer II, n. 199In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 418; Noldin n. 658; Marc n. 1191; Wouters n. 1076; Sabetti-Barrett n. 320; Vermeersch n. 604
St. Thomas's three degrees: “Now there are three degrees of suspicion.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 3In nearly the same words: Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 12

Its Gravity

Firm judgment in grave matter, mortal: “This is a mortal sin, if it be about a grave matter, since it cannot be without contempt of one's neighbor.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 200; Merkelbach II, n. 420; Noldin n. 659; Wouters n. 1077; Marc n. 1192; Sabetti-Barrett n. 321; McHugh-Callan n. 1734; Vermeersch n. 604; Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 4
Its conditions: “For rash judgment to be a mortal sin in the individual case, three things are required”	Prümmer II, n. 201In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 420; Noldin n. 661; Sabetti-Barrett n. 321; McHugh-Callan n. 1735; Marc n. 1192
Suspicion and doubt, of themselves venial: “of itself and regularly is only a venial sin”	Merkelbach II, n. 421In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 321; Marc n. 1193; Wouters n. 1077; Vermeersch n. 604; Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 10
But grave over an enormous crime in an upright man: “if deliberately and without any probable foundation it is made concerning a very grave sin (incest, sodomy, bestiality) as to men altogether upright”	Merkelbach II, n. 421In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1077; Marc n. 1193; Sabetti-Barrett n. 322; Bontempi In what respect private judgment o, n. 14
Seldom mortal in fact: “A rash judgment which is conceived only interiorly and in no way manifested exteriorly is rarely a mortal sin”	Prümmer II, n. 201In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 661; McHugh-Callan n. 1741

Its Remedies

The authors give, first, thinking well of others, St. Thomas's rule of interpreting doubts for the best, with St. Alphonsus; then undoing the judgment, by laying it aside and not passing it on; and, for the confessor, quieting those who take suspicions for judgments. They are set under those heads.

Thinking well of others
Interpreting doubts for the best: “unless we have evident indications of a person's wickedness, we ought to deem him good, by interpreting for the best whatever is doubtful about him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 4In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 4; Wouters n. 1077; Vermeersch n. 604; McHugh-Callan n. 1743
Thinking well of others
Better to be deceived thinking well: “it is better to err frequently through thinking well of a wicked man, than to err less frequently through having an evil opinion of a good man”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 4, ad 1
Thinking well of others
St. Alphonsus's rule: “the safest and most charitable rule is to think well of all, and to banish all such judgments and suspicions”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XII
Undoing it
Laying the judgment aside: “He who has rashly suspected or judged is held from justice to reform his suspicion and his judgment.”	Marc n. 1194In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 444; Wouters n. 1077
Undoing it
Not passing suspicions on: “Only let it be adverted that they not communicate suspicions of this kind to others without necessity”	Marc n. 1194In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 201
The confessor's part
Quieting the scrupulous: “In this matter let the confessor advert that many rude persons accuse themselves that they have judged rashly.”	Marc n. 1194In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1731; Prümmer II, n. 201

Where It Comes From

From one's own wickedness, ill will, or long experience: “and this is due to three causes”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 199; Merkelbach II, n. 419; Noldin n. 660; McHugh-Callan n. 1742; Spirago THE PROHIBITION AGAINST INJURING OUR NEIGHBO
Ill will believing what it wishes: “for when a man hates or despises another, or is angry with or envious of him, he is led by slight indications to think evil of him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 60, a. 3

Violating a Secret

How the Authors Compare

Prümmer reckons this a sin against truthfulness: “violation of a secret violates it by excess” (II, Section 4). Noldin and Wouters ground a natural secret in justice or in charity, according to the harm done (n. 667, n. 1089). Merkelbach names both as well: “against charity and at the same time against fidelity or justice” (II, n. 855).
An entrusted secret that would save an innocent man condemned for the crime of the one who confided it. Prümmer: it may be revealed, since “I ought rather to save the life of the innocent man than the life of the guilty man”, and the contrary opinion “does not seem sufficiently proved” (II, n. 180). Noldin: its obligation does not cease for a crime already committed, “even if by manifestation the damage of the innocent person could be averted” (n. 670); so Sabetti-Barrett, while the guilty man is not bound to betray himself (n. 325), Vermeersch, for whom “even the damage of an innocent person must be put after it” (n. 699), Wouters (n. 1089), and Merkelbach, unless the guilty man himself made the accusation (II, n. 855); Marc allows silence “unless the guilty person unjustly strives to accuse the innocent” (n. 1187). McHugh-Callan reports both opinions (n. 2418).
Piecing together and reading letters torn up and thrown away. Prümmer, with St. Alphonsus against Lugo, holds it against justice (II, n. 181); so Merkelbach, the tearing being “as it were destruction” (II, n. 856), Wouters, McHugh-Callan and Marc (n. 1090, n. 2411, n. 1188). Noldin: it “is probably not against justice” (n. 671); Vermeersch: the one who throws them out “admits the voluntary danger”, and the reader yields “only to venial curiosity” (n. 700).
A secret promised to be kept even at the cost of life. Prümmer: by “the truer opinion” the promise is to be kept, though several authors permit breaking it for a most grave reason (II, n. 180); Marc: “very probably” it binds, the opposite being “also sufficiently probable” (n. 1186); Wouters sets out both opinions (n. 1089); Noldin: a promised secret does not bind with grave inconvenience “unless someone expressly obligated himself otherwise” (n. 668).

What It Is

Making known what is to be kept hidden: “It is contrary to fidelity to make known secrets to the injury of a person”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 175; Merkelbach II, n. 852; Noldin n. 666; Wouters n. 1087; Vermeersch n. 697
Prying into it: “It is not lawful by unjust means to explore another's secret”	Prümmer II, n. 176In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 853; Wouters n. 1090
Using what was unjustly learned: “much more strongly, it is not lawful to use knowledge of a secret unjustly received, for this would be to renew or continue the injustice already committed”	Prümmer II, n. 176In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 666; Marc n. 1188; Vermeersch n. 698

What It Is Not

Not revealing for the common good or grave need: “but not if they be revealed for the good of the community, which should always be preferred to a private good”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 70, a. 1, ad 2; Prümmer II, n. 180; Noldin n. 670; Marc n. 1187; Sabetti-Barrett n. 325; Wouters n. 1089; Deshon Guide, ch. LXII
Not warning the deceived bride: “Likewise a physician knowing that a bridegroom, who pretends himself healthy, is laboring under a contagious disease, could manifest the matter to the deceived bride”	Noldin n. 670In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 855; Marc n. 1187; Prümmer II, n. 180
Not inquiring for a just cause: “from a sufficient cause it is lawful to use just means for exploring another's secret”	Prümmer II, n. 176In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 853; Wouters n. 1090
Not parents and superiors reading letters, matters of conscience apart: “The father of a family can read the letters of his children, at least if they are minors.”	Prümmer II, n. 181In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 700; Wouters n. 1090; McHugh-Callan n. 2411

Its Kinds

Natural: “A natural secret, which is an obligation of concealing something arisen not from contract, but from the very nature of the thing”	Prümmer II, n. 175In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 852; Wouters n. 1088
Promised: “A promised secret is that which someone promised to another after knowledge of the matter had been received.”	Prümmer II, n. 175In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 852; Wouters n. 1088
Entrusted, and the professional secret: “An entrusted or strict secret (anvertrautes Geheimnis) is that which was not communicated except after there had first been an implicit or explicit pact of keeping secrecy.”	Prümmer II, n. 175In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 852; Wouters n. 1088
Reading another's letters: “He who reads another's secret letters or writings without the consent of the sender or recipient, or without legitimate authority or a just cause, or otherwise by force or fraud fishes out another's secret, sins against justice.”	Prümmer II, n. 181In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 671; Merkelbach II, n. 853; Vermeersch n. 700; Marc n. 1188
A servant carrying the household's affairs abroad: “Everything that goes on in the house will be made a subject of discussion.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LXII

Its Gravity

A natural secret, grave: “A natural secret obliges of itself under grave matter.”	Prümmer II, n. 177In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 324; Wouters n. 1089; McHugh-Callan n. 2414
A promised secret, ordinarily light: “A merely promised secret of itself ordinarily does not oblige except under light matter.”	Prümmer II, n. 178In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 854; Noldin n. 668; McHugh-Callan n. 2414; Sabetti-Barrett n. 324; Marc n. 1186
An entrusted secret, gravest: “An entrusted secret obliges of itself under grave matter, and indeed more gravely than a natural and a promised secret.”	Prümmer II, n. 179In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 854; Noldin n. 669; Sabetti-Barrett n. 324; Marc n. 1187; McHugh-Callan n. 2415
Not even to a judge: “Hence such a secret ought not to be manifested to a judge or superior interrogating”	Merkelbach II, n. 854In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 669; Marc n. 1187; Sabetti-Barrett n. 325; Vermeersch n. 699
But a promised secret yields to a judge: “Therefore he who is legitimately questioned by a judge or superior concerning some matter must manifest it, even if he had promised secrecy.”	Noldin n. 668In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1089; Marc n. 1186

Its Remedies

The Guide gives the counsels of speaking only from necessity and no further, of taking advice, and of purifying one's motive; Prümmer, restitution for damage done by using a secret unjustly learned. They are set under those heads.

Guarding what is entrusted
Speaking only from necessity, and no further: “Necessity is the only plea for speaking at all, and necessity must put the exact limit to what you speak”	Deshon Guide, ch. LXIIIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXII
Guarding what is entrusted
Taking counsel and purifying the motive: “It is well to take advice of those competent to give it.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LXIIIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXII
Repairing
Restitution for damage done: “But he who uses knowledge of a secret unjustly received with grave damage to another is held to restitution”	Prümmer II, n. 176

Where It Comes From

From curiosity: “THIS vain curiosity about the affairs of your employers leads by a short way to another very great evil”

Deshon Guide, ch. LXII

Cheating and Usury

How the Authors Compare

Why moderate interest is now lawful. Merkelbach: because in present economic conditions extrinsic titles “ordinarily” exist (II, n. 579); Prümmer takes the title of civil law as settled by the Holy See's responses (II, n. 288); Marc likewise, noting the clause “until the Holy See has issued a definitive decision” (n. 1112); Noldin: the Church permits it “even if another title making the gain honorable does not exist” (n. 586); Vermeersch: it is lawful “while the present condition of society perseveres” (n. 450); Sabetti-Barrett calls not improbable the view that rests it on the fruitfulness of money itself (n. 528). Concina, writing before those responses, rejects the “trading” loan, gain on it being lawful “provided it be moderate and consonant with the laws of the country”: “These crafty and inept fictions both the divine Scriptures and the Fathers explode” (IX, diss. IV, ch. II, n. II, IX, diss. IV, ch. II, n. III).
Prices of necessities in scarcity. Vermeersch holds that justice itself sets a maximum price on necessary things, though too little recognized to ground restitution (n. 464); McHugh-Callan calls exorbitant prices raised on public distress a cruel injustice, “profiteering” (n. 2128). The others measure the price by the common estimate.

What It Is

Cheating, deceit to another's harm: “It is altogether sinful to have recourse to deceit in order to sell a thing for more than its just price, because this is to deceive one's neighbor so as to injure him.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2122; Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment; Bontempi On fraud, n. 1
An unjust price, even without deceit: “to sell a thing for more than its worth, or to buy it for less than its worth, is in itself unjust and unlawful”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 1In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2124; Noldin n. 597; Prümmer II, n. 298
Usury: “To take usury for money lent is unjust in itself, because this is to sell what does not exist”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 78, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 285; Merkelbach II, n. 576; Noldin n. 584; Marc n. 1102; Bontempi What a loan and usury are, and why, n. 6; McHugh-Callan n. 2136
The Fifth Lateran Council's description: “Usury is the profit which one endeavors to acquire by no labor, no expense, no peril”	Marc n. 1102In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 285

What It Is Not

Not a higher price for the seller's own loss: “On such a case the just price will depend not only on the thing sold, but on the loss which the sale brings on the seller.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 299; Noldin n. 598
But not for the buyer's special need: “Yet if the one man derive a great advantage by becoming possessed of the other man's property, and the seller be not at a loss through being without that thing, the latter ought not to raise the price”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 1In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 534; McHugh-Callan n. 2128
Not the free price of rare things: “In the absence of a legal and common price, a thing can be sold at any conventional price, provided, however, that neither fraud nor fear is employed.”	Prümmer II, n. 300In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 599; Sabetti-Barrett n. 534
Not silence about a manifest defect: “if the defect be manifest, for instance if a horse have but one eye”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2133; Vermeersch n. 454
Not trading for moderate gain: “Nevertheless gain which is the end of trading, though not implying, by its nature, anything virtuous or necessary, does not, in itself, connote anything sinful or contrary to virtue”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 4
Not interest on an extrinsic title: “It has always been lawful, when an agreement has first been made, to stipulate compensation for an extrinsic title.”	Vermeersch n. 450In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 287; Marc n. 1106; Sabetti-Barrett n. 528; Merkelbach II, n. 578
St. Thomas, compensation for loss: “A lender may without sin enter an agreement with the borrower for compensation for the loss he incurs of something he ought to have, for this is not to sell the use of money but to avoid a loss.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 78, a. 2, ad 1
Not borrowing from a usurer at need: “it is lawful to borrow for usury from a man who is ready to do so and is a usurer by profession; provided the borrower have a good end in view”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 78, a. 4

Its Kinds

Fraud in the substance: “A threefold fault may be found pertaining to the thing which is sold. One, in respect of the thing's substance”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 2In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1123; McHugh-Callan n. 2131
In weight and measure: “Another defect is in respect of quantity which is known by being measured: wherefore if anyone knowingly make use of a faulty measure in selling, he is guilty of fraud”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2131; Vermeersch n. 455; Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
In quality: “A third defect is on the part of the quality, for instance, if a man sell an unhealthy animal as being a healthy one”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2131
Hiding a harmful defect: “Wherefore if such like defects be hidden, and the seller does not make them known, the sale will be illicit and fraudulent”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 3In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 898; Vermeersch n. 454
Usury real and mental: “Usury is twofold: 1. real, which is expressed by pact; - 2. mental, which is intended in the mind, without express stipulation.”	Marc n. 1102In nearly the same words: Bontempi What a loan and usury are, and why, n. 9
Any burden priced in money: “Every burden estimable by price, imposed in a loan for consumption as a debt from justice, is true usury”	Marc n. 1105In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 78, a. 2
In the wide sense, excessive interest: “Usury in the wide sense, which is all too common, is the taking of interest for a fungible loaned at”	McHugh-Callan n. 2136In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 584
Disguised under another contract: “Usury is called palliated or implicit when it lies hidden under another contract”	Marc n. 1102

Its Gravity

Grave or light by the matter, as theft: “to sell a thing for more than its just price”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 1In nearly the same words: Bontempi On fraud, n. 3
Usury against every law: “Usury properly so called is contrary to positive divine law, ecclesiastical law, and natural law.”	Prümmer II, n. 286In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 585; Marc n. 1103; Merkelbach II, n. 577; Wouters n. 887; Vermeersch n. 450
Against the poor, graver: “But if usury is required from the poor, one sins moreover against charity.”	Noldin n. 585In nearly the same words: Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment
The Roman Catechism, usurers among robbers: “To this class also belong usurers, the most cruel and relentless of extortioners, who by their exorbitant rates of interest, plunder and destroy the poor.”	Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment
The canonical penalty: “A layman who has been legitimately condemned for the delict of usury is held by the law itself to be excluded from legitimate ecclesiastical acts”	Wouters n. 889
Customary bargaining talk, not injurious: “The customary lies or perjuries of merchants concerning the price for which they themselves procured things for themselves, or concerning proposals made to them, are not judged to have been efficaciously harmful, since little faith is given to them.”	Vermeersch n. 455In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 534

Its Remedies

The authors give restitution for every unjust gain, and the counsels of honest dealing, trading for an honest end, no fraud in price or change, and free lending to the needy; they are set under those heads.

Repairing
Restitution: “In all these cases not only is the man guilty of a fraudulent sale, but he is also bound to restitution.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 2In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 78, a. 1; McHugh-Callan n. 2130; Wouters n. 889; Marc n. 1104
Honest dealing
Trading for an honest end: “Thus, for instance, a man may intend the moderate gain which he seeks to acquire by trading for the upkeep of his household, or for the assistance of the needy”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 4
Honest dealing
No fraud, every cent returned: “If money passes through your hands in buying or selling, use no fraud or deceit about the price, but give back every cent of change.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LVIIIIn nearly the same words: Spirago Sins against the Seventh Commandment
Honest dealing
A simpler honesty: “Yet let us commend a simpler honesty with all our strength.”	Vermeersch n. 455
Honest dealing
Lending freely to the needy: “There is given a strict precept of making a mutuum not only with respect to the poor who will have the means to restore”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 526In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 583

Where It Comes From

From the greed for gain: “but the latter is justly deserving of blame, because, considered in itself, it satisfies the greed for gain, which knows no limit and tends to infinity”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 77, a. 4In nearly the same words: Bontempi What a loan and usury are, and why, n. 6
Vermeersch, sale become a duel: “But today the immoderate hunger for gain has altogether departed from that most wise reason”	Vermeersch n. 475

Sins of Accuser, Accused, Witness and Advocate

How the Authors Compare

Whether the accused must tell the truth has changed with the procedure. St. Thomas: “the accused is in duty bound to tell the judge the truth which the latter exacts from him according to the form of law” (II-II, q. 69, a. 1). Merkelbach gives that as the rule “considered in himself”, then adds: “by present-day law he is not held to confess a crime committed by himself” (II, n. 641). Prümmer, Noldin and Wouters say the same (II, Section 5, n. 732, n. 1142), and Prümmer notes that the older opinions “are not always applicable today” (II, n. 163). The Roman Catechism keeps St. Thomas's rule: “God commands him to confess the truth, if he is interrogated judicially” (The Eighth Commandment); Vermeersch: “by no civil law is the accused held to confess the delict” (n. 695). Bontempi, against the Thomists, denies that a half-proof suffices for questioning the accused, so that “confessors ought not to force penitents to confess, if they have hope of escaping death” (Whether the accused is bound to co, n. 9).
A judge who privately knows the accused to be innocent, when the evidence proves him guilty. St. Thomas: the judge must sift the evidence, but if “he is unable to reject that evidence juridically, he must, as stated above, follow it in pronouncing sentence” (II-II, q. 67, a. 2); Merkelbach follows him, calling the exception for capital penalties “not logically founded” (II, n. 637). Bontempi holds the opposite: “a judge can by no means condemn an innocent man to any punishment, and especially to death” (Whether a judge can condemn to dea, n. 12). Prümmer sets out three opinions, St. Thomas's last (II, n. 158); Noldin lets the judge absolve or condemn “at his pleasure,” “since the matter is much controverted among theologians” (n. 723); Marc and Sabetti-Barrett report St. Alphonsus as siding with St. Bonaventure in capital cases (n. 2302, n. 559); McHugh: the judge “must not condemn, if there is any legal way to avoid it”; otherwise he follows St. Thomas with “the lightest penalty allowed by the law” (n. 1951, n. 1953). All agree he must first try every means of freeing him, and that jurors may never vote against an accused they certainly know to be innocent (n. 2302).
Whether a judge paid for an unjust sentence must give up the price once it is given. St. Thomas distinguishes a giving unlawful in itself, as in simony, where the receiver “must not retain the price,” from a giving for an unlawful purpose, as a harlot's hire, which “she may keep” (II-II, q. 62, a. 5, ad 2). Prümmer puts the bribe with the second: the judge “can retain the gift accepted, just as a prostitute can retain the price” (II, n. 157); so Merkelbach, by “the principles concerning a base contract” (II, n. 636), Noldin and Wouters (n. 721, n. 1136), and Sabetti-Barrett calls it probable (n. 559); McHugh finds “no natural obligation” to the giver, though the law may void the bargain (n. 1946). Bontempi puts it with the first: the price is “liable to restitution by the law of nature, and therefore before every sentence”; it is to be “restored to the giver” (On the injustice of false witnesse, n. 22, On the injustice of false witnesse, n. 21). All agree it must be returned if the sentence has not yet been given, and that the injured party's damage must be repaired.
Whether a witness lawfully questioned who keeps back the truth, without lying, owes restitution. Merkelbach: one who “held himself negatively, is not held,” unless his office bound him to denounce (II, n. 642); so Noldin, since he “does not positively inflict damage, but only does not impede it” (n. 741), Wouters (n. 1146), Sabetti-Barrett (n. 564), and McHugh, who counts him a negative cooperator against legal justice and charity (n. 1993). Bontempi holds that he “sins against Justice” and is bound to restitution (Whether anyone is sometimes bound, n. 6). Of one not questioned who could save an innocent man, Bontempi agrees with the rest: he sins against charity, “not against justice” (Whether anyone is sometimes bound, n. 26).
Whether a guilty man may flee a prison assigned as his punishment. St. Thomas: one condemned to death “is not bound to do anything from which death would result” (II-II, q. 69, a. 4, ad 2). Bontempi calls flight the common opinion, many extending it to prison for a time and the galleys (Whether the accused can flee, and, n. 6); Prümmer: “theologians commonly teach that even one justly condemned can flee from prison,” though today flight “often is against right and necessary love of oneself, and therefore illicit” (II, n. 164). Wouters and Sabetti-Barrett, with St. Alphonsus, deny it unless the prison is excessively harsh (n. 1144, n. 562); Marc denies it for a prison “not very hard” (n. 2311); Noldin denies it unless the penalty is atrocious, noting others who allow it simply (n. 733); Merkelbach allows it “at least in order to evade death or harsh prison” (II, n. 641). McHugh sets out the three opinions (n. 1982).
What a prisoner who may flee can do to the guards. Merkelbach: an innocent man “can, by giving money, induce guards not to obstruct his flight” (II, n. 641); Noldin lets one unjustly condemned corrupt a guard “who has been forewarned” (n. 733); Wouters forbids corrupting the guard to one “justly condemned” (n. 1144). Marc forbids it even to one unjustly condemned, “since this is intrinsically evil” (n. 2311); so Bontempi, “because the guards are bound by justice and a just oath to keep guard” (Whether the accused can flee, and, n. 13), and McHugh (n. 1977). Prümmer and Wouters allow making the guards drunk (II, n. 164, n. 1144); Bontempi forbids a sleeping potion or drink as mortal (Whether the accused can flee, and, n. 16).
Whether one who lawfully breaks prison must repair the damage. Prümmer: the affirmative “seems truer,” if the damage is notable (II, n. 164); Noldin: not the guards' loss, but “according to the common opinion” the broken prison (n. 733); McHugh: not ordinary damage such as “a hole cut in a wall” (n. 1983); Marc: not even the keeper's loss, “for he uses his own right” (n. 2311); Bontempi: not the damages that followed (Whether the accused can flee, and, n. 12).

What It Is

The judge, a public person: “it is the duty of a judge to pronounce judgment in as much as he exercises public authority”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 67, a. 2In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 719; Merkelbach II, n. 636; Marc n. 2296
Usurping judgment: “no man can judge others than his subjects”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 67, a. 1In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
Judging without knowledge: “Again it requires that no one pass sentence without a sufficient knowledge of the case.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 153; Marc n. 2297; Wouters n. 1131
The judge taking gifts: “In no way is it lawful for the judge to accept gifts properly so called from litigants.”	Prümmer II, n. 157In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Noldin n. 721; Wouters n. 1136; Sabetti-Barrett n. 559; McHugh-Callan n. 1945
The accuser's calumny: “by charging him falsely with the commission of a crime, i.e. by calumniating him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 3In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The accused's lie or fraud: “But it is unlawful for him, either to utter a falsehood, or to withhold a truth that he is bound to avow, or to employ guile or fraud”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 2In nearly the same words: Marc n. 2310
False witness: “False evidence has a threefold deformity.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 70, a. 4In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Merkelbach II, n. 642; Noldin n. 741
The advocate: “An advocate is he who in judgment defends the part of one or the other litigant.”	Prümmer II, n. 162In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 643; Noldin n. 735

What It Is Not

Not keeping back what he need not tell: “it is lawful for the accused to defend himself by withholding the truth that he is not bound to avow”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 2In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 732; Wouters n. 1142; Vermeersch n. 695; McHugh-Callan n. 1968
Not appealing from an unjust sentence: “seeing that he is unjustly oppressed by the judge, and then it is lawful for him to appeal”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1982
Not the innocent man escaping an unjust sentence: “so is it lawful, in a like case, to resist wicked princes”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 733; Wouters n. 1144; Sabetti-Barrett n. 562
Not the condemned man fleeing death: “he is not bound to do anything from which death would result, such as to stay in the place whence he would be led to execution”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 4, ad 2In nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether the accused can flee, and, n. 6; Merkelbach II, n. 641
Not declining to accuse without proof: “If, however, the sin be not such as to affect the community, or if he cannot offer sufficient proof, a man is not bound to attempt to accuse”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 1
Not the witness who errs after due care: “he does not sin mortally if he asserts it”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 70, a. 4, ad 1In nearly the same words: Bontempi On the injustice of false witnesse, n. 7
Not the witness bound by a secret: “A confessor who knows the matter from sacramental confession, and this in absolutely every case.”	Noldin n. 741In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 160; Merkelbach II, n. 642; Vermeersch n. 694
Not defending a guilty accused by honest means: “Can licitly defend the accused, even if it is certain that he is harmful and culpable”	Merkelbach II, n. 643In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 561; McHugh-Callan n. 2001
Not taking a doubtful civil cause: “He may even take a case whose justice seems less probable”	McHugh-Callan n. 2001In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 561; Merkelbach II, n. 643; Bontempi On the sins of a wicked advocate, n. 7
Not a moderate fee: “Wherefore, if he sell his pleading or advice, he does not act against justice.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 71, a. 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 738; Merkelbach II, n. 644

Its Kinds

The judge's: ignorance, negligence, delay, unjust sentence: “whether by omitting the acquisition of due knowledge, or by treating causes negligently, or by delaying their treatment without a just cause, or by giving an unjust sentence”	Wouters n. 1137In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; McHugh-Callan n. 1962
The accuser's collusion: “first by having recourse to fraud in making the accusation. This belongs to collusion”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 3
The accuser's evasion: “Secondly by withdrawing altogether from the accusation. This is evasion”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 3
The accused's appeal for delay: “Secondly, a man appeals in order to cause a delay, lest a just sentence be pronounced against him.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1982
The accused's resisting a just sentence: “First justly, and then it is not lawful for the condemned to defend himself”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 164; Noldin n. 733; McHugh-Callan n. 1982
The witness's: lying, concealing, fleeing citation: “One thing is to conceal the truth, another to testify falsely”	Noldin n. 741In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 564
The advocate's unjust means: “But he cannot licitly use unjust or dishonorable means, such as frauds, false witnesses or documents”	Merkelbach II, n. 643In nearly the same words: Bontempi On the sins of a wicked advocate, n. 4; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The advocate's negligence or betrayal of his client: “Who is notably negligent in considering the cause”	Merkelbach II, n. 644In nearly the same words: Bontempi On the sins of a wicked advocate, n. 1; Merkelbach II, n. 644
The advocate's immoderate fee: “If, however, they wickedly extort an immoderate fee, they sin against justice.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 71, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 644

Its Gravity

The accused's lie, mortal: “if he refuse to tell the truth which he is under obligation to tell, or if he mendaciously deny it, he sins mortally”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 69, a. 1In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
False witness, mortal in its kind: “Secondly, owing to the violation of justice, and on this account it is a mortal sin generically, even as any kind of injustice.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 70, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 642; McHugh-Callan n. 1990
Yet sometimes venial: “on this account, the giving of false evidence is not always a mortal sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 70, a. 4In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 1991
The advocate of an unjust cause, grievous: “Wherefore, if knowingly he defends an unjust cause, without doubt he sins grievously”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 71, a. 3In nearly the same words: Bontempi On the sins of a wicked advocate, n. 3; Noldin n. 736; Merkelbach II, n. 643
The judge's gifts, grave: “Therefore when the judge accepts gifts properly so called, he sins gravely”	Prümmer II, n. 157
The witness's duty to answer, grave: “He is held under grave obligation to respond according to truth and conscience”	Merkelbach II, n. 642In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 741
The calumniator's penalty: “Consequently it is just that he who by accusing a man has put him in danger of being punished severely, should himself suffer a like punishment.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 4

Its Remedies

The authors give, for each party, the repair of the harm done: the advocate's and the judge's restitution, the judge's revoking of his sentence or undoing of his error, resigning or learning an office held without knowledge, and the false witness's revoking of his testimony. The Roman Catechism, St. Thomas and Merkelbach add circumspect testimony, the judge's incorruptibility, and help for the poor; Marc and Bontempi give the confessor's part. They are set under those heads.

Repairing the harm
The advocate's restitution: “is bound to restitution of the loss unjustly incurred by the other party by reason of the assistance he has provided”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 71, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 643; McHugh-Callan n. 2008; Sabetti-Barrett n. 561
Repairing the harm
The judge's revoking and restitution: “is bound to restore the damages following from his manner of acting”	Wouters n. 1137In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 727; McHugh-Callan n. 1962
Repairing the harm
The judge who finds his own error: “he is held, if he can do it without infamy, to impede the error”	Marc n. 2297In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 1137
Repairing the harm
The unlearned judge, to resign or to learn: “a judge who is deprived of competent knowledge cannot be absolved unless a) he resigns the office, or b) learns juridical knowledge”	Merkelbach II, n. 636In nearly the same words: Marc n. 2297
Repairing the harm
The false witness's revoking and restitution: “To revocation of the testimony”	Noldin n. 742In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 563; Bontempi On the injustice of false witnesse, n. 5; Prümmer II, n. 161
Repairing the harm
The advocate who finds his cause unjust: “he ought not to throw up his brief in such a way as to help”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 71, a. 3, ad 2In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 561; McHugh-Callan n. 2003
Integrity in each office
Circumspect testimony: “Here, however, witnesses should be most circumspect, lest, trusting too much to memory, they affirm for certain what they have not fully ascertained.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 70, a. 4, ad 1
Integrity in each office
The judge's incorruptibility: “Perfect integrity and incorruptibility ought to be as it were the distinctive mark of a judge”	Merkelbach II, n. 636In nearly the same words: Marc n. 2297
Integrity in each office
The advocate's help to the poor: “They should deal generously with the poor.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 71, a. 1
The confessor's part
With the accused: “Let the confessor prudently ADMONISH the defendant that he can neither benefit him nor harm him”	Marc n. 2311In nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether the accused is bound to co, n. 9
The confessor's part
With the bribed judge or witness: “absolution must not be denied to the penitent who, having followed the former opinion, is unwilling to restore”	Bontempi On the injustice of false witnesse, n. 23

Where It Comes From

From money, favor, hatred, love: “and that (the decision) be not influenced by money, or favor, hatred or love”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 636
From covetousness: “So deeply has the evil of cupidity grown, that now by custom Judges are sold”	Bontempi On the injustice of false witnesse, n. 17In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The rash accuser, from credulity: “because he believes too readily what he hears”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 68, a. 3, ad 1

Superstition

What It Is

Superstition, worship to whom or as it ought not: “it offers divine worship either to whom it ought not, or in a manner it ought not”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 92, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 501; Merkelbach II, n. 770; Noldin n. 148; Wouters n. 590; Marc n. 554; McHugh-Callan n. 2274; Vermeersch n. 230; Sabetti-Barrett n. 203; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 1
An excess, though God cannot be worshiped too much: “not that it offers more to the divine worship than true religion”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 92, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 770; Prümmer II, n. 500; Noldin n. 148; McHugh-Callan n. 2273

Its Kinds

Undue worship of God, and worship of a creature: “the species of superstition are differentiated, first on the part of the mode, secondly on the part of the object”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 92, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 501; Noldin n. 148; Marc n. 554; Vermeersch n. 230; Sabetti-Barrett n. 203
Of a creature: idolatry, divination, vain observance: “This in turn is threefold in species”	Merkelbach II, n. 770In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 92, a. 2; Prümmer II, n. 501; Noldin n. 148; Marc n. 555; McHugh-Callan n. 2276; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 2
Vermeersch's order, by open, implicit, and purifiable worship: “Wherefore it seems better to attend to formal differences”	Vermeersch n. 235

Its Gravity

An outrage on God's majesty: “there are two chief ways in which God's majesty can be seriously outraged”

Roman Catechism The First CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago FOOLISH OR PERVERTED WORSHIP

Its Remedies

Noldin and Vermeersch give the pastor's part: to know the forms of superstition among his people, to root them out, and to instruct them; Vermeersch adds that the customs of less cultivated peoples are to be purged of error rather than condemned at once.

The pastor's part
Knowing and rooting out its forms: “Pastors of souls should strive to know the diverse forms of superstition which are in use among the faithful committed to them, and should endeavor to root them out”	Noldin n. 159
The pastor's part
Instructing the people: “let him instruct the people concerning the mode of acting which God observes, concerning the vanity of superstition, and also concerning the dangers which arise from its exercise”	Noldin n. 159In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 234
The pastor's part
Purging customs rather than condemning them rashly: “the missionary who knows by experience itself how great a ruin of souls an imprudent reprobation of usages can bring”	Vermeersch n. 229In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 240

Where It Comes From

From inordinate desire: “Superstition indeed arises from an inordinate desire of obtaining some good, or of avoiding some evil”	Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 15
The devil, ape of divine worship: “the Daemon presents himself as the Ape of Divine worship”	Bontempi On Superstition, n. 1

Undue Worship of the True God

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas's two ways are the manuals' two: worship that signifies what is false, and worship in excess of its due measure (II-II, q. 93, a. 1, II-II, q. 93, a. 2). Merkelbach and Wouters use the same division, “false” and “superfluous” (II, n. 771, n. 591).
A preacher who invents a story to move the people. Prümmer: even one “who invents an entire story” sins only venially (II, n. 501); so Noldin (n. 149), whom Merkelbach quotes, adding that the story be “(not miraculous)” (II, n. 772). Vermeersch excuses only a lesser thing, “as if, in confirming a true doctrine, some circumstance not explored is exhibited as certain” (n. 231); Marc counts it grave of itself to narrate false miracles to increase devotion (n. 554). Concina joins Marc: of one who “preaches fabricated miracles”, “All affirm that this is a most grave crime of superstition”, “nor does a pious intention of increasing devotion remove the guilt” (Theol. III, diss. II, ch. I, n. VII).
Superfluous worship is venial in all the authors, but Vermeersch adds: “Yet conscious authors of such superstitions cannot be excused from grave sin” (n. 233).

What It Is

False worship: “Consequently, if anything false is signified by outward worship, this worship will be pernicious.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 93, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 501; Merkelbach II, n. 772; Noldin n. 149; Wouters n. 591; Marc n. 554; McHugh-Callan n. 2274; Vermeersch n. 231
Superfluous worship: “if that which is done be, in itself, not conducive to God's glory, nor raise man's mind to God, nor curb inordinate concupiscence, or again if it be not in accordance with the commandments of God and of the Church, or if it be contrary to the general custom”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 93, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 501; Merkelbach II, n. 773; Noldin n. 150; Marc n. 554; McHugh-Callan n. 2274; Vermeersch n. 233

What It Is Not

Not the devotions the Church approves: “Those modes of worshiping God which are approved by the Church, however, such as novena devotions, tridua, Gregorian Masses, etc., are free from every stain of superstition.”	Prümmer II, n. 501In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2274
Not an old-law rite done for another end: “But circumcision performed for health or cleanliness is not forbidden”	Vermeersch n. 231

Its Kinds

Old-law rites: “it is pernicious to make use of the ceremonies of the Old Law whereby the mysteries of Christ were foreshadowed as things to come”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 93, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 501; Wouters n. 591
Acting falsely in the Church's name: “falsehood in outward worship occurs on the part of the worshiper, and especially in common worship which is offered by ministers impersonating the whole Church”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 93, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 772; Prümmer II, n. 501; Noldin n. 149
False miracles, revelations, relics: “if someone proposes false miracles or false revelations to confirm the faith; if someone exhibits false relics for the veneration of the faithful”	Prümmer II, n. 501In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 772; Vermeersch n. 231; McHugh-Callan n. 2274
Vain circumstances, chain prayers: “to wish to hear Mass before sunrise with a certain number and order of candles, of a priest who is called John or who has the stature of Christ”	Noldin n. 150In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 773; Wouters n. 591; McHugh-Callan n. 2274; Vermeersch n. 233
New devotions without approval: “This sin of superstition is also committed through new worships and new devotions which, although they contain nothing unfitting, nevertheless are proposed to the faithful and propagated among them without the approval of the Church.”	Noldin n. 150In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2274; Vermeersch n. 233

Its Gravity

False worship, grave: “This superstition of false worship is from its genus a grave sin, because it inflicts a grave injury and irreverence upon God, the First Truth”	Prümmer II, n. 501In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 93, a. 1; Merkelbach II, n. 772; Noldin n. 149; Wouters n. 591; Marc n. 554; McHugh-Callan n. 2275; Vermeersch n. 231; Concina Theol. III, diss. II, ch. I, n. V
Superfluous worship, venial: “The superstition of superfluous worship is from its genus a venial sin, because the matter is light and the action is not evil in itself.”	Prümmer II, n. 501In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 773; Noldin n. 150; Wouters n. 591; Marc n. 554; McHugh-Callan n. 2275
But mortal by contempt, scandal, or a grave law broken: “per accidens it can be mortal from contempt, scandal, a dishonest ceremony, a grave prohibition of the Church”	Merkelbach II, n. 773In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 591; Vermeersch n. 233

Its Remedies

Vermeersch gives instruction in the right use of sacred things and prudence with relics of doubtful authenticity; Prümmer, that preachers avoid pious lies altogether.

Instruction
Teaching the right use of sacred things: “The rude are to be well instructed concerning the right use of sacred things”	Vermeersch n. 234In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 251
Instruction
Prudence with doubtful relics: “modern studies of the sciences demand that we positively foster no worship of an image or of relics whose authenticity is not morally established”	Vermeersch n. 232In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 232
Instruction
No pious lies from the pulpit: “Nevertheless, such narratives (which are sometimes called pious lies) are to be avoided altogether, since it is utterly unbecoming that a preacher of truth should lie even in a small matter.”	Prümmer II, n. 501

Idolatry

How the Authors Compare

Whether idolatry is the gravest of all sins. St. Thomas: on the part of the sin itself “idolatry is the most grievous sin”, though heretics who knowingly corrupt the faith may sin more grievously (II-II, q. 94, a. 3). Merkelbach: considered in the concrete, “the greatest idolatry viewed objectively is graver than the greatest infidelity and the greatest hatred of God” (II, n. 775); McHugh-Callan likewise (n. 2279). Noldin: “the gravest after sins which are opposed to the theological virtues” (n. 152). Concina: idolatry is “the gravest of all the crimes opposed to religion”, but for the gravest of all he points to St. Thomas's other place, where “hatred of God, heresy, unbelief, and despair are the gravest of all crimes, being opposed to the theological virtues” (Theol. III, diss. II, ch. III, n. V).
Whether perfect or imperfect idolatry is graver. Prümmer, Noldin, Marc, Merkelbach, McHugh-Callan and Sabetti-Barrett: the imperfect, since it proceeds from malice, not ignorance (II, n. 503, n. 152, n. 556, II, n. 775, n. 2280, n. 204). Vermeersch: “perfect idolatry is objectively graver than imperfect”, though the imperfect can be subjectively graver (n. 237). Concina is with Vermeersch on the sin itself: idolatry joined with actual unbelief, “as when someone truly believes a creature to be God”, “involves the highest degree of malice” (Theol. III, diss. II, ch. III, n. V).
One word, two senses: “material” idolatry. For Prümmer, Noldin and the rest it is idolatry feigned outwardly from fear, and grave (II, n. 503, n. 151). Sabetti-Barrett calls material the idolatry that is “inculpable”, as when a priest by invincible error exposes an unconsecrated host, and names the feigned kind “simulated” (n. 204).

What It Is

Divine worship given to a creature: “Therefore it is superstition to give worship to any creature whatsoever.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 94, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 502; Merkelbach II, n. 774; Noldin n. 151; Wouters n. 592; Marc n. 556; McHugh-Callan n. 2277; Vermeersch n. 236; Sabetti-Barrett n. 204; Roman Catechism The First Commandment
By any sign of divine honor: “It is the same by what sign the honor is shown, whether by sacrifice or genuflection, etc., provided that the sign placed signifies divine honor”	Wouters n. 592In nearly the same words: Marc n. 556; Sabetti-Barrett n. 204; McHugh-Callan n. 2277
In a wider sense: “Idolatry is sometimes taken in a metaphorical sense for every mortal sin”	Prümmer II, n. 502In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 236

What It Is Not

Not a pagan rite plainly enacted in play: “Hence, it would not be idolatry so to enact a pagan ceremony that the onlookers could understand that no religious rite was being performed”	McHugh-Callan n. 2277In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 151
Not honors to the dead, or the lesser worship of the saints: “To affect the dead with honors, on account of the dignity with which they were increased on earth, or their proximity to us, or on account of the beneficent action which they exercised while living, pertains to praiseworthy piety and gratitude”	Vermeersch n. 240In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2277

Its Kinds

Material and formal: “Idolatry is either material (simulated, external) or formal (internal).”	Prümmer II, n. 503In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 151; Wouters n. 593; Marc n. 556; Merkelbach II, n. 774; McHugh-Callan n. 2278; Vermeersch n. 237
Perfect and imperfect: “Formal idolatry is divided into perfect and imperfect.”	Prümmer II, n. 503In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 151; Merkelbach II, n. 774; Wouters n. 593; Marc n. 556; McHugh-Callan n. 2278; Vermeersch n. 237; Sabetti-Barrett n. 204
Among Christians, by worshiping saints as gods: “In the veneration of the Saints there would be idolatry, if they were honored or invoked as if they possessed divine attributes.”	McHugh-Callan n. 2281In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 152
An unconsecrated host knowingly exposed: “Also reduced to material idolatry, and therefore gravely unlawful, is knowingly exposing for veneration or giving for Communion an unconsecrated host.”	Prümmer II, n. 504In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2281

Its Gravity

The gravest in its kind: “First, on the part of the sin itself, and thus idolatry is the most grievous sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 94, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 504; Merkelbach II, n. 775; Noldin n. 152; Wouters n. 594; McHugh-Callan n. 2279; Vermeersch n. 237; Concina Theol. III, diss. II, ch. III, n. V
Feigned idolatry, never lawful, even to escape death: “Hence it is never lawful externally and by simulation to adore an idol, even in order to avoid death.”	Prümmer II, n. 504In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 94, a. 3, ad 1; Noldin n. 152; Marc n. 556; Vermeersch n. 237; Bontempi Whether we are bound to confess fa, n. 17
Yet on the sinner's part other sins may be graver: “Thus the sin of one that sins knowingly is said to be graver than the sin of one that sins through ignorance”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 94, a. 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2279

Where It Comes From

From inordinate affection, delight in images, ignorance of God: “Idolatry had a twofold cause. One was a dispositive cause; this was on the part of man”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 94, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 776
And from the demons: “The consummative cause is on the part of demons, who exhibited themselves to men as to be worshiped”	Merkelbach II, n. 776In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 236

Divination

How the Authors Compare

Noldin defines divination and vain observance by invocation of the demon, Prümmer and Merkelbach by means that have no such power. These are one account, for Noldin counts as implicit invocation “employing vain means which have power neither from nature nor from God to produce such an effect” (n. 159).
Whether divination and vain observance are two species. St. Thomas sets them apart as species of superstition by their ends, knowledge and help (II-II, q. 92, a. 2); Merkelbach keeps the difference “by intrinsic end” (II, n. 785) but adds that “according to many” all their modes are one moral species (II, n. 786). Prümmer, Noldin, Wouters, Marc, McHugh-Callan and Sabetti-Barrett hold them one moral species, the virtue of religion being injured in the same way (II, n. 516, n. 160, n. 599, n. 567, n. 2295, n. 211). Vermeersch rearranges the whole matter “to attend to formal differences” (n. 235). Concina grants that “The more common opinion teaches that these divinations do not differ in moral species”, yet an express pact “must be disclosed in confession absolutely”, against the Salmanticenses, its malice being so distinct “that even common sense itself perceives it” (Theol. III, diss. II, ch. IV, n. XI, Theol. III, diss. II, ch. IV, n. XII).
Consulting a fortune-teller in jest. Noldin, Marc, Merkelbach, Sabetti-Barrett, Vermeersch and Bontempi make it venial or no sin when done from curiosity without faith (n. 155, n. 563, II, n. 784, n. 209, n. 244, On divination by the elements, and, n. 5). Wouters makes it grave if done seriously, “even if only externally”, or if the soothsayer acts seriously, as formal cooperation (n. 600); Sabetti-Barrett likewise says that one who jests while the diviner acts seriously can “with difficulty be excused from gravely culpable cooperation” (n. 209); Merkelbach: if both jest, “no sin per se is present” (II, n. 784). Concina, of those who use lots and the cabala without believing in them: with the Salmanticenses, Sanchez and Lugo, “I myself would not dare to condemn them of mortal fault”, but “Whoever plays at such games even once sins venially”, and often is dangerous; with faith placed in them, they sin mortally, “those sin gravely who place faith in Egyptians, commonly called Gypsies” (Theol. III, diss. II, ch. IV, n. XIII, III, diss. VIII, ch. I, n. XVIII).
How far a dream may be believed. Noldin: if it is probable that God sent it, “we can believe it and direct our actions according to it” (n. 156); Wouters: one is free of superstition if it is “at least permissible to suspect” that it is from God (n. 600). Marc: in doubt, “faith is not to be applied to them” (n. 565); Bontempi: “if there is not probability that those dreams are from God, it will not be permitted to give faith to them” (On divination from dreams, n. 3); Vermeersch would have one “almost certain” of its divine origin before trusting it fully, though following an indifferent sign without full faith is no certain sin (n. 244). Concina: dreams that are honorable and turn the mind to good may be believed from God, but “If, after sufficient diligence, they remain doubtful, they are to be disregarded — this being the safer course”, and they should be told to a prudent confessor (Theol. III, diss. II, ch. VI, n. IV).

What It Is

Seeking hidden things by the demon's help: “But all divination results from the demons' operation”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 506; Noldin n. 153; Merkelbach II, n. 777; Wouters n. 600; Marc n. 557; McHugh-Callan n. 2282; Sabetti-Barrett n. 207; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 4; Roman Catechism The First Commandment
Express, or tacit by vain means: “because the demons thrust themselves into futile searchings”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 507; Noldin n. 153; Merkelbach II, n. 777; Marc n. 559; McHugh-Callan n. 2282; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 8
A protest does not excuse vain means: “For this reason those are not excused who knowingly employ vain means and protest against any commerce with the demon”	Noldin n. 153In nearly the same words: Marc n. 561; Merkelbach II, n. 777; Sabetti-Barrett n. 208

What It Is Not

Not conjecture from natural causes: “Other causes produce their effects, not of necessity and always, but for the most part, yet they rarely fail”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 507; Merkelbach II, n. 781; Marc n. 564; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209; McHugh-Callan n. 2288; Vermeersch n. 244; Bontempi On divination by the stars, n. 3
Not lots for dividing: “When utility or necessity requires, these lots are entirely lawful and very commonly used.”	Prümmer II, n. 510In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 157; Merkelbach II, n. 783; Wouters n. 600; Marc n. 565; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209; McHugh-Callan n. 2289
Not lots to consult God, in need and with prayer: “are lawful when the necessity and honesty of the cause demands it, and no more suitable mode of overcoming the doubt appears, provided they are done after prayer has been offered with due reverence”	Wouters n. 600In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 510; Noldin n. 157; Merkelbach II, n. 783; Vermeersch n. 244; McHugh-Callan n. 2287
Not believing a dream God has sent: “But if it appears morally certain that a dream has been sent by God, we are bound to believe it”	Noldin n. 156In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 508; Marc n. 565; Merkelbach II, n. 782; Bontempi On divination from dreams, n. 2
Not the divining rod for water or metals: “Authors commonly teach that the use of such a divining rod is lawful for seeking water or metals”	Prümmer II, n. 511In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 158; Merkelbach II, n. 789; Wouters n. 600; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209; McHugh-Callan n. 2288; Vermeersch n. 244

Its Kinds

With express invocation, necromancy and the rest: “Sometimes they offer themselves to human sight and hearing by mock apparitions in order to foretell the future”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 508; Merkelbach II, n. 777; Marc n. 562; McHugh-Callan n. 2284; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 18
With tacit invocation, augury, omens, palmistry: “Seven modes of divination with implicit invocation of the devil are customarily given”	Prümmer II, n. 509In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 777; Marc n. 562; McHugh-Callan n. 2285; Sabetti-Barrett n. 207
Judicial astrology: “one makes use of a vain and false opinion if, by observing the stars, one desires to foreknow the future that cannot be forecast by their means”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 5In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 781; Noldin n. 154; Bontempi On divination by the stars, n. 6; Spirago FOOLISH OR PERVERTED WORSHIP
Lots to learn hidden things: “Divinatory lots, which are employed to obtain knowledge of an occult thing, are a grave superstition if they are used seriously without a special mandate of God.”	Prümmer II, n. 510In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 8; Noldin n. 157; Merkelbach II, n. 783; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209; Marc n. 565
Ordeals: “Already St. Thomas taught that they were unlawful, and several Supreme Pontiffs condemned them”	Prümmer II, n. 511In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2284

Its Gravity

With the demon invoked, mortal: “All divination by invoking demons is unlawful for two reasons.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 512; Noldin n. 155; Merkelbach II, n. 778; Marc n. 563; Sabetti-Barrett n. 208; McHugh-Callan n. 2286; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 7; Concina III, diss. VIII, ch. I, n. XI
Tacit divination, often venial: “nevertheless, it becomes a venial sin”	Prümmer II, n. 512In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 155; Merkelbach II, n. 778; Marc n. 560; Sabetti-Barrett n. 208; McHugh-Callan n. 2286; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 10
Grave when it rules one's life: “If someone should depend so upon the stars, dreams, and similar things, that he wishes to regulate almost all his actions and life according to them”	Marc n. 563In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 156; Vermeersch n. 242

Its Remedies

The authors give keeping the faithful, and the young above all, away from diviners; seeking light from God and from the teachers He has given; and, for the confessor, asking after any express pact and binding diviners to abjure it, burn their instruments and repair harm. They are set under those heads.

Keeping away
Keeping the faithful from diviners: “the faithful are indeed to be earnestly admonished not to approach diviners practicing chiromancy, sortilege, etc.”	Prümmer II, n. 512In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 208; McHugh-Callan n. 2286
Keeping away
Guarding the young: “But especially care must be taken lest boys and girls become accustomed to these things, even if they are led only by reason of curiosity or levity.”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 208
Seeking light rightly
Seeking light from God and His ministers: “Those who desire light and guidance should have recourse to the teachers God has provided on earth and should pray to God, leaving to Him the ways and means of His answer.”	McHugh-Callan n. 2287In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 208
The confessor's part
Diviners and magicians, from St. Alphonsus: “they are held to abjure and dissolve an express pact or commerce with a demon, to burn all instruments of the art, and to repair harms inflicted”	Merkelbach II, n. 789In nearly the same words: Marc n. 573
The confessor's part
Asking what pact and formula: “Therefore confessors are admonished by the holy Doctor sermone 2. in Decal.”	Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 9In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 513

Where It Comes From

The demon's design: “For the demon who intends man's perdition endeavors, by his answers, even though he sometimes tells the truth, to accustom men to believe him”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 95, a. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 507; Noldin n. 153; Marc n. 561

Vain Observance and Magic

How the Authors Compare

Prümmer and Noldin agree that white magic, done by natural means, “is of itself” lawful (II, n. 519, n. 164), and with Wouters that black magic does not differ in species from divination and vain observance (n. 599).
The authors weigh vain observance differently. Marc calls it “a mortal sin from its whole genus” (n. 568). McHugh-Callan says there is “regularly only a venial sin” when it is of a non-religious kind (n. 2295), and Vermeersch that for such things theologians “hold it for merely venial” (n. 242). Prümmer, Noldin, Merkelbach, Wouters and Sabetti-Barrett make it grave of itself but often excused by the imperfection of the act (II, n. 516, n. 160, II, n. 787, n. 597, n. 206).
Whether fearful avoidances, as of thirteen at table or a journey on Friday, are superstition at all. St. Thomas: observances of lucky and unlucky days are “superstitious and unlawful”, being remains of idolatry (II-II, q. 96, a. 3); Marc counts refusing to sit thirteen at table among vain observances (n. 568). Noldin: “properly speaking, a sin of superstition is not committed by these”, though they are foolish (n. 160); Vermeersch finds in them no tacit pact but “a fearful rather than strictly superstitious mind”, a venial defect of trust (n. 242); McHugh-Callan: regularly venial, often no sin (n. 2295). Concina: those who will not sit thirteen at table “are guilty of superstition”; if from a vain fear and popular rumor, without firm conviction, “ignorance would excuse them from grave fault — especially if the diners are simple, uneducated people”, but persons of standing “I would scarcely excuse” (Theol. III, diss. II, ch. II, n. IX).
When the effect sought is within nature's power. Bontempi, after Valencia, holds that the observance then “seems a sin against charity toward oneself” rather than superstition (On superstitious observances for w, n. 2); Merkelbach and the rest find tacit invocation wherever the means lack natural or instituted power, whatever the effect (II, n. 786).

What It Is

Vain means for an effect: “if they seem unable to produce those effects naturally, it follows that they are employed for the purpose of producing those effects, not as causes but only as signs”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 96, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 514; Noldin n. 159; Merkelbach II, n. 785; Marc n. 567; McHugh-Callan n. 2290; Sabetti-Barrett n. 205; Wouters n. 601; Vermeersch n. 242; Bontempi On superstitious observances for w, n. 1
Its signs: a cause unequal, a vain circumstance, an infallible hope: “The criteria for recognizing vain observance are chiefly three”	Prümmer II, n. 517In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 161; Merkelbach II, n. 788; Wouters n. 596; Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; Marc n. 568
Magic, and malefice to harm: “Magic which is employed to harm others is called malefice.”	Prümmer II, n. 518In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 163; Merkelbach II, n. 785; Marc n. 571; Sabetti-Barrett n. 210; Vermeersch n. 246

What It Is Not

Not sacred things used with reverence: “The use of sacred things for certain effects is licit and pious if it is done in reverence for God”	Merkelbach II, n. 789In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 601; Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; Marc n. 568; McHugh-Callan n. 2290
Not natural seasons observed: “to observe the moon or times more suitable for gathering herbs and cutting trees”	Wouters n. 601In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; Marc n. 568; Bontempi On superstitious observances for w, n. 13
Not white magic: “White magic is of itself lawful.”	Prümmer II, n. 519In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 164; Marc n. 571; McHugh-Callan n. 2290
Not a means doubtfully natural, with a protest: “If there is doubt whether some effect proceeds from a natural cause or from the demon, it must be attributed to natural powers”	Noldin n. 161In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 517; Merkelbach II, n. 788; Wouters n. 597; Marc n. 560; Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; McHugh-Callan n. 2298; Vermeersch n. 245
Not a true grace of healing: “it can piously be believed that God even at the present time confers on some men, although they are not saints, the grace of healings”	Noldin n. 162In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 601; Marc n. 568; Bontempi On superstitious observances for w, n. 5

Its Kinds

The notory art, knowledge without labor: “The magic art is both unlawful and futile.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 96, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 515; Merkelbach II, n. 785; Sabetti-Barrett n. 205; McHugh-Callan n. 2292
Magical cures: “The observance of health is a method of curing diseases by employing means that are altogether inept.”	Prümmer II, n. 515In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 159; Marc n. 568; McHugh-Callan n. 2292; Bontempi On superstitious observances for w, n. 3
Lucky and unlucky days and chances: “Accordingly it is evident that all these observances are superstitious and unlawful”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 96, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 515; Merkelbach II, n. 785; Marc n. 568; Wouters n. 601; Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; Concina Theol. III, diss. II, ch. II, n. IV
Amulets, charms, chain prayers: “In every incantation or wearing of written words, two points seem to demand caution.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 96, a. 4In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 601; Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; Marc n. 568; Vermeersch n. 242; Bontempi What superstition is, and of how m, n. 14
Malefice, amatory and poisoning: “The ancients distinguished a twofold malefice”	Prümmer II, n. 518In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 163; Marc n. 571; Sabetti-Barrett n. 210; Vermeersch n. 246

Its Gravity

Grave of itself: “Vain observance is a mortal sin from its whole genus, in the same way as divination”	Merkelbach II, n. 787In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 516; Noldin n. 160; Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; Wouters n. 597; Marc n. 568; McHugh-Callan n. 2295
Often excused in practice: “But in practice it is often excused from mortal sin by a certain imperfection of the act”	Merkelbach II, n. 787In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 160; Sabetti-Barrett n. 206; Wouters n. 597; McHugh-Callan n. 2295; Vermeersch n. 242
Malefice, against religion and justice: “Malefice contains a twofold malice”	Prümmer II, n. 519In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 165; Marc n. 572; Sabetti-Barrett n. 211; Wouters n. 601
The conscious magician, grave: “is subjectively guilty, in operating, of tacit invocation of the devil, which cannot be excused from grave sin”	Vermeersch n. 241

Its Remedies

The authors give instruction, gently teaching the vanity of the means, preaching superstitions as empty, and turning customs to pious use; and, against malefice, prayer, sacramentals and exorcism, with slowness to believe it present. They are set under those heads.

Instruction
Teaching the pious in good faith: “let him not charge them with sin, but rather teach them how vain their means are for obtaining the effect”	Noldin n. 160In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 516
Instruction
Preaching them empty, and only those known: “Let preachers neither teach unknown superstitions, nor that they are diabolical, but rather that they are empty.”	Merkelbach II, n. 789In nearly the same words: Marc n. 568
Instruction
Turning it to a pious use: “Let the parish priest see whether the matter can be turned to a good sense”	Marc n. 568In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 246
Against malefice
Prayer, sacramentals, exorcism: “against malefices remedies are given, both supernatural, such as trust in God, prayer, fasting, the sign of the cross, exorcism, invocation of the names of Jesus and Mary, blessed water, relics”	Merkelbach II, n. 789In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 166; Marc n. 573; Wouters n. 601
Against malefice
Slowness to believe in malefice: “let the confessor be slow in believing malefices which are narrated by rude penitents”	Noldin n. 165In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 519; Vermeersch n. 246; Marc n. 573

Where It Comes From

Remains of paganism: “they are apparently remains of idolatry”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 96, a. 3In nearly the same words: Spirago FOOLISH OR PERVERTED WORSHIP
From inherited credulity: “This happens especially easily from credulity toward those things which they have received by tradition or by the authority of elders”	Merkelbach II, n. 787In nearly the same words: Marc n. 568
From fear and vain hope: “Because of inconsiderate fear or vain hope”	Merkelbach II, n. 787In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 242

Hypnotism and Spiritism

How the Authors Compare

On hypnotism they begin from opposite sides and come near each other. Noldin: “Hypnotism of itself is illicit”, though “it can licitly be employed” with conditions (n. 749). Prümmer: “Hypnotism is not unlawful in itself; often, however, it becomes unlawful because of abuse” (II, n. 523). Wouters: “although free from superstition, is nevertheless unlawful without a grave cause” (n. 603). On spiritism they agree: Noldin calls it “a new superstition” (n. 168), and Wouters says it “is superstitious” (n. 605). Marc holds scientific hypnotism licit with due conditions, “the more common opinion” (n. 570), though Noldin counts Marc among those who forbid it absolutely (n. 749); Merkelbach and Vermeersch take its proper facts for natural (II, n. 789, n. 251).
A turning table and its answers. Its simple rotation: Noldin permits it “with a protestation against the influence of the demon premised” (n. 167); Wouters calls it “of itself lawful” (n. 601); Marc “not evidently illicit” (n. 566); Prümmer and Merkelbach explain it naturally yet would keep the faithful from it (II, n. 521, II, n. 780); Sabetti-Barrett calls it controverted, but “certainly it is not to be permitted” (n. 209); McHugh-Callan reports the authorities divided (n. 2297). Its answers by knocks: Prümmer and Merkelbach find answers to what someone at the table knows explicable naturally (II, n. 521, II, n. 780); Noldin and Sabetti-Barrett hold any consultation of the table illicit, “even if questions are proposed concerning merely indifferent matters” (n. 167, n. 209).
Looking on at a séance. Prümmer: watching sometimes from curiosity is “unlawful, but does not seem to be a grave sin” (II, n. 525); Noldin: present once or twice from curiosity, “he does not sin gravely” (n. 170); Merkelbach: mortal if habitual or with approval, scandal or danger, “otherwise it is probably only venial” (II, n. 780). Wouters: “It is gravely unlawful to attend spiritistic gatherings”, even without spiritistic intention (n. 605); Marc: they sin gravely who often assist, even from curiosity (n. 566); Sabetti-Barrett and Vermeersch give the Holy Office's answer of 1917 forbidding even looking on (n. 209, n. 248).

What It Is

Hypnotism, an induced sleep: “Hypnotism actively signifies the art of producing in another an artificial sleep and peculiar phenomena connected with this sleep”	Noldin n. 747In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 602; Marc n. 569; Prümmer II, n. 522
Spiritism, converse with spirits: “and then it is unlawful conversation with spirits of another world”	Prümmer II, n. 524In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 169; Wouters n. 604; Marc n. 566; Vermeersch n. 247; Merkelbach II, n. 779; McHugh-Callan n. 2284

What It Is Not

Not hypnotism's ordinary effects, which are natural: “Both the phenomena themselves considered in themselves and the means by which they are produced do not seem to transcend the powers of nature.”	Noldin n. 748In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 603; Prümmer II, n. 522; Merkelbach II, n. 789; Vermeersch n. 251
Not hypnotism for a grave cause with cautions: “it is not lawful to use hypnotism except from a proportionately grave cause and with all precautions employed so that abuse may not be possible”	Prümmer II, n. 523In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 749; Wouters n. 603; Marc n. 570; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209
Not the learned exposing fraud: “But a skilled and sufficiently experienced man who wishes to intervene to detect and denounce fraud”	Vermeersch n. 248In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 525; Merkelbach II, n. 780; McHugh-Callan n. 2296

Its Kinds

Hypnotism's conditions: cause, consent, a skilled and upright physician, a witness: “The REQUIRED conditions and cautions to be employed are several”	Marc n. 570In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 749; Wouters n. 603; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209
Prodigious hypnotism, unlawful: “Prodigious hypnotism is altogether illicit.”	Marc n. 570In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 603; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209
Serving as a medium: “A fortiori, it is not lawful to serve as a medium in spiritistic experiments.”	Prümmer II, n. 525In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 170; Merkelbach II, n. 780; Marc n. 566; McHugh-Callan n. 2296

Its Gravity

Spiritism, altogether unlawful: “Spiritism strictly so called, that is, artificial and vain conversation with spirits of another world, is altogether unlawful.”	Prümmer II, n. 525In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 170; Wouters n. 605; Marc n. 566; Merkelbach II, n. 780; Vermeersch n. 248; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209
Even with a protest against the demon: “Therefore it is never licit to undertake spiritistic experiments, wherefore the Holy Office declares the use of spiritism illicit, even if every convention with the demon is excluded”	Noldin n. 170In nearly the same words: Marc n. 566; Merkelbach II, n. 780; Wouters n. 605
Joining its sect: “Besides, adherents of Spiritism often constitute a heretical sect”	Merkelbach II, n. 780In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 248; Noldin n. 169
Hypnotism's dangers: “Hypnotism is a land still sufficiently unknown and full of dangers.”	Prümmer II, n. 523In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 749; Sabetti-Barrett n. 209

Its Remedies

The authors give keeping the faithful away from such experiments, the learned consulting the bishop before any study of them; Vermeersch adds sobriety of judgment, faith not credulity. They are set under those heads.

Keeping away
Keeping the faithful from it: “the faithful are to be deterred from experiments with turning tables”	Prümmer II, n. 521In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 780; Noldin n. 167; Wouters n. 605
Keeping away
The learned consulting the bishop: “he will usefully consult the Ordinary before carrying out his proposal”	Wouters n. 605In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 780
Sobriety of judgment
Faith, not credulity: “Facility of credulity cannot at all be confused with promptitude of Faith.”	Vermeersch n. 247In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 247

Where It Comes From

From curiosity: “will generally foster evil or dangerous curiosity”

Vermeersch n. 248In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 521

Tempting God

How the Authors Compare

Sabetti-Barrett divides express tempting of God by its source: from infidelity it is mortal “from its whole genus”, from curiosity or imprudent confidence “not from its whole genus” (n. 213).
Preaching without preparation. Noldin: light in one merely negligent, but an untaught cleric who hopes the matter will be suggested by God sins gravely (n. 173); Marc: venial (n. 577); Prümmer weighs it chiefly by the scandal (II, n. 528); McHugh-Callan counts the unprepared lecturer as tempting God interpretatively (n. 2302). Merkelbach and Vermeersch: one who expects no special aid does not tempt God at all, though he sins otherwise, Vermeersch calling it “rather presumption” against another precept (II, n. 793, n. 255). Bontempi rejects Navarrus's view that it is mortal, unless the disposition of tempting God or scandal intervenes (What temptation is, and of how man, n. 7).
Formal tempting of God from curiosity. Noldin: formal tempting is mortal from its whole genus and “does not admit smallness of matter” (n. 173); so Prümmer (II, n. 528). Marc reports many teaching that tempting God in a light matter from mere curiosity is only venial (n. 576), as Sabetti-Barrett holds; Bontempi reports both opinions, adding that the matter can be so small as to make it venial (What temptation is, and of how man, n. 4, What temptation is, and of how man, n. 6). Concina, against Marc's light illness: some say refusing medicine in a light illness in hope of God's help is venial, “But the more probable opinion is that this is always a grave fault”, the divine majesty being injured “always in the same way, however light or grave”; only imperfect deliberation makes it venial (Theol. III, diss. III, ch. I, n. IV).

What It Is

Putting God to the test: “Properly speaking, to tempt is to test the person tempted.”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 97, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 527; Merkelbach II, n. 791; Noldin n. 171; Wouters n. 607; McHugh-Callan n. 2300; Marc n. 575; Sabetti-Barrett n. 212; Vermeersch n. 252; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 1

What It Is Not

Not asking a sign for just cause and in need: “this is not tempting God”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 97, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 793; Noldin n. 172; Marc n. 575; McHugh-Callan n. 2301; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 3
Not rashness that expects nothing of God: “On the contrary, he who rashly seeks danger or rejects ordinary means, but expects no special aid from God and only commits himself to fortune, does not tempt God, although he sins.”	Merkelbach II, n. 793In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 172; McHugh-Callan n. 2303; Vermeersch n. 255; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213

Its Kinds

Express, and interpretative: “The tempting of God is distinguished as formal (express, explicit) and virtual (interpretative).”	Prümmer II, n. 527In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 172; Marc n. 575; McHugh-Callan n. 2302; Sabetti-Barrett n. 212; Vermeersch n. 253; Wouters n. 608; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 7; Concina Theol. III, diss. III, ch. I, n. II
Rejecting ordinary means, needless danger: “Thus he who rashly rejects ordinary means, or without cause puts himself into dangers, implicitly asks special or miraculous aid from God, and interpretatively tempts God.”	Merkelbach II, n. 791In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 172; McHugh-Callan n. 2304; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 3
Ordeals: “The judgments of God, commonly ordeals (Gottesurteile), which once were in use, such as the trial of fire or water for exploring innocence, are illicit”	Noldin n. 172In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 609; McHugh-Callan n. 2305; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 7
A miracle offered to convert heretics: “He sins gravely who absolutely asks from God, or offers, a miracle for the conversion of heretics, since the testimonies of our faith suffice.”	Marc n. 577In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 609; Noldin n. 172; Vermeersch n. 254; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 11
Rushing to martyrdom: “Likewise he sins who without just cause offers himself to martyrdom, to danger of death or mutilation.”	Marc n. 577In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 791; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 12

Its Gravity

Against religion, mortal in its kind: “Hence it is manifest that to tempt God is a sin opposed to religion.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 97, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 528; Noldin n. 173; Marc n. 576; Wouters n. 609; Merkelbach II, n. 792; McHugh-Callan n. 2306; Bontempi What temptation is, and of how man, n. 1; Concina Theol. III, diss. III, ch. I, n. III
Interpretative, mostly venial: “Interpretative tempting of God is a sin grave from its genus, admitting smallness of matter; yet for the most part it is a venial sin.”	Noldin n. 173In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 528; Merkelbach II, n. 792; Marc n. 576; Wouters n. 609; McHugh-Callan n. 2307; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213
Light in a light illness: “He sins only lightly who, in a light illness, the remedies having been rejected, hopes for health from God”	Marc n. 577In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 173; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213; Prümmer II, n. 528
Less than superstition: “it is less opposed to this reverence that one should doubt the divine excellence than that one should hold the contrary for certain”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 97, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 794; McHugh-Callan n. 2306

Its Remedies

The authors give the way of asking rightly: preparing the soul before prayer, and asking signs or extraordinary help only in real need, humbly, and on condition that it please God.

Asking rightly
Preparing the soul before prayer: “Before prayer prepare thy soul: and be not as a man that tempteth God.”	Marc n. 576In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2302
Asking rightly
Asking signs only in need, humbly, if it please God: “when ordinary means of direction fail him in some critical affair, asks humbly for a sign”	McHugh-Callan n. 2301In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 172; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213

Where It Comes From

From doubt or presumption: “Wherefore all temptation proceeds from some ignorance or doubt”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 97, a. 2In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 171; McHugh-Callan n. 2302; Sabetti-Barrett n. 212

Perjury

How the Authors Compare

Prümmer takes the word in a broad sense for “any unlawful oath” (II, n. 456), and Noldin too distinguishes a strict and a broad sense (n. 254). Prümmer and Merkelbach rate the false oath as mortal.
Swearing to commit a light sin. Prümmer: by the more probable opinion it seems grave (II, n. 459); Merkelbach: mortal from its whole genus (II, n. 798); Wouters and Marc, with St. Alphonsus, grave (n. 685, n. 610); Bontempi: one who swears it meaning to fulfil it “sins mortally” (Whether an oath made without justi, n. 3). Noldin: a light sin (n. 255); Vermeersch finds the malice remaining but the benign opinion of Lessius, Sanchez and Suarez probable (n. 193); Sabetti-Barrett sets St. Alphonsus against Suarez (n. 224); McHugh-Callan reports several opinions (n. 2250).
An oath confirming a grave detraction. Noldin: as an oath it is venial, “even if the sin against charity or justice is grave” (n. 255). Prümmer counts two mortal sins, the detraction and the abuse of an oath (II, n. 459); Merkelbach, Marc, Sabetti-Barrett and Vermeersch make the oath grave when it is used as the instrument of the detraction, to win it belief, though an assertory oath on an evil thing is otherwise venial (II, n. 798, n. 609, n. 224, n. 193); so Wouters (n. 685). Bontempi argues that bringing God as witness to a mortal sin already done is itself mortal (Whether an oath made without justi, n. 12).
Failing in a light matter a promise made on oath. McHugh-Callan: a venial sin of inconstancy; that every unfaithfulness is grave “is commonly denied” (n. 2261); Prümmer and Noldin call it breach of oath rather than perjury (II, n. 456, n. 254); Merkelbach: “rather a sin of omission” (II, n. 795). Bontempi holds it mortal with the first opinion and, as he reads him, St. Bonaventure, against Sanchez (Whether, and how, it is a sin to s, n. 19).
Oaths that slip out from an unretracted habit. Noldin: of itself only light, being an oath lacking judgment, though grave by the danger of perjury (n. 255); Merkelbach: culpable in the habit, and grave if one is disposed to swear even false things (II, n. 799). Bontempi holds them mortal (When one who swears incautiously f, n. 7).
Swearing without due cause. The Roman Catechism: “he who swears rashly and without deliberation commits a grave sin” (The Second Commandment). The manuals make an oath lacking judgment of itself venial (II, n. 458, II, n. 797, n. 255, n. 685, n. 612, n. 2250, n. 193, n. 224), and Bontempi too, unless due inquiry into the truth is gravely omitted (Whether an oath lacking judgment i, n. 2).

What It Is

Perjury, a lie confirmed by oath: “Hence falsehood directly annuls the end of an oath”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 98, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 456; Merkelbach II, n. 795; Noldin n. 254; Marc n. 605; McHugh-Callan n. 2249; Spirago The Oath; Roman Catechism The Second Commandment
In the broad sense, an oath lacking truth, judgment, or justice: “Perjury taken in the broad sense is any unlawful oath”	Prümmer II, n. 456In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 795; Noldin n. 254; Roman Catechism The Second Commandment
Promising on oath without meaning to keep it: “a promissory oath without the intention of fulfilling the thing promised”	Noldin n. 254In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 799; Roman Catechism The Second Commandment; Spirago The Oath; Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin to s, n. 10

What It Is Not

Not an error sworn in good faith: “But perjury is not present if someone under oath asserts an error which he invincibly thinks to be the truth.”	Prümmer II, n. 456In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 223
Not swearing on moral certainty: “For swearing licitly, in common human commerce some moral certitude suffices”	Marc n. 608In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 685; Sabetti-Barrett n. 224; Vermeersch n. 193; Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin to s, n. 8
Not the oath itself, rightly taken: “These explanations having been given, there can be no doubt that they who observe the above conditions and who guard their oaths with these qualities as with bulwarks, may swear with a safe conscience.”	Roman Catechism The Second CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Wouters n. 684; Vermeersch n. 193; Spirago The Oath
Not an official requiring an oath of one who may forswear: “But it is licit, from a just and proportionate cause, to ask an oath from him who can swear well, but who probably or certainly will swear badly”	Merkelbach II, n. 799In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2252; Marc n. 611

Its Kinds

With a purely mental restriction: “He also commits true perjury who swears with a purely mental restriction”	Prümmer II, n. 457In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 685; Marc n. 608; McHugh-Callan n. 2251
Swearing to the doubtful: “On the same principle, he who swears to that which he thinks to be true, but which is really false, also incurs the guilt of perjury, unless he has used proper care and diligence to arrive at a full knowledge of the matter.”	Roman Catechism The Second CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin to s, n. 6; McHugh-Callan n. 2249
A feigned oath to a falsehood: “A fictitious oath which is made in confirmation of a falsehood is always a grave sin”	Noldin n. 256In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 692; Marc n. 607; McHugh-Callan n. 2254; Merkelbach II, n. 795
Swearing to do evil: “He that swears to do what is unlawful is thereby guilty of perjury through lack of justice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 98, a. 2, ad 1In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Second Commandment; Prümmer II, n. 459; Bontempi Whether an oath made without justi, n. 1
Swearing against the counsels: “A person who swears not to enter religion, or not to give an alms, or the like, is guilty of perjury through lack of judgment.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 98, a. 2, ad 2In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Second Commandment; Marc n. 610; Bontempi Whether an oath made without justi, n. 8
The habit of swearing: “and of this character are the irreligious affirmations of those, who, on the most unimportant and trifling occasions, swear without thought or reason from the influence of bad habit alone”	Roman Catechism The Second CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 799; Wouters n. 685; Bontempi Whether, and how, a custom of swea, n. 10

Its Gravity

Mortal of its very nature, in any matter: “Therefore it is manifest that perjury, of its very nature, is a mortal sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 98, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 457; Merkelbach II, n. 796; Noldin n. 254; Wouters n. 685; Marc n. 606; McHugh-Callan n. 2250; Sabetti-Barrett n. 224; Vermeersch n. 193; Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin to s, n. 1
Not lighter in jest, but worse: “in saying that a false oath told in jest is venial”	Bontempi Whether, and how, it is a sin to s, n. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 457
Its penalties: “In Canon Law those who perjure themselves are debarred from acting as witnesses or giving expert testimony”	McHugh-Callan n. 2250In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 796; Prümmer II, n. 457

Its Remedies

The authors give, against the habit of swearing, not contracting it, retracting it with renewed purpose, and swearing seldom, like medicine; restitution for damage done by a false oath; and the confessor's prudence with the rude and firmness with the unwilling. They are set under those heads.

Against the habit of swearing
Not contracting, and rooting out, the habit: “The faithful must be seriously admonished not to contract the habit of swearing rashly”	Noldin n. 255In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Second Commandment; Bontempi Whether, and how, a custom of swea, n. 16
Against the habit of swearing
Retracting the custom and renewing the purpose: “The custom is retracted by the will by which someone is sorry for it and proposes to himself to employ efficacious means for removing it, which purpose he usefully renews several times”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
Against the habit of swearing
Swearing seldom, like medicine: “As it is inexpedient to have recourse to medicine unless, when it becomes necessary, and as its frequent use is harmful”	Roman Catechism The Second CommandmentIn nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2248; Marc n. 613
Repairing
Repairing damage done: “An assertory oath imposes the obligation of telling the truth and of repairing any damage that results from the falsity or injustice of the declaration.”	McHugh-Callan n. 2256
The confessor's part
The confessor with the rude and the habitual: “Rustics who do not understand the malice of perjury, and have the custom of perjuring themselves, are not immediately to be admonished concerning the gravity of the sin”	Marc n. 611In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 192; Bontempi Whether, and how, a custom of swea, n. 16

A daughter of Covetousness, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Perjury is among the daughters of covetousness.

In buying and selling: “This we see practiced daily everywhere among buyers and sellers.”	Roman Catechism The Second Commandment
From the habit of swearing, St. Augustine: “lest by swearing once, one comes to facility in swearing, from facility to habit, and from habit falls into perjury”	Bontempi When one who swears incautiously f, n. 8

Taking God's Name in Vain

What It Is

Using God's name without reverence: “He is said to take the divine name in vain who usurps the name of God without due reverence.”	Noldin n. 201In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 535; Marc n. 595; Sabetti-Barrett n. 219; Roman Catechism The Second Commandment; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
And of the saints and sacred things: “What is affirmed concerning the name of God must, with proportion preserved, also be said concerning the vain and useless usurpation of the names of saints or of sacred things”	Noldin n. 201In nearly the same words: Marc n. 595; Sabetti-Barrett n. 220; Prümmer II, n. 535

What It Is Not

Not the Name invoked with reverence: “But if with due reverence, and by way of invocation, the name of God is usurped, it is a good and meritorious act.”	Marc n. 595In nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Second Commandment
Not when inadvertent: “But often it is free of fault, on account of inadvertence.”	Marc n. 595In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 201; Sabetti-Barrett n. 220
Not the devil's name, though unbecoming: “To use frequently and uselessly the name of the demon, although it is not a sin, is nevertheless very unbecoming, especially in clerics and religious”	Noldin n. 201In nearly the same words: Marc n. 595; Sabetti-Barrett n. 220

Its Kinds

From impatience, wonder, or mere custom: “This vain assumption of the divine name proceeds”	Noldin n. 201In nearly the same words: Marc n. 595; Sabetti-Barrett n. 219
Scripture turned to profane jest: “It is also a foul and shameful contamination of the Scripture, that wicked men pervert the words and sentences which it contains”	Roman Catechism The Second Commandment

Its Gravity

Venial of itself: “Apart from scandal, vain uses of this kind are a venial sin against the virtue of religion.”	Prümmer II, n. 535In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 201; Marc n. 595; Sabetti-Barrett n. 220; Merkelbach II, n. 797; Vermeersch n. 193; McHugh-Callan n. 2255
Mortal by contempt or anger against God: “I said of itself because it can become mortal by reason of contempt, or of anger against God”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 220In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 220

Its Remedies

Spirago, the Roman Catechism and Sabetti-Barrett give correcting the habit, in oneself and others and through the Holy Name Society, and positive reverence for the Name, bowing at it and praising it. They are set under those heads.

Correcting the habit
Correcting the habit in oneself and others: “It is a bad habit; correct yourselves of it, and endeavor to correct others also”	Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GODIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Second Commandment
Correcting the habit
The Holy Name Society: “It is greatly to be commended to the faithful that they associate themselves with those Sodalities”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 221
Reverence for the Name
Honoring the Name, bowing and praising: “Many devout Christians bow their head when they pronounce the name of Jesus in prayer”	Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GODIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Second Commandment

Sacrilege

How the Authors Compare

Prümmer and Noldin both refuse a fourth kind, sacrilege of sacred time. Prümmer: “this sacrilege of sacred time is not adopted as a distinct species” (II, n. 538); Noldin says the same (n. 175).
Theft of a thing not sacred, such as a purse, in a church. Prümmer, with St. Alphonsus and the words of the canon, holds every grave theft in a sacred place a true sacrilege (II, n. 548); so Marc, more probably, though he would not urge its confession, the matter being doubtful (n. 582, n. 582); Bontempi cites St. Bonaventure for it (Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 10). Noldin, Merkelbach and Wouters make it sacrilege only when the thing belongs to the church or was given into its keeping (n. 178, II, n. 805, n. 616); McHugh-Callan, Vermeersch and Sabetti-Barrett likewise deny it, Sabetti-Barrett calling the negative “certainly probable” (n. 2312, n. 269, n. 215). Concina is with Prümmer: local sacrilege is committed “If someone steals in a Church a sacred thing from a sacred place, or a non-sacred thing from a sacred place, or a sacred thing from a non-sacred place” (III, diss. VIII, ch. III, n. VII).
Breaking a private vow of chastity. Prümmer, McHugh-Callan and Vermeersch: not sacrilege properly so called, no one being made a sacred person by a private vow (II, n. 544, n. 2313, n. 267); so Sabetti-Barrett, probably (n. 215); Wouters reports the dispute (n. 614). Noldin denies it strictly, yet with St. Alphonsus allows the affirming opinion as probable in practice (n. 177); Marc: “others, perhaps more probably, affirm” (n. 581). All agree it is a sin against religion as well as against chastity (n. 215).
Breaking the vows of poverty and obedience. Merkelbach counts it personal sacrilege, these vows consecrating the person as chastity does (II, n. 804); Bontempi too names the breaking of a vow (Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 7), and St. Alphonsus, writing for religious, calls the violation of poverty “a sacrilegious theft” and taking back the will once given “sacrilege” (True Spouse, ch. IX, True Spouse, ch. VII). McHugh-Callan, naming Merkelbach, holds the opposite better (n. 2313); Wouters: the violation of a vow other than chastity “does not involve sacrilege” (n. 614); Marc reports the Salmanticenses affirming of any vow and Suarez denying (n. 581).
What else profanes a church. Vermeersch admits as local sacrilege only the acts the Code names as violating a sacred place, against the stricter authors (n. 268). Merkelbach adds external sins specially repugnant to the place (II, n. 805); Marc, all sins against its sanctity (n. 582); Noldin reports de Lugo teaching that every sin in a church has some note of sacrilege (n. 178); Wouters: every external sin has some malice of sacrilege, though commonly slight (n. 616). McHugh-Callan: not every grave sin in a holy place, but theft and impurity are sacrilegious (n. 2312).
Three species or two. Vermeersch: that local and real sacrilege differ formally “seems capable of being safely denied,” so that the three are reduced to two (n. 265); Wouters finds the difference hard to see, yet hesitates to leave the common opinion (n. 612). Merkelbach, Noldin and McHugh-Callan hold three distinct species, with St. Thomas (II, n. 802, n. 176, n. 2315).
Tithes and dues withheld. Bontempi counts the withholding of what is owed to clerics, such as tithes, as personal sacrilege (Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 6); Prümmer reports some holding the defrauding of tithes true sacrilege and others a sin of irreligion (II, n. 554). Vermeersch: not paying owed tithes or legacies “is not sacrilege,” the Church not yet possessing them (n. 270); so Noldin, Wouters and McHugh-Callan of what is owed but not yet handed over (n. 179, n. 618, n. 2313).
Worn vestments put to common use. Prümmer finds it unbecoming to make a shirt even of torn and cut-up sacred linens (II, n. 553); Sabetti-Barrett: “it is not licit to mend profane garments from an old chasuble” (n. 215); Vermeersch reports St. Alphonsus finding light sacrilege in such use (n. 272). Vermeersch himself, Noldin and Merkelbach allow it once the form is changed, though not for sordid uses (n. 272, n. 179, II, n. 807).
Lesser sins of lust in a church: touches, kisses, looks, obscene talk. Wouters and Marc hold them sacrilege, more probably, even when secret (n. 42, n. 788); Prümmer reports St. Alphonsus calling this the more probable opinion and would have the place confessed, though some hold the contrary probable (II, n. 547); McHugh-Callan: “probably” sacrilegious (n. 2312), “at least if they are of an enormous kind” (n. 2533). Merkelbach admits only acts “disposing altogether proximately to the complete act” (II, n. 1013); so his Pastoral (Pastoral, Ar. V). Noldin: “this must probably be denied” (n. 26); Sabetti-Barrett: “the negative opinion seems probable” (n. 215); Bontempi denies it outside the danger of pollution, with Sanchez and Navarre, and reports Diana calling the opposite scrupulous, though Ledesma excepts obscene words said aloud (On sacrilege, n. 12). Vermeersch finds no grave local sacrilege even in secret pollution, “and much more from imperfect acts” (De castitate, n. 339).
Secret pollution and fornication in a church since the Code, which no longer counts the emission of seed among the acts that violate a church. Prümmer: it still seems true sacrilege, “since the Code of Canon Law has changed nothing in this matter”, and the place must be confessed (II, n. 547); Noldin: certain (n. 26); Marc, “although the crime is hidden” (n. 788); Sabetti-Barrett, certain (n. 215); Wouters, more probably even in secret (n. 42); McHugh-Callan: sacrilegious, “though under the Code it does not seem to be a desecration” (n. 2312). Vermeersch alone denies grave local sacrilege to secret pollution: “Yet its truth escapes us”; lust is referred to one's own body, not to the place, and “secret blasphemy is more repugnant to the sanctity of a place than secret pollution” (De castitate, n. 339). Fornication in a church he does hold grave local sacrilege, for its impiety and the other person drawn in (De castitate, n. 314).
Married persons in a church. Bontempi sets out four opinions: always sacrilege (Navarre, Henriquez, Cajetan, Sylvius); only venial (the Gloss, with Soto not displeased); lawful for a cause and in secret; no fault in necessity, but mortal without cause (On sacrilege, n. 3, On sacrilege, n. 4). He holds that for a just cause and in secret there is neither fault nor violation of the church (On sacrilege, n. 9), the hope of offspring or pleasure being no just cause (On sacrilege, n. 10), danger of incontinence or a long siege being one (On sacrilege, n. 11). Noldin and Marc: sacrilege unless moral necessity excuses, Marc calling this “the more probable and more common opinion” (n. 26, n. 788); Wouters: “Many teach the same” (n. 42); Vermeersch: those shut up for weeks or in danger of incontinence “are excused by necessity itself” (n. 59). Prümmer: the older authors' question “can scarcely occur in our times” (II, n. 547).
A sin of lust soon after Communion. Prümmer: whether it takes on the grave species of real sacrilege within half an hour “seems doubtful and not solidly proved”, unless the sin is willed in relation to Communion (II, n. 702). Noldin holds it sacrilege while the species are not yet corrupted (n. 26); so Marc, “as long as the sacred species remain” (n. 789), Wouters (n. 42), McHugh-Callan (n. 2533), and Vermeersch, “according to the common estimation”, within half an hour (n. 269, De castitate, n. 314).
A vowed person who leads another into sin. Vermeersch: one who “without his own lust” persuades a person not sacred to sin “is not sacrilegious” (n. 267, De castitate, n. 314); so Merkelbach's Pastoral (Pastoral, Ar. V); Wouters, “quite probably”, if he acts from a motive other than lust (n. 42). Marc counts sacrilege where he leads from an affection toward lust, or “pollutes him with his hands, although without his own pleasure” (n. 787).
Which places are sacred for carnal sacrilege. Noldin counts a blessed cemetery (n. 26); Merkelbach, “churches and cemeteries consecrated or blessed” (II, n. 1013); McHugh-Callan names public and semi-public oratories and consecrated cemeteries among sacred places (n. 2311). Wouters doubts of both semi-public oratories and cemeteries (n. 42); Vermeersch admits only a church or public oratory, and that at least solemnly blessed, against Lehmkuhl (De castitate, n. 314, De castitate, n. 314); Merkelbach's Pastoral names a church or public oratory (Pastoral, Ar. V).

What It Is

Violating what is holy, an injury to God: “Therefore whatever pertains to irreverence for sacred things is an injury to God, and comes under the head of sacrilege.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 537; Merkelbach II, n. 800; Noldin n. 174; Wouters n. 610; McHugh-Callan n. 2308; Marc n. 578; Vermeersch n. 264; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 1; Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
Sacred by public dedication: “these three are called sacred if by a public rite and by the authority of God or of the Church they have been dedicated to divine worship”	Prümmer II, n. 537In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 800; Noldin n. 174; Vermeersch n. 264; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213; McHugh-Callan n. 2309; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 2
A special sin against religion: “Hence it is a special sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 801; Wouters n. 612; McHugh-Callan n. 2310

What It Is Not

Not every sin touching a sacred person, only against his holiness: “But formally and properly speaking a sin committed by a sacred person is a sacrilege only when it is committed against his holiness”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 3, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 537; Merkelbach II, n. 800; Noldin n. 174; Wouters n. 610; McHugh-Callan n. 2308; Marc n. 581; Vermeersch n. 264; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 7
Not a cleric's own goods: “But the private goods of clerics and of other ecclesiastical persons are not ecclesiastical goods.”	Prümmer II, n. 554In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 806; Noldin n. 179; Marc n. 583; Vermeersch n. 270; McHugh-Callan n. 2313
Not sinning on a holy day, unless in contempt: “this sacrilege of sacred time is not adopted as a distinct species”	Prümmer II, n. 538In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 807; Noldin n. 175; Marc n. 580; Wouters n. 618; McHugh-Callan n. 2314; Vermeersch n. 270
Not decent use of things simply blessed, for a cause: “But it is lawful from a reasonable cause to employ things that are simply blessed for decent profane uses.”	Prümmer II, n. 552In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 179; Vermeersch n. 272
Not sacred things wholly changed: “when once broken, they are considered to be no longer sacred vessels but mere metal”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 4, ad 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 553; Merkelbach II, n. 807; Noldin n. 179; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Vermeersch n. 272
Not merely inward sins of lust in a church, unless one desires to sin there: “Sins of lust perpetrated merely internally in a sacred place are not sacrileges in the strict sense.”	Prümmer II, n. 547In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 26; Wouters n. 42; Marc n. 788; McHugh-Callan n. 2533; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215
Not two sacrileges for a priest who is also a religious: “but if one is sacred by a twofold title, because it is from one motive of religion, one sacrilege is committed”	Merkelbach II, n. 804In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 544; Noldin n. 26; Wouters n. 42; Marc n. 787; Vermeersch n. 267; Merkelbach Pastoral, Ar. V; Bontempi On sacrilege, n. 18
Not sinning while wearing relics or a scapular, unless in contempt: “unless it is done in contempt of the sacred thing or the sacred thing is applied to the venereal act itself”	Merkelbach II, n. 1013In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2533
Not the sacristy, tower or roof: “In the case, a sacred place is not judged to be the sacristy, adjacent rooms, cloister, tower, or exterior roof of the church.”	Merkelbach II, n. 1013In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 26

Its Kinds

Personal, local, and real: “the species of sacrilege must needs be distinguished according to the different aspects of sanctity in the sacred things which are treated irreverently”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 538; Merkelbach II, n. 802; Noldin n. 175; Wouters n. 611; McHugh-Callan n. 2315; Marc n. 578; Vermeersch n. 265; Sabetti-Barrett n. 213; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 3; Concina III, diss. VIII, ch. III, n. V
Personal, violence to clerics and religious, and their privileges: “Personal sacrilege is the violation of a sacred person.”	Prümmer II, n. 540In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 804; Noldin n. 177; Wouters n. 614; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Marc n. 581; Vermeersch n. 267; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 4
Carnal sacrilege, a sin against chastity and religion at once: “and in this way sacrilege may be accounted a species of lust”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 154, a. 10In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 702; Merkelbach II, n. 1013; Noldin n. 26; Wouters n. 42; McHugh-Callan n. 2533; Marc n. 787; Sabetti-Barrett n. 295; Bontempi On sacrilege, n. 1; Merkelbach Pastoral, Ar. V
Personal, carnal sacrilege, by or with one vowed to God: “A sin of lust committed by a person consecrated to God for preserving chastity, against the vow of chastity.”	Noldin n. 177In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 540; Wouters n. 614; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Marc n. 581; Vermeersch n. 267; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 5
Local, carnal sin in a church: “Hence carnal sacrilege is committed by an external and complete carnal sin committed in a sacred place”	Merkelbach II, n. 1013In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 26; Wouters n. 42; Marc n. 788; McHugh-Callan n. 2533; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Prümmer II, n. 547; Bontempi On sacrilege, n. 2; Merkelbach Pastoral, Ar. V
Real, sacred things abused for lust: “Sacred things are violated by carnal sacrilege when immodest things are done concerning them or through their intervention”	Merkelbach II, n. 1013In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 702; Noldin n. 26; Wouters n. 42; Marc n. 789; McHugh-Callan n. 2533; Merkelbach Pastoral, Ar. V
Real, solicitation in confession the gravest: “A very grave example of this real sacrilege is solicitation to shameful things in the confessional.”	Prümmer II, n. 702In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 26; Merkelbach II, n. 1013; Wouters n. 42; Marc n. 789; McHugh-Callan n. 2533; Merkelbach Pastoral, Ar. V
Local, the crimes that violate a church: “Local sacrilege is the violation of a sacred place or of local immunity.”	Prümmer II, n. 545In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 805; Noldin n. 178; Wouters n. 616; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Marc n. 582; Vermeersch n. 268; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 9
Local, profane uses of a church: “The Second Council of Lyons (1274) enumerates such actions”	Prümmer II, n. 546In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 805; Noldin n. 178; Wouters n. 616; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Marc n. 582; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 9
Local, violating the right of asylum: “if a judge were to take a person from a sacred place”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 549; Noldin n. 178; Wouters n. 616; Marc n. 582; Vermeersch n. 268; McHugh-Callan n. 2310; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 10
Real, the sacraments unworthily given or received: “The unworthy treatment of the sacraments is the principal real sacrilege.”	Prümmer II, n. 552In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 806; Noldin n. 179; Wouters n. 618; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Marc n. 583; Vermeersch n. 269; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 8; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD; Spirago The Nature and the Necessity of Penance
Real, sacred vessels put to profane use: “To employ consecrated sacred vessels, for example, a consecrated chalice, and blessed ecclesiastical ornaments, for example, a chasuble, for profane uses without the greatest necessity is a grave sacrilege.”	Prümmer II, n. 553In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 806; Noldin n. 179; Wouters n. 618; Marc n. 583; Vermeersch n. 269; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 8; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
Real, relics and images profaned: “By profanation of relics and images”	Merkelbach II, n. 806In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 179; Wouters n. 618; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Vermeersch n. 269; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 8; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
Real, Scripture abused: “Grave sacrilege is committed if the words of Sacred Scripture are employed for indecent and vain things”	Noldin n. 179In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 806; Prümmer II, n. 554; Wouters n. 618; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Marc n. 583; Vermeersch n. 270; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215
Real, the Church's goods usurped: “that are deputed to the upkeep of the ministers”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 554; Merkelbach II, n. 806; Noldin n. 179; Wouters n. 618; Marc n. 583; McHugh-Callan n. 2311; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Roman Catechism The Seventh Commandment; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD; Spirago THE RIGHT OF POSSESSION
Real, simony: “by buying or selling sacred things against the prohibition of the Church, which is the sin of simony”	Noldin n. 179In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 618; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 8

Its Gravity

Mortal in its kind, graver as the thing is holier: “for the greater the holiness ascribed to the sacred thing that is sinned against, the more grievous the sacrilege”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 539; Merkelbach II, n. 803; Noldin n. 176; Wouters n. 612; McHugh-Callan n. 2315; Marc n. 579; Vermeersch n. 266; Sabetti-Barrett n. 214; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 20
Light matter admitted: “but it admits smallness of matter, because the irreverence which is inflicted on things consecrated to God affects God Himself only mediately”	Noldin n. 176In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 539; McHugh-Callan n. 2315; Vermeersch n. 266; Sabetti-Barrett n. 214; Concina III, diss. VIII, ch. III, n. XI
But not when it is meant to dishonor God: “If sacrilege is direct, smallness of matter is never given in it.”	Marc n. 579In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2316
Against a person graver than against a place: “Hence sacrilege committed against a sacred person is a graver sin than that which is committed against a sacred place.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 539; Merkelbach II, n. 803; Wouters n. 612; Marc n. 580; McHugh-Callan n. 2316
Against the Eucharist, the gravest: “Wherefore the sacrilege that is committed against this sacrament is the gravest of all.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 803; Prümmer II, n. 552; Marc n. 583; McHugh-Callan n. 2316; Noldin n. 179
Punished in Scripture: “Therefore in Sacred Scripture those who treated sacred things unworthily are gravely punished”	Prümmer II, n. 539In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2315; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD; Bontempi On Sacrilege, n. 1
Its penalties: “the fitting punishment of one guilty of sacrilege, since he has done an injury to a sacred thing, is excommunication”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 4In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 619; Merkelbach II, n. 807; Bontempi Sole Question: What sacrilege is, n. 17; Spirago THE RIGHT OF POSSESSION

Its Remedies

The authors give the making good of a sacrilegious confession, by repeating it with the concealed sin and by overcoming the shame; restoring the Church's goods; priests keeping always in grace; the confessor's part, teaching reverence without scruples and compassion for the consecrated who fall; and the Church's penalties, given as medicine. They are set under those heads.

Making a bad confession good
Repeating the confession, the concealed sin told: “it is necessary not only to confess the sin wittingly concealed, but all the other sins mentioned in the first invalid confession”	Spirago The Nature and the Necessity of PenanceIn nearly the same words: Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VI
Making a bad confession good
Overcoming the shame: “he will not be scandalized, but will be edified, when he sees the good disposition that makes a sinner confess his sins with sincerity”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XVIII
Restoring
Restoring the Church's goods: “Restitution must be made before the Holy See can give absolution.”	Spirago THE RIGHT OF POSSESSIONIn nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 274; Wouters n. 619
Reverence in the ministry
Priests always in grace: “they must always be in the state of grace, lest they minister sacrilegiously”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VII
The confessor's part
Teaching reverence without scruples: “The action of the confessor must be such that he introduce no vain scruples, but, on the other hand, prudently inculcate reverence for every sacred or blessed thing”	Vermeersch n. 273In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 266
The confessor's part
Compassion for the consecrated who fall: “persons consecrated to God are more vehemently tempted, whence they are worthy of compassion rather than indignation”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIII
The Church's penalties
Penalties as medicine: “For punishments are inflicted as medicines, that men being deterred thereby may desist from sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 99, a. 4

Where It Comes From

From avarice: “is employed in satisfying individual avarice and the worst passions”	Roman Catechism The Seventh CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Sacrament of Holy Orders
From shame in confession: “Some Christians, through human respect, and through fear of losing the esteem of others, easily continue for months and years to make sacrilegious confessions and Communions.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XVIIIIn nearly the same words: Spirago The Nature and the Necessity of Penance
From contempt of holy things: “In a general ratio, a mode of treating a sacred person, place, or thing which flows from contempt of the sacred quality is sacrilegious.”	Vermeersch n. 267In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 538; McHugh-Callan n. 2314

Simony

How the Authors Compare

A price for the labor that belongs to the sacred act itself. Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure, holds that even for the ordinary labor of the Mass a price may be received, adding “Woe to innumerable priests” if the contrary were true (How simony is known on the part of, n. 18, How simony is known on the part of, n. 21). Prümmer, Merkelbach, Noldin, Marc and McHugh-Callan make the sale of labor intrinsic to a sacred function simony of divine law, “the most common opinion” (II, n. 562, II, n. 812, n. 185, n. 589, n. 2328); Vermeersch agrees that such labor is valued only from the spiritual work (n. 276); Noldin reports some thinking it remains a physical action that may be paid (n. 198).
A stipend above the rate, or one the Church forbids. Noldin reports several calling it simony, the excess being asked for the spiritual thing (n. 198), but himself denies it (n. 198); so Prümmer, probably (II, n. 563), Wouters (n. 626), Vermeersch, who allows at most a presumption of the external forum (n. 279), and Sabetti-Barrett before God (n. 218). Merkelbach lists asking beyond the lawful offerings as simony of the Church's law (II, n. 813), where Vermeersch finds it “unjust rather than simoniacal” (n. 277). Yet Vermeersch judges a stipend for a forbidden second Mass of the day simony of divine law (n. 280); McHugh-Callan reports the excess as controverted (n. 2330).
Doing sacred functions chiefly for the money. The manuals deny it is simony (II, n. 563, n. 198). Prümmer: the canon who goes to choir only for the distributions “acts badly” (II, n. 563); Wouters and Marc: a venial sin, the order being inverted (n. 623, n. 588); McHugh-Callan: a sin of indevotion that “may even be mortal” (n. 2333). Concina, with St. Thomas, holds the contrary: “Guilty of simony are Canons who principally assist at choir on account of the distributions”, and “Those who preach either for the sake of applause or for the sake of gain are simoniacs” (XII, diss. II, ch. II, n. XXXII, XII, diss. II, ch. II, n. XIV).
A rich monastery asking support of one professed. Noldin: not simony of divine law if it is asked for support and not for entrance (n. 199); Wouters: not of divine law, but “certainly” of the Church's law (n. 626); Vermeersch: at least of the Church's law, and by St. Thomas of divine law, though controverted (n. 282). Marc: unlawful, the right to live from the goods of a sufficiently wealthy monastery being joined to profession (n. 589). Concina allows nothing for entrance beyond the novice's food and clothing in probation, “UNDER WHATSOEVER PRETEXT”, as Trent says, and the canons “rout all the aforesaid little distinctions” (XII, diss. II, ch. II, n. XVII).
Paying a priest who will not give a sacrament without money. St. Thomas: an adult in danger of death “must by no means pay a price for Baptism, and should rather die without being baptized” (II-II, q. 100, a. 2, ad 1). Noldin, Wouters and Marc allow money to be given for a grave cause, as the redeeming of an unjust vexation and the permitting of another's sin, not as a price (n. 200, n. 624, n. 588); McHugh-Callan: in danger of death “it would not be simony to pay the money” (n. 2334). Concina holds with St. Thomas: if a priest at the point of death will not baptize without money, a layman may baptize a child, and for an adult with no other priest at hand “the baptism of desire would supply”; “Whence is rejected the opinion of those who teach that money can be given for the bending of the will of an avaricious priest” (XII, diss. II, ch. II, n. XIV).
Selling rosaries and medals enriched with indulgences. Prümmer, Noldin and Marc list it as simony of the Church's law (II, n. 564, n. 186, n. 590). Merkelbach: “not simony” if nothing is asked for the blessing, though the indulgences are lost (II, n. 813); so Vermeersch (n. 277); Wouters: the prohibition “is not proved” (n. 626).
A gift that binds a youth to the sacraments. Wouters, with St. Alphonsus, makes it simony if the giver means to bind the other strictly (n. 623), reporting others who deny it even then (n. 623); Noldin reports the dispute (n. 194); Prümmer allows such gifts under a condition but not under a pact strictly so called (II, n. 563). Vermeersch and McHugh-Callan find no simony, the spiritual work not serving the giver (n. 285, n. 2334).

What It Is

Buying or selling what is spiritual: “Therefore by buying or selling a spiritual thing, a man treats God and divine things with irreverence, and consequently commits a sin of irreligion.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 555; Merkelbach II, n. 808; Noldin n. 181; Wouters n. 620; McHugh-Callan n. 2318; Marc n. 584; Vermeersch n. 275; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi What simony is, and of how many ki, n. 1; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
Priceless, not ours, freely given: “Now a spiritual thing is undue matter for buying and selling for three reasons.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 810; Vermeersch n. 278; Bontempi What simony is, and of how many ki, n. 8
The price, of hand, tongue, or service: “The temporal price which is offered in a simoniacal pact was already distinguished by St. Gregory the Great as threefold: a gift from the hand, from the tongue, and from service.”	Prümmer II, n. 555In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 808; Noldin n. 182; McHugh-Callan n. 2319; Marc n. 585; Vermeersch n. 276; Sabetti-Barrett n. 216; Bontempi What simony is, and of how many ki, n. 6
And what is annexed to it: “Something is said to be annexed to a spiritual thing in three ways: antecedently, concomitantly, and consequently.”	Prümmer II, n. 556In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 812; Noldin n. 184; McHugh-Callan n. 2322; Marc n. 585; Sabetti-Barrett n. 216; Bontempi What simony is, and of how many ki, n. 5

What It Is Not

Not a stipend for the minister's support: “For it is received not as a price of goods, but as a payment for their need.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 562; Merkelbach II, n. 814; Noldin n. 198; Wouters n. 623; McHugh-Callan n. 2326; Marc n. 588; Vermeersch n. 280; Sabetti-Barrett n. 217; Bontempi How simony is committed on the par, n. 4; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
Not a free gift or alms, with no pact: “Those who give alms to the poor in order to obtain from them the assistance of their prayers do not give with the intent of buying their prayers”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 3, ad 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 563; Merkelbach II, n. 814; Noldin n. 187; Wouters n. 623; McHugh-Callan n. 2318; Marc n. 588; Vermeersch n. 276; Sabetti-Barrett n. 217
Not spiritual for spiritual: “Therefore it is not simony to give a spiritual thing for a spiritual thing”	Prümmer II, n. 557In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 814; Noldin n. 181; Marc n. 585; McHugh-Callan n. 2332; Bontempi How simony is known on the part of, n. 34
Not a price for extra labor: “Hence, for example, it is lawful to accept something even as a true price for a Mass to be said with special labor”	Prümmer II, n. 562In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 814; Noldin n. 185; Marc n. 588; McHugh-Callan n. 2328; Vermeersch n. 276; Bontempi How simony is known on the part of, n. 13
Not the material sold at its own value: “Yet their material can be sold for the needs of the Church or of the poor provided they first be broken”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 4, ad 2In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 218; Noldin n. 185; Marc n. 585; Bontempi How simony is known on the part of, n. 8
Not buying off an unjust vexation: “But it is lawful to use money as a means of removing unjust opposition, after one has already acquired that right.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 2, ad 5In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 563; Merkelbach II, n. 814; Noldin n. 200; Marc n. 588; Sabetti-Barrett n. 218; McHugh-Callan n. 2331; Wouters n. 624
Not ransoming holy things from profanation: “To give money to an impious man detaining sacred relics or other sacred things in order to redeem them is not simony”	Noldin n. 194In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2334; Vermeersch n. 282
Not favoring kin, though that is sin: “The bestowal of a spiritual thing gratis on a person by reason of kinship or of any carnal affection is unlawful and carnal, but not simoniacal”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 5, ad 2In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 189; McHugh-Callan n. 2333; Marc n. 588; Bontempi How simony is committed on the par, n. 7
Not teaching theology for pay: “He that is possessed of science, without having taken upon himself the obligation of using it for the benefit of others can lawfully receive a price for his learning or advice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 3, ad 3In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 197; McHugh-Callan n. 2331; Marc n. 589; Vermeersch n. 276; Bontempi How simony is known on the part of, n. 3

Its Kinds

Of divine law, and of the Church's law: “Simony of ecclesiastical law is present, not indeed when a spiritual thing is sold for a temporal thing, but when exchanges of ecclesiastical things are made which the Church has gravely prohibited because of the danger of irreverence toward spiritual things”	Prümmer II, n. 558In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 809; Noldin n. 182; Wouters n. 621; McHugh-Callan n. 2323; Marc n. 584; Vermeersch n. 275; Sabetti-Barrett n. 215; Bontempi What simony is, and of how many ki, n. 28
Mental, conventional, real, confidential: “In God's sight the mere will makes a man guilty of simony”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 6, ad 6In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 559; Merkelbach II, n. 809; Noldin n. 182; McHugh-Callan n. 2323; Marc n. 584; Vermeersch n. 275; Sabetti-Barrett n. 216; Bontempi What simony is, and of how many ki, n. 25
Money for the sacraments: “to receive money for the spiritual grace of the sacraments, is the sin of simony, which cannot be excused by any custom whatever”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 558; Noldin n. 182; Marc n. 589; McHugh-Callan n. 2330; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
Buying an office of the Church: “He commits simony who gives or receives something for obtaining in any way some ecclesiastical benefice.”	Noldin n. 189In nearly the same words: Wouters n. 624; Bontempi How simony is known on the part of, n. 23; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
Buying off a rival: “It would be simoniacal to buy off the opposition”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 2, ad 5In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 563; Noldin n. 189; McHugh-Callan n. 2331; Marc n. 588; Sabetti-Barrett n. 218
Charging more for the blessing: “It is simony to sell more dearly a temporal thing antecedently annexed to a spiritual thing”	Marc n. 589In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 562; Merkelbach II, n. 812; Noldin n. 185; Wouters n. 624; McHugh-Callan n. 2328; Sabetti-Barrett n. 218; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD
A price for entering religion: “It is unlawful to exact or receive anything as price for entering a monastery”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 3, ad 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 564; Noldin n. 199; McHugh-Callan n. 2331; Vermeersch n. 282
Selling spiritual instruction: “If, on the other hand, he be so bound by virtue of his office, this would amount to a sale of the truth”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 3, ad 3In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 197; McHugh-Callan n. 2331; Vermeersch n. 276; Marc n. 589
Paying for spiritual power withheld: “If the omission of the spiritual act involves at the same time the exercise of spiritual power, it is simony.”	Noldin n. 195In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2331; Marc n. 589
Of the Church's law, gifts at the parish examination: “To give or accept something, even the least thing voluntarily offered, on the occasion of an examination for obtaining a parochial benefice in the so-called parochial competition.”	Prümmer II, n. 564In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 813; Noldin n. 186; Marc n. 590; McHugh-Callan n. 2329
Of the Church's law, trading in Mass stipends: “Every species of business or trade concerning Mass alms is prohibited.”	Prümmer II, n. 564In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 813; Noldin n. 186; Wouters n. 625; Vermeersch n. 277

Its Gravity

Of divine law, mortal in every matter: “for a spiritual thing, however small, is by that very fact despised with the greatest injury to God, that it is equated with a temporal thing”	Noldin n. 183In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 560; Merkelbach II, n. 811; Wouters n. 622; McHugh-Callan n. 2335; Marc n. 587; Vermeersch n. 278; Sabetti-Barrett n. 217; Bontempi What simony is, and of how many ki, n. 7
The smaller the price, the worse: “for the less is given for a spiritual thing, the more the spiritual thing is cheapened, whence the vileness of the price offered for it more increases the malice”	Merkelbach II, n. 811
Of the Church's law, light matter admitted: “simony of ecclesiastical law alone is a mortal sin from its genus”	Prümmer II, n. 560In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 811; Noldin n. 183; Wouters n. 622; McHugh-Callan n. 2335; Marc n. 587; Vermeersch n. 278; Sabetti-Barrett n. 217
Both of one species: “Simony of divine law and of ecclesiastical law are sins of the same species, since even simony of ecclesiastical law is a sin against religion and therefore has the nature of true simony”	Noldin n. 183In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 560; Marc n. 587; McHugh-Callan n. 2336; Vermeersch n. 278
Most grave among sins against religion: “Simony is a most grave sin among the sins opposed to religion.”	Marc n. 586In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2335; Sabetti-Barrett n. 217
Its penalties, the bargain void: “By ecclesiastical law every simoniacal contract is null.”	Merkelbach II, n. 815In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 565; McHugh-Callan n. 2337; Vermeersch n. 284; Bontempi On the penalties of simoniacs, n. 4; Prümmer II, n. 566; Spirago THE SECOND COMMANDMENT OF GOD

Its Remedies

The authors give the Lord's rule of giving freely, and shunning even the appearance of simony or avarice; the minister's part, keeping money far from the confessional, not refusing the sacraments to those who do not pay, and teaching the faithful what offerings are for; the rules for weighing gifts; and restitution of price and office, or repentance where the will alone sinned. They are set under those heads.

Freely give
Giving freely what was freely received: “for the Divine goodness wills that what we have received freely, we should likewise give freely”	Bontempi On Simony, n. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 810; Vermeersch n. 280
Freely give
Shunning even the appearance: “one must beware of anything having an appearance of simony or avarice”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 2, ad 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 567; Noldin n. 198; Vermeersch n. 276
The minister's part
No money near the confessional: “Especially let any receipt of money be far removed from the sacrament of penance.”	Prümmer II, n. 567In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 218
The minister's part
Not refusing the sacraments to those who do not pay: “nevertheless let the priest not refuse the administration of these sacraments if perhaps someone refuses to make offerings of this kind”	Prümmer II, n. 567In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 198; McHugh-Callan n. 2333
The minister's part
Teaching the faithful what offerings are for: “Moreover, let pastors admonish the faithful that offerings made at burials and rates imposed in certain matrimonial dispensations serve for the suitable and by no means superfluous support of the ministers of the Church”	Prümmer II, n. 567
Discerning gifts
Weighing gifts by giver, size, and time: “Alexander III established this rule”	Prümmer II, n. 563In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 814; Noldin n. 187; McHugh-Callan n. 2327
Restoring
Giving back the price and the office: “Wherefore whosoever acquires spiritual things in return for a remuneration cannot lawfully retain them.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 6In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 565; Merkelbach II, n. 815; Noldin n. 191; Wouters n. 627; McHugh-Callan n. 2343; Marc n. 592; Bontempi On the penalties of simoniacs, n. 19
Restoring
Repenting of the will alone: “but is bound to repent of his evil intention”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 6, ad 6

Where It Comes From

Simon's wish to buy and sell: “Simon the magician wished to buy a spiritual power in order that afterwards he might sell it.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 100, a. 1, ad 4
From avarice in the ministry: “Some there are who embrace this state to secure the necessaries of life, and who, consequently, seek in the priesthood, just as other men do in the lowest walks of life, nothing more or less than gain.”	Roman Catechism The Sacrament of Holy OrdersIn nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 567; Sabetti-Barrett n. 218

Disobedience

How the Authors Compare

The superior's wish, known but not commanded. St. Thomas: “the superior's will, however it become known, is a tacit precept” (II-II, q. 104, a. 2). Prümmer reports Cajetan and Lehmkuhl counting its fulfilment true obedience, Lessius and Billuart not, and calls the question “of little importance” (II, n. 575); yet whoever leaves such a wish undone “does not commit a sin of disobedience” (II, n. 575). Merkelbach: it “does not pertain to obedience strictly so called” (II, n. 839); so Wouters (n. 400). Noldin reports Lessius against Lehmkuhl (n. 280); Marc admits it to obedience taken “a little more broadly” (n. 690); McHugh-Callan: on the first opinion the omission “is disobedience”, on the second only a want of its spirit (n. 2355). St. Alphonsus, for religious: “a truly obedient man never waits for a command” (True Spouse, ch. VII).
What makes disobedience a special sin. With St. Thomas, Prümmer, Merkelbach, Noldin, McHugh-Callan and Bontempi place it in contempt, the command broken in order not to submit (II-II, q. 105, a. 1, ad 1, n. 2367). Marc, with Lessius, places it in the breaking of a true precept of a superior (n. 690), contempt making it mortal. Wouters: only when the precept itself was given from the motive of obedience, “which often does not occur” (n. 400).
Light matter. St. Thomas: disobedience to a superior's command “is a mortal sin”, venial sin being beside a precept rather than against it (II-II, q. 105, a. 1, ad 1); Noldin: formal disobedience “is always a grave sin” (n. 280). Prümmer: contempt of the person is mortal “although it concerns matter light in itself” (II, n. 579), but contempt of one command “admits slightness of matter” (II, n. 579); Merkelbach: venial “from imperfection of contempt” in light matter (II, n. 844); McHugh-Callan likewise (n. 2369), adding that contempt of a divine precept is grave even in small things, “perhaps” (n. 2369).

What It Is

Transgressing a command in contempt of it: “Nor again is every mortal sin disobedience, properly and essentially, but only when one contemns a precept”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 579; Merkelbach II, n. 844; Noldin n. 280; McHugh-Callan n. 2367; Bontempi On disobedience, n. 1
Material disobedience, in every sin: “it is not a sin of disobedience except materially, and belongs formally to another species of sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 575; Merkelbach II, n. 844; Noldin n. 280; McHugh-Callan n. 2367; Marc n. 690; Bontempi What obedience is, and what kind o, n. 2

What It Is Not

Not breaking a command from passion, nor thinking little of the man: “For if someone transgresses a command because of anger, concupiscence, or another disordered passion, he sins neither from contempt nor from formal disobedience.”	Prümmer II, n. 579In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 845; McHugh-Callan n. 2368
Not failing in the impossible, or beyond the superior's power: “No one is bound to do the impossible”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2366; Merkelbach II, n. 842; Prümmer II, n. 578; Bontempi What obedience is, and what kind o, n. 14
Not a ground for refusing, a doubt whether the thing is lawful: “But if the doubt persists, the subject is bound to obey, because the presumption stands for the superior”	Prümmer II, n. 578In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 842; Marc n. 693; McHugh-Callan n. 2361
Not refusing what is sinful: “It is not disobedience to refuse to do what is evidently illicit”	McHugh-Callan n. 2366In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 578; Merkelbach II, n. 842; Bontempi What obedience is, and what kind o, n. 14; Marc n. 692

Its Kinds

Contempt of the command, or of the one commanding: “Formal contempt of a (particular) command is called imperfect, but contempt of the one commanding is called perfect formal contempt”	Prümmer II, n. 579In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2367; Merkelbach II, n. 844; Bontempi On disobedience, n. 1
In every command, or in one: “If contempt moves one to rebel against every command, it is perfect; if it extends to only one or another matter, it is imperfect.”	McHugh-Callan n. 2367In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 579
Two sins, when the command serves another virtue: “In formal disobedience, if the command belongs to some special virtue, there are two sins”	McHugh-Callan n. 2370In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 280
By excess, servile obedience: “by excess, servility or indiscreet obedience, which complies even in unlawful things”	Prümmer II, n. 579In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 843; McHugh-Callan n. 2365; Bontempi What obedience is, and what kind o, n. 4

Its Gravity

Mortal in its kind, against charity: “Wherefore also disobedience to the commands of a superior is a mortal sin, as being contrary to the love of God”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 579; Merkelbach II, n. 844; Noldin n. 280; McHugh-Callan n. 2369; Bontempi On disobedience, n. 4; Marc n. 690
Graver as the one commanding is higher, and the thing more willed: “Consequently the higher the person who commands, the more grievous is it to disobey him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 844; Prümmer II, n. 579; McHugh-Callan n. 2371; Bontempi On disobedience, n. 5
Not the gravest: contempt of the one commanding is worse: “Contempt of the commander is a more grievous sin than contempt of his command.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 844; McHugh-Callan n. 2372; Bontempi On disobedience, n. 2
It robs good works of merit: “Disobedience deprives us of all merit.”	Spirago DISOBEDIENCE

Its Remedies

The degrees are St. Alphonsus's, who sets four in perfect obedience: promptness, exactness, cheerfulness and simplicity (True Spouse, ch. VII). Prümmer and McHugh-Callan give the ascetical authors' three: the work done, the will submitted, the judgment submitted (II, n. 575, n. 2357). The counsels for the disobedient child are Merkelbach's in the Pastoral Questions; the superior's part is St. Thomas's.

The degrees of perfect obedience
Promptly: “The first degree, then, is to obey with promptness, executing immediately and without reply every injunction imposed by obedience.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VIIIn nearly the same words: Spirago OBEDIENCE
The degrees of perfect obedience
Exactly, without interpreting the command away: “The second degree of obedience is to obey with exactness; that is, with punctuality, and without interpretation.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VII
The degrees of perfect obedience
Cheerfully: “The third degree of obedience is to obey with joy.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VIIIn nearly the same words: Spirago OBEDIENCE
The degrees of perfect obedience
Simply, the judgment submitted: “The fourth and last degree of perfect obedience is to obey with simplicity.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. VIIIn nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 575; McHugh-Callan n. 2357
The degrees of perfect obedience
Yielding to equals: “to comply willingly with the wishes of thy equals, and thus thou wilt learn to fulfil cheerfully the commands of thy superiors”	Spirago OBEDIENCE
For the disobedient child
Remembering the parents' benefits and God's command: “If a child accuses himself of disobedience, let him be admonished to remember the greater benefits of parents, and the command of God requiring obedience”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
For the disobedient child
Asking pardon at home: “let him be admonished, on returning home, to ask pardon and promise amendment”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
For the disobedient child
Where the father is unfit, silence, counsel and prayer: “that when the father is drunk or angry he should be silent”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. II
The superior's part
Superiors not heaping up commands: “Wherefore superiors should refrain from making a multitude of precepts.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 1, ad 3

A daughter of Vainglory, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Disobedience is among the daughters of vainglory.

From vainglory: “it follows that disobedience arises from vainglory”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 132, a. 5; Merkelbach I, n. 502; Prümmer n. 414; Wouters n. 303; Marc n. 361; Bontempi On the vices opposed to magnanimit, n. 8
From pride: “The first sin of our first parent, from which sin was transmitted to a men, was not disobedience considered as a special sin, but pride, from which then man proceeded to disobey.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 105, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Bontempi On the vices opposed to magnanimit, n. 16

Ingratitude

How the Authors Compare

“Material” ingratitude means two things. Prümmer: the omission of due gratitude without contempt, ordinarily venial, under which he sets not repaying, concealing and not acknowledging the benefit (II, n. 609). Merkelbach: anything omitted or done against a benefactor without contempt, “not a special sin” but a circumstance of another (II, n. 878); McHugh-Callan: “any injury done a benefactor without contempt”, an aggravating circumstance (n. 2377, n. 2378), while the culpable neglect of thanks he counts formal (n. 2377). St. Thomas sets out the grades of omission and of contrary deed without these words (II-II, q. 107, a. 2).
How grave formal ingratitude is. Merkelbach: “of itself and ordinarily mortal”, as formal disobedience is (II, n. 878); McHugh-Callan: “from its nature seems to be a mortal sin” (n. 2379). Prümmer: it “can be a mortal sin if this contempt gravely offends the benefactor” (II, n. 609); Bontempi: “sometimes mortal; sometimes venial” (On ingratitude, n. 1); St. Thomas weighs the omission venial in itself, mortal from contempt or the benefactor's need (II-II, q. 107, a. 3).
Thanks owed to God: gratitude or religion. Prümmer, with St. Thomas, reduces it to religion (II, n. 605); Merkelbach calls religion, piety and observance “eminent gratitude” (II, n. 875), and ingratitude toward God a general circumstance of every sin (II, n. 878); McHugh-Callan counts it gratitude only in a wide sense (n. 2374). Bontempi follows St. Bonaventure, who assigns gratitude toward God: religion commands its acts, but “Religion is not formally gratitude” (On gratitude, n. 3). Spirago puts gratitude to God first (XII. THE DUTY OF GRATITUDE).

What It Is

Contempt of the benefit or the benefactor: “formal, when the benefit or the mind of the benefactor is contemned”	Merkelbach II, n. 878In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 609; McHugh-Callan n. 2377; Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 2; Wouters n. 406
A special sin against gratitude: “Wherefore it is evident that every ingratitude is a sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 1In nearly the same words: Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 1; McHugh-Callan n. 2378

What It Is Not

Not owed for help to sin: “and he that helps another to commit a sin does him not a favor but an injury: and so no thanks are due to him”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 605; Merkelbach II, n. 877; McHugh-Callan n. 2373
Not owed for what was owed in justice: “Finally, no thanks are due for what was owed in justice (e.g., wages for work performed), though courtesy demands a pleasant response to every good one receives, even when it is not a favor.”	McHugh-Callan n. 2373In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 605; Merkelbach II, n. 876
Not the one who cannot repay, or does not know: “He that is unaware of a favor conferred on him is not ungrateful, if he fails to repay it, provided he be prepared to do so if he knew.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 3, ad 4In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 4; Bontempi On gratitude, n. 5; Prümmer II, n. 605; Merkelbach II, n. 879; McHugh-Callan n. 2376
Not waiting to repay at the fitting time: “For if at once some gift is rendered for a gift, it does not seem to be virtuous recompense but unwilling.”	Merkelbach II, n. 876In nearly the same words: Bontempi On gratitude, n. 6; McHugh-Callan n. 2376

Its Kinds

By omission, three grades: “hence the first is that a man not repay benefits; the second, that he dissimulate, not giving thanks nor showing that he has received benefits; the third and gravest is that he not acknowledge it”	Merkelbach II, n. 879In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 2; Prümmer II, n. 609; Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 3; McHugh-Callan n. 2377
By contrary deed, three grades: “the first, that someone repay evils for goods; the second, that he disparage benefits; the third, that he reckon a benefit as though it were a wrong”	Merkelbach II, n. 879In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 609; Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 3; McHugh-Callan n. 2377
By excess, misplaced thanks: “one by excess, namely, recompense of a benefit made either for those things for which it ought not or sooner than it ought”	Merkelbach II, n. 878In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2377; Marc n. 404

Its Gravity

By omission, of itself venial: “It is nevertheless a venial sin, because it arises either from some kind of negligence or from some disinclination to virtue in him.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 878; Prümmer II, n. 609; Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 4
Mortal from contempt, or the benefactor's need: “And yet ingratitude of this kind may happen to be a mortal sin, by reason either of inward contempt, or of the kind of thing withheld, this being needful to the benefactor”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 878; Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 4; Prümmer II, n. 609; McHugh-Callan n. 2379
By deed, as grave as the deed: “This again is sometimes mortal and sometimes a venial sin, according to the kind of thing that is done.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 878; McHugh-Callan n. 2379
It chills charity and stops grace: “For by ingratitude charity toward God and men grows cold, social life is weakened, egoism is fostered, etc.”	Prümmer II, n. 609In nearly the same words: Spirago XII. THE DUTY OF GRATITUDE; Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 6

Its Remedies

The authors give two parts: the ungrateful man's, learning thanks (Prümmer on the training of children, Spirago's daily practice), and the benefactor's, which is St. Thomas's article on whether favors should be withheld from the ungrateful, followed by Bontempi and McHugh-Callan. They are set under those heads.

Learning thanks
Children taught to give thanks: “For these reasons, in the education of children it must be strongly insisted that they always acknowledge benefits received and not omit to render the thanks owed.”	Prümmer II, n. 607
Learning thanks
Thanking God often: “It is the will of God that we should in all things give thanks”	Spirago XII. THE DUTY OF GRATITUDEIn nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 607
Learning thanks
Thanks for small gifts, and at once: “However trifling the gift may be, show yourself thankful for it.”	Spirago XII. THE DUTY OF GRATITUDEIn nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 608
The benefactor's part
Not judging ingratitude easily: “For in the first place he should not easily judge him to be ungrateful”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 4In nearly the same words: Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 7
The benefactor's part
Healing it with further kindness: “He that bestows a favor must not at once act the part of a punisher of ingratitude, but rather that of a kindly physician, by healing the ingratitude with repeated favors.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 4, ad 3In nearly the same words: Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 7; McHugh-Callan n. 2380
The benefactor's part
Ceasing when kindness makes him worse: “If, however, the more he repeats his favors, the more ungrateful and evil the other becomes, he should cease from bestowing his favors upon him.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 107, a. 4In nearly the same words: Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 7; McHugh-Callan n. 2380

Where It Comes From

From cupidity, taking benefits as a right: “And cupidity has no greater evil than that it is ungrateful.”	Bontempi On ingratitude, n. 8In nearly the same words: Spirago XII. THE DUTY OF GRATITUDE
From thinking the benefit small: “for if someone esteems the benefit received as of little account, he cannot be imbued with true gratitude”	Prümmer II, n. 608

Vengeance Without Measure

How the Authors Compare

A private man punishing. Prümmer: punishment belongs to public authority, but for lesser punishments permission may be presumed, so that “it does not appear unlawful to give a light slap to a boy who has inflicted some injury” (II, n. 610); McHugh-Callan lets private persons use moderately “such punishments as are not forbidden to private persons”, as the denial of friendship (n. 2381). Wouters: the execution itself “is dishonorable for a private man” (n. 408); Merkelbach: private persons “cannot exercise vengeance by themselves” (II, n. 882); Bontempi: vengeance properly so called is done only by one having power, “which only a superior is” (On vindication, n. 4). Merkelbach's Pastoral counts it anger, venial in light matter, when one so avenges himself as to pull a boy a little by the ear (Pastoral, Q. VII).
Whether to seek punishment for one's own injury. Prümmer: “rarely expedient”, self-love or hatred often lying beneath (II, n. 610); McHugh-Callan: one should be willing to forgo it when the wrong is merely personal (n. 2382); Wouters: forgiving is often more perfect, “but not always” (n. 409). Merkelbach: private persons “ought nevertheless to desire it” from an honorable end (II, n. 882), being bound only by a moral debt (II, n. 882). St. Thomas: a duty where the wrong reflects on God and the Church; otherwise to be borne, if that is expedient (II-II, q. 108, a. 1, ad 4).

What It Is

Willing the other's evil for its own sake: “For if his intention is directed chiefly to the evil of the person on whom he takes vengeance and rests there, then his vengeance is altogether unlawful”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 108, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 881; Prümmer II, n. 610; McHugh-Callan n. 2381; Bontempi On vindication, n. 3; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VII
Taking it by one's own authority: “If, however, a man takes vengeance outside the order of divine appointment, he usurps what is God's and therefore sins.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 108, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Bontempi On vindication, n. 4; Merkelbach II, n. 881; McHugh-Callan n. 2381; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VII; Spirago OUR DUTY IN REGARD TO THE LIFE OF OUR NEIGHB

What It Is Not

Not seeking punishment for a good end: “If, however, the avenger's intention be directed chiefly to some good, to be obtained by means of the punishment of the person who has sinned”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 108, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 881; Prümmer II, n. 610; McHugh-Callan n. 2381; Bontempi On vindication, n. 3
Not avenging a wrong to God and the Church, which is a duty: “Sometimes a wrong done to a person reflects on God and the Church: and then it is the duty of that person to avenge the wrong.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 108, a. 1, ad 4In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2382; Wouters n. 409
Not defending oneself: “Self-defence is not wrong, because our object is not to take another man's life, but simply to preserve our own”	Spirago OUR DUTY IN REGARD TO THE LIFE OF OUR NEIGHBIn nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 610; Merkelbach II, n. 882; McHugh-Callan n. 2381
Not the punishments of lawful authority: “Now the punishments inflicted by the civil authority, which is the legitimate avenger of crime, naturally tend to this end”	Roman Catechism The Fifth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 108, a. 1, ad 1; Spirago OUR DUTY IN REGARD TO THE LIFE OF OUR NEIGHB

Its Kinds

By excess, cruelty: “one by way of excess, namely, the sin of cruelty or brutality, which exceeds the measure in punishing”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 108, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 611; Merkelbach II, n. 883; Wouters n. 409; McHugh-Callan n. 2383; Marc n. 404
By defect, remissness: “the other is a vice by way of deficiency and consists in being remiss in punishing”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 108, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 611; Merkelbach II, n. 883; Wouters n. 409; McHugh-Callan n. 2383; Marc n. 404
Beyond what the fault deserves: “lest the punishment exceed the fault”	Bontempi On vindication, n. 5In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 881; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VII

Its Gravity

Mortal in its kind, venial in slight matter: “This anger from its genus is mortal, because it is contrary to charity and justice”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VIIIn nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2381; Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
Unlawful where the innocent would suffer: “Accidentally, however, on account of greater evils, vengeance is sometimes unlawful, as when it would involve the innocent with the guilty”	McHugh-Callan n. 2382In nearly the same words: Bontempi On vindication, n. 7

Its Remedies

The Roman Catechism sets out three considerations for persuading men to forgive (what we suffer comes from God, with St. Chrysostom's that no one is harmed but by himself; the advantages of forgiving; the disadvantages of revenge), then the remedies of Scripture, the example of Christ first (Roman Catechism). Its arrangement is kept; Spirago and the manuals are joined where they say the same.

The Catechism's considerations
All we suffer comes from God: “First, he who thinks himself injured ought above all to be persuaded that the man on whom he desires to be revenged was not the principal cause of the loss or injury.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
The Catechism's considerations
No one is harmed but by himself: “It is that no man is injured but by himself.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
The Catechism's considerations
What forgiving wins: “The second consideration is that there are two advantages, which are the special rewards of those, who, influenced by a holy desire to please God, freely forgive injuries.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
The Catechism's considerations
What revenge costs: “Finally, the disadvantages which arise from the refusal to pardon others are to be explained.”	Roman Catechism The Fifth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
Remedies from Scripture
The example of Christ: “Of these remedies the first and greatest is the example of the Redeemer”	Roman Catechism The Fifth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMY
Remedies from Scripture
Remembering death and judgment: “Another remedy, prescribed by Ecclesiasticus, is to call to mind death and judgment”	Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment
Remedies from Scripture
Leaving it to God and the courts: “Vengeance belongs to God, not to us”	Spirago VIII. THE COMMANDMENT TO LOVE OUR ENEMYIn nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2381; Spirago OUR DUTY IN REGARD TO THE LIFE OF OUR NEIGHB
Remedies from Scripture
Forgiving one's own wrong, the more perfect way: “Hence vindication is customarily called a little virtue, and it is advised rather to forgive the offenses of one's neighbor than to punish them”	Prümmer II, n. 610In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2382; Wouters n. 409

Where It Comes From

From anger: “Anger is the inordinate appetite for vengeance.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. VII
From hatred: “Hatred suggests revenge.”	Spirago OUR DUTY IN REGARD TO THE LIFE OF OUR NEIGHBIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Fifth Commandment

Lying

How the Authors Compare

The intention to deceive. St. Thomas: it “does not belong to the species of lying, but to perfection” (II-II, q. 110, a. 1); so Wouters and Sabetti-Barrett, who do not require it (n. 1062, n. 310). Prümmer, after the Thomists against the Scotists, holds an implicit intention of deceiving to belong to its essence (II, n. 166); Merkelbach: “implicitly included” (II, n. 857); Noldin: “virtually and implicitly” (n. 636). Marc writes it into the definition (n. 1177), as Bontempi does with St. Augustine and St. Bonaventure, for whom it is the lie's formal part (What a lie is, n. 4). Vermeersch asks instead for formal speech: that one “reasonably be judged to will to communicate” his mind (n. 703).
Saying what is true while thinking it false. St. Thomas and the manuals call it a lie (II-II, q. 110, a. 1, II, n. 166). Bontempi follows St. Bonaventure, who “holds that falsity is also required for a lie”: such a man is lying, but tells a lie only in a qualified sense (What a lie is, n. 5, What a lie is, n. 11).
A false statement to guard a secret. Vermeersch: against an unjust aggression, when no other resource remains, one may “defend your silence or secret by a false statement”, the words being chosen only as defense, by double effect, as in killing an aggressor (n. 705, n. 705); he cites Genicot-Salsmans that all admit the answer needed to keep a secret, and “They differ only in explanation” (n. 705). Merkelbach names him and rejects the comparison: a lie is against the very essence of speech, and so illicit “even for just defense” (II, n. 862). Wouters answers the double-effect argument: if a secret cannot be kept without a lie, “the obligation of hiding ceases” (n. 1064). Prümmer and Noldin reject the “psychological lie” or false-speaking that some admit, Prümmer finding it largely “a dispute about words” (II, n. 169, n. 638); Marc: those who define a lie by the hearer's right “stand apart from the common opinion” (n. 1177); Sabetti-Barrett: “They certainly err who place the malice of a lie” in the hearer's right (n. 313). Concina keeps to St. Augustine, who knew two remedies only, silence, and an open refusal, “I will neither betray, nor will I lie”: “No other way of concealing truth did Augustine recognize — not internal restrictions, not material locutions, not amphibologies of words, not other inventions of more recent authors” (Theol. V, diss. III, ch. V, n. III).
The accused who denies his crime. Vermeersch: in the secular forum the accused who denies guilt, or tells a devised “system” of defense, is not judged to open his mind, but uses “as it were, a military stratagem” (n. 705). Prümmer: he “lies if without mental restriction he denies the crime committed” (II, n. 166); Wouters gives the same case of an accused before an eyewitness judge (n. 1062). Merkelbach and Marc allow him a restricted denial only when he is questioned by one to whom he is not bound to confess, or not legitimately (II, n. 871, n. 1183). The Roman Catechism: the guilty, judicially interrogated, must confess the truth (The Eighth Commandment).
Lying to save chastity. St. Thomas: it is not lawful to lie “to deliver another from any danger whatever” (II-II, q. 110, a. 3, ad 4); Spirago: not even to save one's life (What are the Reasons that should make us Ref). Bontempi reports St. Bonaventure: one who can expect not to consent should rather suffer violence than lie, but the imperfect who fears to yield may choose “the lesser evil, that of lying”, and this also to redeem another's (Whether among the degrees of lying, n. 17); elsewhere, with St. Bonaventure, he answers the soldier who saved a virgin that charity does not move to a lie (Whether every lie is intrinsically, n. 34).

What It Is

Speech against the mind: “the essential notion of a lie is taken from formal falsehood, from the fact namely, that a person intends to say what is false”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 166; Merkelbach II, n. 857; Noldin n. 636; Wouters n. 1062; Vermeersch n. 703; Marc n. 1177; McHugh-Callan n. 2389; Sabetti-Barrett n. 310; Bontempi What a lie is, n. 3
By any sign, not words only: “Wherefore if a person intended to signify something false by means of signs, he would not be excused from lying.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 166; Merkelbach II, n. 857; Noldin n. 636; Wouters n. 1062; McHugh-Callan n. 2389
Saying the truth one thinks false: “On the contrary, he who affirms what is true, which he thinks false, does not indeed err, but lies.”	Prümmer II, n. 166In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 857; Noldin n. 636; Wouters n. 1062; Marc n. 1177; McHugh-Callan n. 2385

What It Is Not

Not saying what is false in good faith: “Consequently if one says what is false, thinking it to be true, it is false materially, but not formally”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 166; Merkelbach II, n. 857; Noldin n. 636; Wouters n. 1062; Marc n. 1177
Not jests plainly false, figures, and forms of courtesy: “Thus modern authors deservedly teach that there is no lie a) if someone openly says false things from jest”	Prümmer II, n. 166In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 869; Noldin n. 637; Wouters n. 1062; McHugh-Callan n. 2390; Vermeersch n. 705; Sabetti-Barrett n. 313; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 12; Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref
Not keeping the truth back: “Nevertheless it is lawful to hide the truth prudently, by keeping it back”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 3, ad 4In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 639; Wouters n. 1065; Merkelbach II, n. 860; Prümmer II, n. 165; Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref
Not mortal for the perfect merely as perfect: “Some say that for the perfect every lie is a mortal sin. But this assertion is unreasonable.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 4, ad 5In nearly the same words: Bontempi Whether every lie is mortal for pe, n. 2

Its Kinds

Pernicious, officious, jocose: “Now the sin of lying is aggravated, if by lying a person intends to injure another, and this is called a "mischievous" lie”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 167; Merkelbach II, n. 859; Noldin n. 637; Wouters n. 1063; McHugh-Callan n. 2392; Marc n. 1177; Vermeersch n. 703; Sabetti-Barrett n. 310; Bontempi Of how many kinds is a lie, n. 1
St. Augustine's eight kinds: “and in this way the division comprises eight kinds”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 2In nearly the same words: Bontempi Of how many kinds is a lie, n. 4
By excess, boasting; by defect, irony: “namely, the lie which goes beyond the truth, and this belongs to "boasting," and the lie which stops short of the truth, and this belongs to "irony."”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 167; Merkelbach II, n. 864; McHugh-Callan n. 2391; Bontempi What a lie is, n. 1
In deeds, simulation: “Consequently dissimulation is properly a lie told by the signs of outward deeds.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 857; Prümmer II, n. 168; Noldin n. 637; Wouters n. 403; Vermeersch n. 693; Sabetti-Barrett n. 310; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment

Its Gravity

Every lie a sin, never lawful: “Therefore every lie is a sin, as also Augustine declares”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 3In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 169; Merkelbach II, n. 858; Noldin n. 638; Wouters n. 1064; McHugh-Callan n. 2395; Marc n. 1178; Vermeersch n. 703; Sabetti-Barrett n. 312; Bontempi Whether every lie is intrinsically, n. 4; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref
Officious and jocose, venial in themselves: “Wherefore a lie of this kind, considered in itself, is not a mortal sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 4In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 170; Merkelbach II, n. 859; Noldin n. 638; Wouters n. 1064; McHugh-Callan n. 2395; Marc n. 1178; Vermeersch n. 703; Sabetti-Barrett n. 312; Bontempi Whether a lie is mortal of its kin, n. 1; Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref
Pernicious, mortal in kind: “Pernicious lies are mortal sins from their nature, but may become venial from the imperfection of the act or the lightness of the matter.”	McHugh-Callan n. 2397In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 4; Prümmer II, n. 170; Merkelbach II, n. 859; Wouters n. 1064; Marc n. 1178; Noldin n. 638; Sabetti-Barrett n. 312; Bontempi Whether a lie is mortal of its kin, n. 19
About religion, the gravest: “thus a lie about a matter of religious doctrine is most grievous”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 113, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 859; McHugh-Callan n. 2394; Bontempi Whether among the degrees of lying, n. 1; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The officious lighter than the jocose: “the first is lighter than the second, and the second than the third”	Merkelbach II, n. 859In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2394; Bontempi Whether among the degrees of lying, n. 11; Prümmer II, n. 170
Mortal from scandal in a public person: “He indeed asserts that a lie can be mortal by reason of the public person”	Bontempi Whether every lie is mortal for pe, n. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 170
Small lies breed great ones: “This practice begets a strong tendency to frequent and serious lying, and from jocose lying men contract the habit of lying”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXX; Noldin n. 638; McHugh-Callan n. 2395

Its Remedies

The Roman Catechism arranges them: the inducements to truthfulness (the baseness of lying, God's hatred of it, its near incurability, its harm to society), the way to avoid it (shunning much talk), and the excuses for lying, each answered (Roman Catechism). Deshon's Guide answers the excuses in its own way, as the devil's pretexts (Guide, ch. LXXII); Spirago and Deshon add the example of Christ and the saints. The confessor's part is Merkelbach's, Noldin's and Vermeersch's.

What should move us to truthfulness
Its baseness: “the pastor should place before them the extreme lowness and disgrace of this sin”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref; Deshon Guide, ch. LXXI
What should move us to truthfulness
How God hates it: “In the first place, he should show how grievously lies and deceit offend God and how deeply they are hated by God.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref; Deshon Guide, ch. LXXI
What should move us to truthfulness
Its near incurability: “Lying is also attended with this very great evil that it is an almost incurable disease.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
What should move us to truthfulness
The harm to society: “By duplicity and lying, good faith and truth, which form the closest links of human society, are dissolved”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Noldin n. 638
What should move us to truthfulness
The lover of truth is like Christ: “Therefore the lover of truth is like unto Him.”	Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us RefIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXX
What should move us to truthfulness
The example of the saints: “He was willing to lay down his life rather than tell what many folks would be ready to call a small lie.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LXXIIn nearly the same words: Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref; Deshon Guide, ch. LXXIII
How to avoid it
Avoiding much talk: “The pastor should also teach that loquacity is to be avoided.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The excuses answered
Against habit, the contrary habit: “Those who excuse themselves by habit are to be admonished to endeavor to acquire the contrary habit of speaking the truth”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXX
The excuses answered
Against frailty, prayer: “Those who plead human frailty are to be taught that it is a duty of religion to implore the divine assistance”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The excuses answered
Against inconvenience, bearing it: “it is the duty of a Christian to suffer any inconvenience rather than utter a falsehood”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXXII; Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref
The excuses answered
Against “he lied first”: “Those who lay the blame of their own falsehood on others, who first deceived them by lies, are to be taught the unlawfulness of avenging their own wrongs”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The excuses answered
Against bad example: “Such persons should be undeceived by reminding them that bad men are not to be imitated, but reproved and corrected”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The excuses answered
Against the plea of prudence: “The pastor should correct such erroneous ideas by answering what is most true, namely, that the wisdom of the flesh is death.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The excuses answered
Against screening others: “Another troop of lies arises from a desire to screen others.”	Deshon Guide, ch. LXXIIIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXXII
The confessor's part
Penitents who think they had to lie: “let him simply tell them that such things are not lies, but licit responses which can be given on account of necessity”	Merkelbach II, n. 862In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 640
The confessor's part
Restoring sincerity, from childhood: “Zeal for simple sincerity must be restored by words and examples.”	Vermeersch n. 705In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 706

A daughter of Covetousness, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

From the father of lies: “In the Sacred Scriptures the devil is called the father of lies”	Roman Catechism The Eighth CommandmentIn nearly the same words: Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref; Deshon Guide, ch. LXXII; Noldin n. 638
From cowardice, to escape blame: “for lying is a weakness and cowardice, a want of Christian courage”	Deshon Guide, ch. LXXIn nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 169; Deshon Guide, ch. LXXII
From loquacity: “By avoiding loquacity other evils will be obviated, and a great preventive opposed to lying, from which loquacious persons can scarcely abstain.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment

Mental Restriction and Amphibology

How the Authors Compare

A restriction used without a just cause. Merkelbach distinguishes: an amphibology without cause sins against truth but is not a lie (II, n. 861), while a restriction without cause “makes a lie”, since the circumstances then do not indicate it, and sworn is perjury (II, n. 861). Noldin, Prümmer, Sabetti-Barrett and Vermeersch count it a sin, the needless occasion of another's deception, but not a lie (n. 640, II, n. 172, n. 313, n. 705).
Restrictions the older authors allowed. Bontempi, writing in 1676, before Innocent XI condemned the strict restriction in 1679, weighs “mixed speeches”, part of the sense in the voice and part in the mind, as “I will give them to you” meaning “if I owe them” (On the other things that are reduc, n. 14): Soto, Cajetan and Azor call them lies (On the other things that are reduc, n. 15), but “The TRUE opinion” admits them when one is asked unlawfully (On the other things that are reduc, n. 17), and he defends St. Francis, who with his hand in his sleeve said a man “did not pass this way” (On the other things that are reduc, n. 18). Noldin: since the condemnation no theologian allows the purely mental restriction, “even if before this several had not judged it illicit” (n. 640); Prümmer rejects restrictions that “by certain older authors were held lawful” (II, n. 173). Concina sets all these devices against St. Augustine, for whom there was no way of concealing the truth beyond silence and an open refusal, “not internal restrictions, not material locutions, not amphibologies of words” (Theol. V, diss. III, ch. V, n. III), and reports how, after 1679, Cattaneo extended the use of words in a sense of one's own “to the avoidance of any notable inconvenience whatsoever” (Theol. V, diss. III, ch. VII, n. IX).
The customs officer. Merkelbach: one not liable to a duty “can deny that he has merchandise liable” (II, n. 870); so Marc (n. 1183). Noldin allows it of itself, but the officers commonly mean whether anything would be dutiable if found, and “deservedly expect a response without restriction”, especially from clerics (n. 641); Prümmer: for a cleric “in our times it seems illicit” (II, n. 173).
The adulterous wife questioned by her husband. Wouters, with St. Alphonsus, lets her deny it, meaning “in such a way that she must manifest it” (n. 1065); Marc likewise, adding that once she has confessed it sacramentally she may say “I am innocent of this crime” (n. 1183); Merkelbach: “probably” (II, n. 871). Noldin allows the restriction (n. 641), but the old answer meaning “idolatry” he calls purely mental (n. 641). Concina answers Sanchez, Castropalao and Bonacina, who let her deny it even on oath, from St. Augustine's case of the suspected wife made to swear: “Is such a doctrine consonant with Augustine's mind, and teaching, who, in express words, teaches the opposite of the adulteress!” (Theol. V, diss. III, ch. VIII, n. VII).

What It Is

Words narrowed in the mind: “Mental restriction is an act of the mind by which, while we speak, we restrict words to another sense than the obvious one.”	Prümmer II, n. 171In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 639; Merkelbach II, n. 860; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1179; Sabetti-Barrett n. 311
Purely mental, past all perceiving: “If this sense, with attention paid to all the circumstances of the speaker and hearer, in no way appears nor can be understood, it is called a purely mental restriction”	Prümmer II, n. 171In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 860; Noldin n. 639; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1179; Sabetti-Barrett n. 311
Broad, understood from the circumstances: “But if the sense of the words can be understood by a prudent man because of the accompanying circumstances, it is called a broadly mental restriction”	Prümmer II, n. 171In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 860; Noldin n. 639; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1179; Sabetti-Barrett n. 311
Amphibology, words of two senses: “Amphibology is a proposition or phrase having several senses”	Prümmer II, n. 171In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 860; Noldin n. 639; Marc n. 1179; Wouters n. 1065

What It Is Not

Not a lie, the broad restriction for a just cause: “but if necessity or a reasonable cause is present, it is lawful to use a broadly mental restriction”	Prümmer II, n. 172In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 110, a. 3, ad 4; Merkelbach II, n. 860; Noldin n. 640; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1181; Sabetti-Barrett n. 312; Vermeersch n. 705; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 17; Spirago What are the Reasons that should make us Ref
Christ's own example: “For certainly the Son of God knows the day of judgment, but He does not know it so as to manifest it to the Apostles.”	Prümmer II, n. 172In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 860; Noldin n. 639; Marc n. 1181; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 17
Not the customary formulas, “not at home”, “I do not know”: “A servant, by order of the master, can say to a visitor: The master is not at home”	Prümmer II, n. 173In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 869; Noldin n. 641; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1183; Sabetti-Barrett n. 313; Vermeersch n. 704
Not the confessor's “I do not know”: “A confessor asked about any matter known from confession can always, indeed sometimes must, say: I do not know.”	Prümmer II, n. 173In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 871; Noldin n. 641; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1183; Vermeersch n. 704
Not those who keep a secret of office: “All public persons interrogated about things committed to them can use restriction”	Merkelbach II, n. 871In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 173; Noldin n. 641; Marc n. 1183; Sabetti-Barrett n. 313

Its Gravity

The purely mental, a lie, condemned by Innocent XI: “It is never licit to use a purely mental restriction, because it is simply a lie”	Merkelbach II, n. 860In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 172; Noldin n. 640; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1180; Sabetti-Barrett n. 312; Vermeersch n. 704
Never against one who has a right to the truth: “When the one questioning has a strict right of knowing the truth (e.g., in essential matters of an onerous contract), it is not lawful to conceal the truth by broadly mental restriction”	Prümmer II, n. 172In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 861; Noldin n. 640; Wouters n. 1065; Marc n. 1182; Sabetti-Barrett n. 313
Without cause, a sin against the trust of society: “hence he sins who rather often employs an equivocation or restrictions of this kind in lighter matters”	Prümmer II, n. 172In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 640; Merkelbach II, n. 861; Marc n. 1182; Sabetti-Barrett n. 313; Vermeersch n. 705; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 20
Under oath, a graver cause: “But for swearing with real restriction or amphibology a greater and grave cause is required, out of reverence for the name of God.”	Merkelbach II, n. 860In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1182; Noldin n. 640; Prümmer II, n. 174; Sabetti-Barrett n. 313
None in oaths the public good requires: “by which we know that all restrictions are illicit when an oath is required on account of the public good”	Merkelbach II, n. 862In nearly the same words: Marc n. 1180

Its Remedies

Prümmer gives the counsel: avoid restrictions as far as possible, above all in oaths, and in court use the right to refuse testimony; Noldin agrees for oaths. The confessor's way with penitents who think they had to lie is under lying.

Sparing use
Using them as little as may be: “Generally speaking, all mental restrictions are to be avoided as far as possible, and they can be employed only if true necessity exists which cannot be avoided in another way.”	Prümmer II, n. 174In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 640
Sparing use
In court, refusing testimony rather: “Therefore he who is required to give testimony or to confess the truth should use the right conceded to him of refusing testimony.”	Prümmer II, n. 174

Simulation and Hypocrisy

What It Is

A lie told in deeds: “Consequently dissimulation is properly a lie told by the signs of outward deeds.”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 168; Merkelbach II, n. 865; Noldin n. 637; McHugh-Callan n. 2403; Vermeersch n. 693; Marc n. 1177; Sabetti-Barrett n. 310; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 1; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Spirago THE COMMAND AGAINST UNTRUTHFULNESS

What It Is Not

Not hiding one's sin: “Hence one may hide one's sin without being guilty of dissimulation.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 1, ad 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 866; McHugh-Callan n. 2405
Not a disguise for a just cause: “but the latter is licit from a just cause by the same reason as mental restriction. Thus a rich man licitly puts on worn clothing lest he be despoiled by robbers.”	Noldin n. 637In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 865; Prümmer II, n. 168; McHugh-Callan n. 2403; Bontempi Whether every lie is intrinsically, n. 29
Not wearing a holy habit, though one falls: “And so when a man puts on the habit of holiness, with the intention of entering the state of perfection, if he fail through weakness, he is not a dissembler or a hypocrite”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 2, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2404

Its Kinds

Hypocrisy, the sinner playing the just man: “We must conclude, therefore, that hypocrisy is dissimulation, not, however, any form of dissimulation, but only when one person simulates another, as when a sinner simulates the person of a just man.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 168; Merkelbach II, n. 866; Wouters n. 1064; McHugh-Callan n. 2403; Marc n. 1177; Vermeersch n. 693; Sabetti-Barrett n. 310; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 2; Spirago THE COMMAND AGAINST UNTRUTHFULNESS
Treachery, friendship feigned: “for hypocrisy prostitutes works of virtue to the ignoble ends of applause or lucre or worse, while treachery uses the intimacy or marks of friendship as means for betrayal”	McHugh-Callan n. 2404In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 865; Spirago THE COMMAND AGAINST UNTRUTHFULNESS
Feigning vice: “Because a man might pretend to be evil, by doing what is not evil in itself but has some appearance of evil: and nevertheless this dissimulation is evil, both because it is a lie, and because it gives scandal”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2405

Its Gravity

Mortal, in one who cares only to seem holy: “it is evident that hypocrisy is a mortal sin: for no one is entirely deprived of holiness save through mortal sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 866; McHugh-Callan n. 2405
Otherwise grave or light from the end: “This will depend on the end in view; for if this be contrary to the love of God or of his neighbor, it will be a mortal sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 866; Prümmer II, n. 168; McHugh-Callan n. 2405; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 6
Feigning higher holiness, not mortal of itself: “It happens also sometimes that a man simulates the perfection of holiness which is not necessary for spiritual welfare.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 4In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 866; McHugh-Callan n. 2405
Against truth, not against the virtue feigned: “it follows that it is directly opposed to truth whereby a man shows himself in life and speech to be what he is”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 866

Its Remedies

Merkelbach's Pastoral Questions bring the falsely devout back first to humility, then to a pure intention; St. Alphonsus's chapter on purity of intention, and Spirago on good works, are joined there.

Purity of intention
The falsely devout brought back to humility: “Such persons are to be brought back to true humility, then to a pure intention in all things.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. I
Purity of intention
Doing all to please God alone: “Purity of intention consists in performing all our actions through the sole motive of pleasing God.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIXIn nearly the same words: Spirago I. GOOD WORKS
Purity of intention
Showing good works for example, not for praise: “We ought to let our good works be seen of men, in order to set them a good example.”	Spirago I. GOOD WORKS

A daughter of Vainglory, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Hypocrisy is among the daughters of vainglory.

From vainglory: “but if they be false, it is hypocrisy”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 132, a. 5In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 414; Merkelbach I, n. 502; Wouters n. 303; Marc n. 361; Bontempi On the vices opposed to magnanimit, n. 8
For praise or gain: “Gain or glory is the remote end of the dissembler as also of the liar.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 111, a. 3, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2404

Boasting and Irony

What It Is

Raising oneself in words above the truth: “it follows that boasting denotes more properly the uplifting of self above what one is in oneself, than the uplifting of self above what others think of one”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 112, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 167; Merkelbach II, n. 867; McHugh-Callan n. 2406; Noldin n. 336; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 4
A lie by excess: “Hence boasting properly so called is opposed to truth by way of excess.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 112, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 167; Merkelbach II, n. 867; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 5

What It Is Not

Not saying less of oneself, while saying the truth: “First so as to safeguard truth, as when a man conceals the greater things in himself, but discovers and asserts lesser things of himself the presence of which in himself he perceives.”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 113, a. 1

Its Kinds

Its opposite, irony, belittling oneself falsely: “this pertains to irony, and is always a sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 113, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 167; Merkelbach II, n. 868; McHugh-Callan n. 2406; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 9
False humility that is boasting in disguise: “they disfigure their faces that they may appear unto men to fast”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 113, a. 2, ad 2In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2406; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 11; Spirago THE OPPOSITE OF HUMILITY: PRIDE
Boasting of a sin committed: “about an evil work (Prov. II), if it includes approval of it (which often happens if the deed was done), it is mortal or venial according as the approved work is”	Merkelbach II, n. 867In nearly the same words: Vermeersch n. 464; Noldin n. 331; Sabetti-Barrett n. 136

Its Gravity

Mortal against God or the neighbor: “It will be a mortal sin when a man boasts of that which is contrary to God's glory”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 112, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 867; McHugh-Callan n. 2406; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 8
Of good things, venial of itself: “Sometimes it is a venial sin, when, to wit, a man boasts of things that are against neither God nor his neighbor.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 112, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 867; Wouters n. 303; Marc n. 361
Viler for gain than for glory: “Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 7) that "a man who boasts for the sake of gain, is viler than one who boasts for the sake of glory or honor."”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 112, a. 2
Graver than irony, as a rule: “and in this respect the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 7) that "boasting is a more grievous sin than irony."”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 113, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 868; McHugh-Callan n. 2406; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 9
Telling one's base sins for display: “From boasting to narrate grave sins perpetrated by oneself, and to adorn this with very obscene words, is grave”	Noldin n. 58In nearly the same words: Sabetti-Barrett n. 288; Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. Six

Its Remedies

St. Alphonsus's counsels on humility in speech, with Merkelbach's degree of humility opposed to boasting.

Humility in speech
Never speaking in one's own praise: “Be careful never to boast of anything.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIn nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XI
Humility in speech
Silence until asked: “The fourth degree of humility is silence until interrogation; to this is opposed boasting.”	Merkelbach Pastoral, Q. I
Humility in speech
What one is before God: “What I am before God, that I am, and no more.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XI

A daughter of Vainglory, whose remedies are given on its page: “when the cause has been removed, the effect also is taken away.”

Where It Comes From

Boasting is among the daughters of vainglory.

From vainglory: “On one way directly, either by words, and this is boasting”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 132, a. 5In nearly the same words: Prümmer n. 414; Merkelbach I, n. 502; Wouters n. 303; Marc n. 361; Noldin n. 336; Bontempi On the vices opposed to magnanimit, n. 8
From pride: “and thus it proceeds from pride as its inwardly moving and impelling cause”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 112, a. 1, ad 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 167; Sabetti-Barrett n. 140; Bontempi On the other things that are reduc, n. 4

Flattery and Quarreling

How the Authors Compare

St. Thomas's “Quarreling” is the manuals' contentiousness or moroseness (II-II, q. 116, a. 1, II, n. 614, II, n. 888).
Flattery: a sin against truth, or against affability. The Roman Catechism sets it under the eighth commandment (The Eighth Commandment), and Spirago among the kinds of falsehood (THE COMMAND AGAINST UNTRUTHFULNESS), the flatterer praising “against one’s own conviction” (THE COMMAND AGAINST UNTRUTHFULNESS); Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure, counts among its kinds even the praise of a good one truly has (On friendship, n. 5). St. Thomas and the manuals set it against affability, as an excess in pleasing (II-II, q. 115, a. 1, II, n. 612, II, n. 889), Thomas noting that it is contrary to detraction “as regards what is said, but not directly as regards the end” (II-II, q. 115, a. 1, ad 3).

What It Is

Pleasing beyond the measure of virtue: “As a rule, however, the term "flattery" is wont to be applied to all who wish to exceed the mode of virtue in pleasing others by words or deeds in their ordinary behavior towards their fellows.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 613; Merkelbach II, n. 889; Wouters n. 415; McHugh-Callan n. 2423; Vermeersch n. 735; Bontempi On friendship, n. 4; Marc n. 404; Spirago THE COMMAND AGAINST UNTRUTHFULNESS; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
The complaisant, and the flatterer for gain: “If he do this with the mere intention of pleasing he is said to be "complaisant,"”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423; Vermeersch n. 735; Prümmer II, n. 613
Quarreling, displeasing of set purpose: “whence arises quarreling, which is opposed to the aforesaid friendship or affability”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 116, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 614; Merkelbach II, n. 889; Wouters n. 415; McHugh-Callan n. 2423; Vermeersch n. 735; Bontempi On friendship, n. 6

What It Is Not

Not praise that consoles or spurs to good: “in order thereby to console him, or that he may strive to make progress in good, this will belong to the aforesaid virtue of friendship”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 1, ad 1
Not contradiction from want of love, or from anger: “If this contradiction proceeds from a defect of love uniting souls, it pertains to discord; but if it proceeds from anger, it is opposed to meekness.”	Prümmer II, n. 614In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 116, a. 1; Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423
Not gravity, nor displeasing for a higher good: “But entirely different from surliness is that dignity which can be reserved without being distant or hard of approach”	McHugh-Callan n. 2423In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2421

Its Kinds

Lowering oneself, or raising the other: “Adulation is shown by exaggerated debasement of self (servility, obsequiousness), as well as by exaggerated exaltation of others (toadyism).”	McHugh-Callan n. 2423In nearly the same words: Bontempi On friendship, n. 5
The flatterer who moves another to injustice, bound to restore: “A flatterer or adulator is said to be he who, by praising, blaming, flattering, moves another to damaging.”	Prümmer II, n. 106In nearly the same words: Noldin n. 492; Wouters n. 1002; Sabetti-Barrett n. 435

Its Gravity

Of itself venial: “If, however, one man flatters another from the mere craving to please others, or again in order to avoid some evil, or to acquire something in a case of necessity, this is not contrary to charity. Consequently it is not a mortal but a venial sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 613; Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423; Bontempi On friendship, n. 9
Mortal when it praises sin: “First, by reason of the very matter, as when one man praises another's sin”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 613; Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423; Bontempi On friendship, n. 7; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
Mortal when it means harm: “Secondly, by reason of the intention, as when one man flatters another, so that by deceiving him he may injure him in body or in soul”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 613; Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423; Bontempi On friendship, n. 7; Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
Mortal as an occasion of grave sin: “Thirdly, by way of occasion, as when the praise of a flatterer, even without his intending it, becomes to another an occasion of sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 613; Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423; Bontempi On friendship, n. 7
Quarreling graver in kind: “and so the quarrelsome man, who exceeds in giving displeasure sins more grievously than the adulator or flatterer, who exceeds in giving pleasure”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 116, a. 2In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423
Flattery the baser: “Hence it is that a man is more ashamed of flattery than of quarreling, although quarreling is more grievous.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 116, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423
Quarreling venial of itself: “Moroseness is of itself a venial sin, but accidentally it can become a mortal sin”	Prümmer II, n. 614In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 889; McHugh-Callan n. 2423

Its Remedies

The authors speak to both sides: the flatterer, whom Prümmer and McHugh-Callan send back to a courtesy that comes from charity and St. Thomas to praise that consoles or spurs to good; and the one flattered, whom the Roman Catechism, St. Alphonsus and Deshon's Guide teach to keep flatterers away and to welcome a friend's reproof.

For the flatterer
True courtesy, from charity: “This at last is true courtesy which proceeds from the inward conviction that everyone ought according to his ability to contribute to the peaceful and pleasant intercourse of human society”	Prümmer II, n. 612In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2421
For the flatterer
Praising only to console and encourage: “in order thereby to console him, or that he may strive to make progress in good”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 115, a. 1, ad 1
For the one flattered
Keeping flatterers away: “Such characters David admonishes us to repel and banish from our society.”	Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment
For the one flattered
Praise changes nothing before God: “A bad conscience,” says St. Augustine, “is not healed by the praise of a flatterer”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIn nearly the same words: St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XI
For the one flattered
Welcoming reproof, and a friend who will not flatter: “Some are displeased with the physician who cures them by reproof, and are not angry with the man who wounds them by flattery.”	St. Alphonsus True Spouse, ch. XIIn nearly the same words: Deshon Guide, ch. LXXV

Where It Comes From

From the wish for gain or favor: “The flatterer only seeks his own advantage.”

Spirago THE COMMAND AGAINST UNTRUTHFULNESSIn nearly the same words: Roman Catechism The Eighth Commandment; Prümmer II, n. 613

Prodigality

How the Authors Compare

Whom the prodigal wrongs. McHugh-Callan: his sin is not grave of its nature, “since it does not injure others” (n. 2428); Merkelbach: it is “only an excessive use of one's own goods” (II, n. 887). St. Thomas: the prodigal sins against himself, and “against others by spending the wherewithal to help others” (II-II, q. 119, a. 3, ad 1); Prümmer grounds the sin in man's being “not the absolute master of his goods” (II, n. 616).
“Liberality”, the virtue prodigality exceeds, means two things. In Spirago it is giving to the needy for the love of God, so that one who gives for praise “has no claim to the virtue of liberality” (LIBERALITY); Bontempi, with St. Bonaventure, calls it “the virtue dispensing benefits” (On liberality, n. 1). In the manuals it is the right measure in using money, distinct from mercy and beneficence (II, n. 615): McHugh-Callan: it “may be without charity” (n. 2424); Merkelbach: “it gives even to the unknown, not only to friends” (II, n. 884).

What It Is

Too little care for riches, too much giving: “while the prodigal is deficient, by being less careful of them than he ought: and as regards external action, prodigality implies excess in giving, but deficiency in retaining and acquiring”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 1In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 616; Merkelbach II, n. 887; Wouters n. 412; McHugh-Callan n. 2427; Vermeersch n. 471; Bontempi On prodigality, n. 1; Marc n. 404
Measured by what ought to be given, not by the amount: “The excess in prodigality consists chiefly, not in the total amount given, but in the amount over and above what ought to be given.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 2, ad 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2427

What It Is Not

Not giving all to follow Christ: “Accordingly we must reply that those who give all their possessions with the intention of following Christ, and banish from their minds all solicitude for temporal things, are not prodigal but perfectly liberal.”

St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 2, ad 3

Its Kinds

Avaricious and prodigal at once: “Nothing prevents opposites from being in the same subject in different respects.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 1, ad 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2429
Giving to the wrong persons: “For sometimes they give much to those who ought to be poor, namely, to buffoons and flatterers, whereas to the good they give nothing.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 2, ad 2
Spending on pleasure, the worse kind: “More frequently, however, he inclines to intemperance”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 3, ad 2; Merkelbach II, n. 887; Prümmer II, n. 616

Its Gravity

A sin, the owner being God's steward: “Hence it follows that prodigality is a sin.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 2In nearly the same words: Prümmer II, n. 616; McHugh-Callan n. 2428
Venial of itself: “Of itself, however, prodigality is only a venial sin, since so great a disorder is not found in it”	Prümmer II, n. 616In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2428; Vermeersch n. 471; Bontempi On prodigality, n. 2
Mortal from the ruin of family or creditors: “by reason of the harm following from it, for example, if a father of a family by his prodigality thrusts his wife and children into poverty”	Prümmer II, n. 616In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2428; Bontempi On prodigality, n. 2
Mortal from an evil end: “by reason of the end, as if riches are squandered for a mortally evil end”	Prümmer II, n. 616In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2428
Mortal in those bound to give their superfluity: “This applies chiefly to the clergy, who are the dispensers of the Church's goods, that belong to the poor whom they defraud by their prodigal expenditure.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 3, ad 1In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2428
Lighter than avarice: “Prodigality considered in itself is a less grievous sin than covetousness”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2429; Bontempi On prodigality, n. 1

Its Remedies

St. Thomas gives prodigality's own cure, age and want, and its likeness to liberality; McHugh-Callan names the economy that liberality allows; Sabetti-Barrett the law's curb; Bontempi sends the reader to St. Bonaventure on the prodigal son.

Its cure
Cured by age and want: “since much useless spending impoverishes him and makes him unable to exceed in giving”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 3In nearly the same words: Merkelbach II, n. 887; McHugh-Callan n. 2429; Bontempi On prodigality, n. 1
Its cure
Turning readily into liberality: “Moreover, prodigality is easily turned into virtue on account of its likeness thereto.”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 3
Its cure
Economy, thrift and frugality: “Liberality, then, is not inconsistent with prudence about temporal affairs, that is, with economy which adapts expenditures to income, with thrift which puts something by for the future, and with frugality which spares unnecessary expenses on self”	McHugh-Callan n. 2424
Its cure
The law's curb, an adviser appointed by the judge: “Prodigals, under whose name sometimes legally denounced drunkards come, are incapable of entering into certain contracts determined by law without the assistance of an adviser appointed by the judge.”	Sabetti-Barrett n. 487
Its cure
The prodigal son: “The detriments of Prodigality St. Doctor sets forth admirably on Luke 15, on the parable of the prodigal son.”	Bontempi On prodigality, n. 3

Where It Comes From

From not caring for riches: “but sometimes through being so disposed as not to care about riches”	St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 1, ad 3In nearly the same words: McHugh-Callan n. 2427
A vice of youth: “It is said that prodigality is the vice of youth, avarice the vice of old age.”	McHugh-Callan n. 2429In nearly the same words: St. Thomas II-II, q. 119, a. 3