§ I. On External Causes

The external causes are the world and the devil.

I. The world; by which are signified: 1. sensual pleasures, riches, and honors, which move the will from without and entice it to sin; 2. worldly men, who by examples, exhortations, speech, gesture, writings, rewards, threats, and violence try to lead others to sin.

II. The devil, who, retaining the original acuteness of his mind, knows innumerable arts of exercising influence upon men.

1. That the devil continually attacks men we are taught from Sacred Scripture itself: "Brethren, be sober and watch, because your adversary the devil goes about like a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour; resist him, strong in faith."¹ "Put on the armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the snares of the devil. For our wrestling is not against flesh and blood, but against principalities and powers, against the rulers of the world of this darkness, against the spirits of wickedness in the heavens. Therefore take up the armor of God, that you may be able to resist in the evil day, and in all things to stand perfect."²

2. Concerning the manner in which the devil induces to sin, these things should be noted:

a) He cannot be the direct cause of sin for man. "For he cannot be the cause of sin except either by acting interiorly upon the will and moving it to sin, or by proposing an object and persuading its appetibility. But he cannot do the first; for it belongs to God alone to move the will interiorly by acting upon it. The second does not suffice, because the will is moved by no object of necessity, except by the ultimate end alone."³

b) The devil can be for men an indirect cause of sinning, namely by proposing to the senses, whether external or internal, something appetible, and by exciting passions in the sensitive appetite (St. Thomas, I-II, q. 80, a. 2). The "devil also has the power by his own virtue, unless he is restrained by God,... to induce someone of necessity to do some act which by its genus is sin" (St. Thomas, I-II, q. 80, a. 3); likewise so to disturb the interior faculties that the use of reason is wholly impeded. In these cases, because of defect of liberty, the act is not imputed (St. Alphonsus, Praxis Confessarii, c. 7, § 8; Correspondentia specialis, II, n. 377).

Corollary. They reason badly who wish to acknowledge the devil's influence only when it is placed beyond every doubt, although from the doctrine of the Gospel it ought to be judged frequent. Therefore priests are advised to use a private adjuration from time to time, for which the license of the bishop is not required. St. Alphonsus (Praxis Confessarii, n. 113) advises this formula to be recited over those whom the devil vexes: As a minister of God I command you, or you, unclean spirits, to depart from this creature of God. The priest can also use such or a similar private exorcism if he should notice that the penitent does not grieve for sins, or should fear that he is not manifesting some sin. Moreover, against the demon one must act with great confidence and humility. Here should be noted the "Exorcism against Satan and the Apostate Angels," published by order of Pius XI, Supreme Pontiff, which those priests may use who have obtained the faculty for this from their bishop.⁴

Note. God is not the cause of sin formally taken, or according to its formal being; nevertheless he is the cause, and indeed the first cause, of the material being or physical entity of the sinful act.

¹ 1 Pet. 5:8.

² Eph. 6:11 ff.

³ Billuart, De peccatis, diss. 5, art. 9.

⁴ Rituale Romanum, title XI, chapter 3.