Question — Decretum of Gratian

Questions II and III

GRATIAN. Part I. The second and third questions are concluded in one and the same chapter by the same Council, [the Seventh Council of Carthage]. It is as follows:

Friedberg, col. 537/538

C. I. Those who are repelled from an accusation, or who have not yet reached the fourteenth year, cannot be witnesses.

We judge that those who have been ordered not to be admitted to an accusation are also not to be admitted to testimony, nor those whom the accuser himself has produced from his household. Those placed within the fourteen years of their age, however, shall not be admitted to testimony.

[PALEA.

Friedberg, col. 537/538

C. II. Concerning the same.

Likewise from the Council of Mâcon, c. 6. It pleased the holy assembly that witnesses shall not be hired for a price to give testimony; that each of the best and more trustworthy persons shall be assumed for testimony, so that the person against whom they ought to bear testimony can bring no calumnious objection against them; and that no one shall give testimony unless fasting.] Part II. GRATIAN. Likewise, in a criminal case, “one who previously gave testimony against that defendant cannot be produced as a witness,” as is found in book XXII of the Digest, under the title On Witnesses, [law 23]. Likewise under the same title, [law Ob carmen, § If witnesses]:

Friedberg, col. 537/538

[C. III.]

If all the witnesses are of the same honor and reputation, and the quality of the business and the inclination of the judge concur with them, all the testimonies are to be followed. But if some of them have said something different, although they are unequal in number, that which accords with the nature of the business and is free from suspicion of enmity or favor is to be believed; and the judge will confirm the inclination of his mind from the arguments and testimonies which he has found more suitable to the matter. For one ought not to regard the multitude, but the sincere credibility of the testimonies and those testimonies with which the light of truth is more fully present. Likewise, [law 2 of the Digest, under the same title]: § 1. In witnesses, credibility, dignity, morals, and gravity are to be weighed; and therefore witnesses who waver against the credibility of their own testimony are not to be heard. Likewise, [law 3]: § 2. The credibility of witnesses is to be diligently examined, and therefore, in their person, first of all the condition of each must be investigated: whether someone is a decurion or a plebeian; whether he is of an honorable and blameless life, or is marked and blameworthy; whether he is wealthy or needy, so that he might readily admit something for the sake of gain; whether he is an enemy of the person against whom he bears testimony, or a friend of the person for whom he gives testimony. For if a testimony is free from suspicion—either on account of the person by whom it is offered, because that person is honorable, or on account of the cause, because it is for the sake of neither gain, favor, nor enmity—it is to be admitted. Likewise, [a little later in the same law]:

Part III. § 3. By the Julian Law concerning violence it is provided that the following shall not be permitted to give testimony against the defendant under that law: one who was manumitted by him or by his parent; those who are below puberty; one who has been condemned in a public judgment and has not been restored in full; one who is in chains or public custody; one who has hired himself to fight with beasts; one who openly makes or has made gain from prostitution; or one who has been judged or convicted of accepting money in order to give or not to give testimony. Likewise, [law 4]: § 4. By the Julian Law concerning public judgments it is provided that a person shall not be summoned against his will to give testimony against a father-in-law, son-in-law, stepfather, stepson, male cousin, female cousin, a male cousin's son, or those who are of the preceding degree. § 5. Likewise, neither against his own freedman, nor against a freedman of his children, his parents, his husband, or his wife. § 6. Likewise, patrons and patronesses are not to be compelled to give testimony against freedmen, nor freedmen against a patron. § 7. But when it is excepted that a son-in-law or father-in-law shall not be compelled against his will to give testimony, it is held that the daughter's betrothed is also included under the designation of son-in-law, and the betrothed woman's father under that of father-in-law. Likewise, [law 6]: § 8. Those who can be commanded to become witnesses are not regarded as suitable witnesses. Likewise, [law 7]: § 9. A slave's answer is to be believed when there is no other proof for eliciting the truth. Likewise, [law 8]: § 10. Elderly persons, persons in ill health, soldiers, those who are absent with a magistrate on public business, or those who are not permitted to come shall not be compelled against their will to give testimony. Likewise, [law 19]: § 11. Tax farmers also do not give testimony against their will. § 12. Likewise, one who is absent not for the purpose of evading testimony. § 13. Likewise, one who has contracted to furnish provisions to the army. Nor can a summons to give testimony be served upon wards. Likewise, [law 20]: § 14. An accuser ought not to summon as a witness one who is a defendant in a public judgment or one who is less than twenty years old. [Law 21.] § 15. One condemned on account of a defamatory poem will be disqualified from bearing witness. Likewise: § 16. If the matter requires, not only private persons but also magistrates, if they are present, shall give testimony. A praetor too ought to give testimony in a judgment concerning a case of adultery. § 17. But if the condition of the matter is such that we are compelled to admit an arena-fighter as a witness, or a similar person, his testimony is not to be believed without torture. Likewise, [law 24]: § 18. It was decided that witnesses whom the accuser has produced from his household shall not be questioned. [Law 25.] § 19. Advocates also shall not give testimony in a case in which they provide advocacy; this is also to be observed in agents of business. Likewise, [law 16]:

Part IV. § 20. Those who have spoken falsely or inconsistently, or who have betrayed the testimonies to either party, are fittingly punished by the judges. Likewise, [law 17]: § 21. A father and a son who is in his power, and likewise two brothers who are in the power of the same person, can both become witnesses in the same testament or in the same business, because it does no harm for several witnesses from one household to be employed in another person's business. Likewise, [law 15]: § 22. Whether a hermaphrodite can be employed as a witness to a testament is shown by the quality of the sex which predominates. Likewise, [law 9]: § 23. A father is not a suitable witness for a son, nor a son for a father. [Law 10.] § 24. No one is understood to be a suitable witness in his own matter. Likewise, [law 11]: § 25. Even one who was not asked is understood to be a witness for establishing the credibility of a transaction. Likewise, [law 12]: § 26. Where the number of witnesses is not added, even two will suffice. For a plural expression is satisfied by the number two. Likewise, [law 3]: § 27. Concerning witnesses who speak their testimony straightforwardly, it must be considered whether they bring one and the same rehearsed speech or answer extemporaneously and plausibly the things about which they are questioned. Likewise: § 28. The truth of any matter is often discovered without public records; at one time the number of witnesses, at another their dignity and authority, and at another, as it were, concordant report confirms the credibility of the matter concerning which inquiry is made. Therefore, a judge ought not to bind his cognizance to one kind of proof, but ought to assess according to the judgment of his own mind what he believes or what he considers insufficiently proved to him. Likewise: § 29. The authority of witnesses who are present is one thing; that of testimonies which are customarily recited is another. Likewise, book IV of the Code, under the title On Witnesses, [law 2]: § 30. Witnesses alone do not suffice for proof of free birth unless they are aided by instruments and arguments. Likewise, [law 3]: § 31. Even by civil law the credibility of members of the household is disapproved. Likewise, [law 4]: § 32. It is certain that testimony offered alone, with the case not approved by other lawful supports, is of no moment. Likewise, [law 5]: § 33. Those witnesses ought to be employed to assist the truth who can prefer the credibility owed to judicial solemnity above every favor and power. Likewise, [law 6]: § 34. Parents and children are not to be admitted to testimony against one another even voluntarily. Likewise, [law 7]: § 35. One who makes a claim ought to bring his own proofs for his claim, and not ask that the adversary be compelled to produce those through whom a case may be made for him. Likewise, [law 8]: § 36. Slaves can be questioned neither for nor against their master, but they can be questioned concerning their own deed. Likewise, [law 9]: § 37. Witnesses are constrained by the sanctity of an oath before they offer testimony, and credence is to be given to witnesses of higher standing. § 38. But let no judge in any case readily allow the testimony of one person to be admitted; indeed, the answer of one witness shall not be heard at all, even if he shines with the honor of the governor's court. Likewise, [law 10]: § 39. The laws have removed from everyone the power to give testimony in his own matter. Likewise, [law 11]: § 40. Let free witnesses be summoned for the cases of others if they are not said to be associates and participants in the crime, but their credibility arising from knowledge is sought. But fitting expenses shall be furnished to those coming to the judgment by the accuser or by those through whom they were summoned, even if the witnesses are to be produced by either party in a pecuniary case. Likewise, [law 12]: § 41. Let freedmen not dare to come forward voluntarily against their patrons; indeed, even when summoned, they shall not be compelled to come into judgment. Likewise, [law 17]: § 42. If anyone has used witnesses and the same witnesses are produced against him in another lawsuit, he will not be permitted to except to their persons unless he has shown that enmities later arose between himself and them from which the laws command that witnesses be repelled; his license to impugn their testimony from the depositions themselves, of course, is not to be taken away. § 43. But if he has also shown by clear proofs that they were corrupted by the giving or promise of money, that allegation also ought to be preserved whole for him. [GRATIAN.] But the example of blessed Brice is objected, who was proved innocent by the voice of a boy thirty days from birth. But divine miracles are to be admired, not drawn into an example for human action.

[C. III.]

Si testes omnes eiusdem honestatis et existimationis sint, et negotii qualitas, ac iudicis motus cum his concurrit, sequenda sunt omnia testimonia. Si uero ex his quidam eorum aliud dixerunt, licet inpari numero, credendum est, quod naturae negotii conuenit, et quod inimicitiae aut gratiae suspicione caret, confirmabitque iudex motum animi sui ex argumentis et testimoniis, que rei aptiora esse conpererit. Non enim ad multitudinem respici oportet, sed ad sinceram testimoniorum fidem, et testimonia, quibus potius lux ueritatis assistit. Item: [lege 2., ff. eod.] §. 1. In testibus fides, dignitas, mores, grauitas moderanda est, et ideo testes, qui aduersus fidem suae testationis uacillant, audiendi non sunt. Item: [lege 3.] §. 2. Testium fides diligenter examinanda est, ideoque in persona eorum exploranda erunt inprimis conditio cuiusque, utrum quis decurio, an plebeius sit, et an honestae et inculpatae uitae, an uero notatus quis et reprehensibilis, an locuples, an egenus sit, ut lucri causa quid facile admittat, uel an ei inimicus sit, aduersus quem testimonium fert, uel amicus ei sit, pro quo testimonium dat. Nam si careat suspicione testimonium, uel propter personam, a qua profertur, quod honesta sit, uel propter causam, quod neque lucri, neque gratiae, neque inimicitiae causa sit admittendum est. Item: [eadem lege paulo inferius:] III. Pars. §. 3. Lege Iulia de ui cauetur, ne hac lege in reum testimonium dicere liceret qui se ab eo parenteue eius liberauerit, quiue impuberes erunt, quiue iudicio publico dampnatus erit, qui eorum in integrum restitutus non erit, quiue eorum in uinculis custodiaue publica erit, quiue ad bestias, ut depugnaret, se locauerit, quiue palam questum faciet feceritue, quiue ob testimonium dicendum uel non dicendum pecuniam accepisse iudicatus uel conuictus erit. Item: [l. 4.] §. 4. Lege Iulia iudiciorum publicorum cauetur, ne inuito denuncietur, ut testimonium dicat aduersus socerum, generum, uitricum, priuignum, sobrinum, sobrinam, sobrino natum, eosue, qui priore gradu sunt. §. 5. Item ne liberto ipsius, liberorumue eius, parentum uiri uxoris. §. 6. Item patroni patronae et ut ne patroni patronae aduersus libertos, neque liberti aduersus patronum cogantur testimonium dicere. §. 7. Cum autem excipitur, ne gener aut socer inuitus testimonium dicere cogatur, generi appellatione sponsum quoque filiae contineri placet. Item soceri sponsae patrem. Item: [lege 6.] §. 8. Idonei non uidentur esse testes, quibus inperari potest ut testes fiant. Item: [lege 7.] §. 9. Serui responso tunc credendum est, cum alia probatio ad eruendam ueritatem non est. Item: [lege 8.] §. 10. Inuiti testimonium dicere non cogantur senes, ualitudinarii, uel milites, uel illi, qui cum magistratu reipublicae causa absunt, uel quibus uenire non licet. Item: [lege 19.] §. 11. Publicani etiam non dicunt testimonium inuiti. §. 12. Item is, qui non detractandi testimonii causa aberit. §. 13. Item is, qui exercitui prebendam conduxerit. Sed nec pupillis testimonium denunciari potest. Item: [l. 20.] §. 14. In testimonium accusator citare non debet eum, qui publico iudicio reus erit, aut qui minor uiginti annis erit. [l. 21.] §. 15. Ob carmen famosum dampnatus intestabilis erit. Item: §. 16. Si res exigit non tantum priuati, sed etiam magistratus, si in presenti sint, testimonium dicant. Pretor quoque testimonium dare debet in iudicio de adulterii causa. §. 17. Si autem ea conditio rei sit, ubi arenarium testem uel similem personam admittere cogimur, sine tormento testimonio eius credendum non est. Item: [l. 24.] §. 18. Testes, quos accusator de domo produxerit, interrogari non placuit. [l. 25.] §. 19. Patroni quoque in causa, cui patrocinium prestant, testimonium non dicant, quod etiam in executoribus negotiorum obseruandum est. Item: [lege 16.] IV. Pars. §. 20. Qui falso uel uarie dixerunt, testimonia uel utrique parti prodiderunt a iudicibus conpetenter puniuntur. Item: [l. 17.] §. 21. Pater et filius, qui in potestate eius est item duo fratres qui in eiusdem potestate sunt, utrique in eodem testamento, uel eodem negotio testes possunt fieri, quoniam nichil nocet ex una domo plures testes adhiberi alieno negotio. Item: [l. 15.] §. 22. Hermafroditus an ad testamentum adhiberi possit, qualitas sexus incalescentis ostendit. Item: [l. 9.] §. 23. Testis idoneus pater filio, aut filius patri non est. [l. 10.] §. 24. Nullus idoneus testis in re sua intelligitur. Item: [l. 11.] §. 25. Ad fidem rei gestae faciendam etiam non rogatus testis intelligitur. Item: [l. 12.] §. 26. Ubi numerus testium non adicitur, etiam duo sufficient. Pluralis enim elocutio duorum numero contenta est. Item: [l. 3.] §. 27. In testibus considerandum est, qui simpliciter testimonium dicant, utrum unum, eundemque meditatum sermonem afferant, an ad ea, que interrogantur, ex tempore uerisimilia respondeant. Item: §. 28. Sepe sine publicis monumentis cuiuscumque rei ueritas deprehenditur; alias numerus testium, alias dignitas et auctoritas, alias ueluti consentiens fama confirmat rei, de qua queritur, fidem. Non ergo ad unam probationis speciem cognitionem suam iudex alligare debet, sed ex sententia animi sui estimare, quid aut credat, aut parum sibi probatum opinetur. Item §. 29. Alia est auctoritas presentium testium, alia testimoniorum, que recitari solent. Item Codicis libro IV. titulo de testibus. [l. 2.] §. 30. Soli testes ad probationem ingenuitatis non sufficiunt, nisi instrumentis et argumentis adiuuentur. Item: [l. 3.] §. 31. Etiam iure ciuili domestici fides inprobatur. Item: [l. 4.] §. 32. Solam testatione prolatam, nec aliis legitimis amminiculis causa approbata nullius esse momenti certum est. Item: [l. 5.] §. 33. Eos testes ad adiuuandam ueritatem adhiberi oportet, qui omni gratiae et potentatui fidem religioni iudiciariae debitam possunt preponere. Item: [l. 6.] §. 34. Parentes et liberi inuicem aduersus se nec uolentes ad testimonium admittendi sunt. Item: [l. 7.] §. 35. Qui intendit, suae intentioni proprias debet afferre probationes, non petere aduersarium cogi ad exhibitionem eorum, per quos sibi negotium fiat. Item: [l. 8.] §. 36. Serui neque pro domino, neque aduersus dominum, sed pro facto suo interrogari possunt. Item: [l. 9.] §. 37. Iurisiurandi religione testes prius, quam perhibeant testimonium, cohercentur, et honestioribus potius testibus fides adhibeatur. §. 38. Unius uero testimonium nemo iudicum in quacumque causa facile patiatur admitti; imo unius testis responsio omnino non audiatur, etiamsi presidiali curiae honore prefulgeat. Item: [l. 10.] §. 39. Omnibus in re propria dicendi testimonia facultatem iura submouerunt. Item: [l. 11.] §. 40. Liberi testes ad causas postulentur alienas, si socii et participes criminis non dicantur, sed fides ab hiis notitiae postuletur. Venturis autem ad iudicium per accusatorem, aut ab his, per quos fuerant postulati, sumptus competentes ministrentur, etiamsi in pecuniaria causa ab alterutra parte testes sint producendi. Item: [l. 12.] §. 41. Liberti aduersus patronos sponte prodire non audeant, sed nec uocati quidem in iudicio uenire cogantur. Item: [l. 17.] §. 42. Si quis testibus usus fuerit, iidemque testes aduersus eum in alia lite producantur, non licebit ei eorum personas excipere, nisi ostenderit, inimicitias inter se et illos postea emersas fuisse, ex quibus testes repelli leges precipiunt, non adimenda scilicet ei licentia ex ipsis depositionibus testimonium eorum arguere. §. 43. Sed et si liquidis probationibus datione uel promissione pecuniarum eos corruptos esse ostenderit, eam etiam allegationem integram ei seruari oportet. [Gratian.] Sed obicitur illud beati Bricii, qui uoce pueri triginta dies ab ortu habentis innocens probatus est. Sed miracula diuina sunt admiranda, non in exemplum humanae actionis trahenda.

Friedberg, col. 537/538