Question VIII: On pride

FIRST therefore I assert that Pride, opposed to Humility, is a special vice.

It is proved by D. Thomas, art. 1. and D. Bonavent. in speculo animae, cap. 1. and part one of the Centil. sect. 17. and book 3. of the Compend. Theol. verit. cap. 15. For it is against reason, which dictates that the will of each be borne toward that which is proportioned to him: but Pride wills to overstep; or wills to seem above, whence it is called Superbia.

I ASSERT secondly that there are four species of pride, from D. Gregory 23. Moral. cap. 7. So D. Thom. art. 4. D. Bonavent. LL. CC. of the Centil. and of the Compendium Theol. verit.

THE FIRST is to esteem that one has a good from oneself. The second, to esteem the gifts of God as received from one's own merits. The third is, to boast of having what one does not have. The fourth is, despising the others, to wish to be seen uniquely to have what one has.

THE REASON is, because the immoderate appetite of excellence and preeminence above others is wont to vary according to the aforesaid modes: And indeed according to the various degrees of humility so many degrees of Pride could be numbered, because contraries are multiplied in just as many modes, as the S. Doctor declares in the places cited, and D. Thomas ad 4. who also ad primum notes that it is without the vice of unbelief that the proud man glories, as if he had goods from himself and from his merits.

I ASSERT thirdly: Pride from its genus is mortal sin, and among the vices opposed to the moral virtues the gravest. So S. Thom. quaest. 162. art. 5. D. Bonavent. in Pharetra, lib. I. cap. 6. and LL. cc.

IT IS PROVED by the S. Doctor in the place cited, with the argument of D. Augustine de Virginitate, cap. 31. and 19. de Civit. cap. 12. which D. Thomas uses, because just as humility regards the subjection of man to God: so on the contrary Pride properly regards the defect of this subjection, so much so that it pertains properly to Pride to refuse to be subject to God, and to exalt oneself above that which is fixed for the man himself according to the divine rule or measure, against what the Apostle says, I. Corinth. 10. But we will not glory beyond measure, but according to the measure of the rule which God hath measured to us. Therefore Eccles. 10. it is said: The beginning of the pride of man is to fall away from God.

From this excellence, however, by which he refuses to be subject to God, it arises that it exceeds the other sins opposed to the moral virtues, which turn away from God either through ignorance, or through cupidity and frailty. For Pride prevails in malice above them. The same argument he has in speculo animae, cap. 3.

I ASSERT fourthly, that Pride is a capital vice.

IT IS PROVED by D. Bonavent. in Diaeta, tit. I. cap. 3. for from it arise Presumption, Ambition, Disobedience, Boasting, Shame at good, the Mockery of the good, or of the simple, Vainglory, and Hypocrisy.

OR, as the S. Doctor says in speculo animae, cap. 1. there arise Presumption, Contempt, and Vain glory.

PRESUMPTION consists chiefly in this, that man presumes that he has grace and other goods, either from himself, or from his merits, or falsely, or more than others; which are the four modes, or species of Pride, related above from D. Gregory.

HENCE arises the tempting of God, by which one wills to ask without necessity, and to make trial of the Divine power. Hence arises the presumption of peril [discrimen], when someone exposes himself to danger, trusting in the divine power alone, despising human aid, or spurning the fitting means without necessity of faith, or of the Church; and this has the character of mortal sin; whence it is said Deuter. 6. Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God. Where he brings in the Gloss saying: He tempts God, who having what he might do, without reason commits himself to danger. Thus S. Bonaventura.

THESE things must be explained somewhat. Temptation and the presumption of peril, related above, are opposed to that religious subjection by which we are bound to God. For we pretend to take trial of some perfection of God, doubting of it at least indirectly, by asking such things as seem ordered to nothing else, as when I despise the means ordered by God, wishing to obtain the effect from the power of God, as that God provide food from heaven for a whole multitude, and other similar things.

ANOTHER mode of the presumption of peril is, when I expose myself to danger, pretending that God deliver me by a miracle, as if falling from a high tower I wished to be sustained by God; for Christ also Matth. 4. answered the Devil persuading this: It is written: Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God.

FORMAL temptation indeed, which includes doubt about some perfection of God, is mortal: for it includes a great injury inflicted on God, and grave contempt; whence it does not become venial from the smallness of the matter, but only from the surreption of the act, as Sanchez notes, in Decal. Tom. I. lib. II. cap. 4. num. 5. Valentia II. II. disput. 6. quaest. 14. puncto 2.

BUT if the temptation of God is without express doubt, Toletus, lib. 4. sum. cap. 19. says it can be venial, when it arises from mere curiosity of seeing a supernatural work: And Valentia above, Sayrus lib. 4. cap. 7. num. 14. say it is commonly venial, unless the matter be too grave, as when one tempting God exposes himself to the greatest danger. But Sanchez says it is mortal, unless simplicity and ignorance, not altogether coarse, excuse.

So also Suarez Tom. 1. de Relig. tract. 3. lib. 1. cap. 2. num. 16. The reason is, because he wills the Divine omnipotence to serve his curiosity by supernal works. Nevertheless Sanchez adds, and almost Suarez with Lessio, lib. 2. de Iustitia, cap. 45. dub. 1. that the danger and the work must be so slight that the fault be venial, as in a light illness refusing to use medicines. I judge also that the tempting of the Divine will by some sign asked is a tempting of God, as the S. Doctor teaches here, and D. Thomas, quaest. 97. art. 1. Suarez Tomo 1. de Relig. tract. 3. lib. 1. cap. 2. Sanchez, num. 8. Nor is it required that it always arise from doubt about some perfection of God.

TO the temptation of God pertains the willing of a sign from God for the truth of faith, for instance, that Christ appear in the Most Holy Sacrament.

TO the presumption of peril pertains the purgation by glowing iron, which is forbidden by Canon law, cap. Mennam, and can. Monomachiam, and cap. Consulnisti 2. quaest. 5. and cap. Ex tuarum on canonical purgation. See D. Thomam 2. 2. quaest. 95. art. 8. ad 3. and p. p. quaest. 80. art. 6. ad 3. Valentiam 2. 2. disput. 6. quaest. 14. puncto 1. corolar. 4. Sayrum, lib. 4. cap. 7. Sanchez, num. 71.

TO the temptation of God also belongs, in grave illness to refuse medicines, and to will to obtain health from God suddenly, and it is mortal. So Navar. Summa, cap. 11. Sanchez, num. 14. Suarez in the place cited, cap. 2.

IT is also a temptation of God rashly to expose oneself to martyrdom without cause. So Navar. cap. 11. Sanchez num. 15. and others. But already in the Treatise on Hope, and on Religion, these things have been treated.

FROM Presumption also arise excessive confidence in oneself, inept audacity, etc. And the like.

CONTEMPT is the proper effect of pride, refusing to be subject to God and superiors; from which result Disobedience, Despising, Irreverence, Killing, Mockery, Irony, etc. See the S. Doctor.

VAIN glory is that by which someone vainly strives to show forth his own excellence, and it is mortal, when it covets the glory due to God. From this arise Ambition for honor, the appetites of human favor, fear of confusion, and love of praise.

From ambition for honor arises Pomp, from which three fruits blossom: Ostentation in a superfluous retinue and apparatus, and an ostentatious bearing and speech, which are often venial, and sometimes deadly.

From the appetite for human favor arises Flattery, which is mortal, if one praise an evil grievously [laudes malum grave], giving occasion that they remain in sin, glory, and are puffed up beyond their merits. But if you praise with the sole intention of pleasing, it will be venial sin according to D. Augustinum, serm. 41. de Sanctis. From that appetite for favor also arises prodigality, which is mortal, when those goods which ought to be expended on the poor are dissipated uselessly, or distributed to dishonest persons. And in this he reprehends Ecclesiastics, whose goods beyond the sustentation of their person and state ought to be bestowed on the poor.

From fear of confusion arises evil bashfulness, and false humility. Evil bashfulness begets shame at divine things, shame at poverty, shame in Confession. There arises also the denial of truth, false impugning, excuse, and the defense of sin.

From the appetite for human praise arise Hypocrisy, Ostentation, Singularity, and Boasting.

HYPOCRISIS according to Isidore, de summo bono, cap. 14. sentent. 2. is the simulation of a good not existing; but it is a lie. Therefore just as a lie is not mortal, unless it be pernicious to one's neighbor, or against the truth of Faith and morals: so Hypocrisy is mortal, when it is with the intention of deceiving under the appearance of goodness: as he who feigns sanctity, that he may obtain ecclesiastical goods of which he is unworthy.

OSTENTATION is, when one strives to show outwardly the good which he has, or simulates that he has, that he may thence catch praises, nor is it mortal from its genus.

SINGULARITY is, when one wishes to appear singular, and it has various evil fruits, according as it is found in various matters. From this also arises Envy.

BOASTING is that by which one glories in words about a good, either which he has, or which he does not have. See the S. Doctor declaring at length that almost all sins are begotten from Pride.

HENCE also D. Thomas, quaest. 162. art. 2. from D. Augustino, lib. de natura, et gratia, cap. 29. says, that Pride is indeed a special sin, but that it can nevertheless be called general by causality, inasmuch as other sins arise from it. First per se, inasmuch as others are ordered to the end of Pride, which is one's own excellence, to which whatever is inordinately desired can be ordered. Secondly indirectly, and per accidens, namely by removing a hindrance, inasmuch as man in Pride contemns the Divine Law, by which he is prohibited from sinning, according to that Hieremiae 2. Thou hast broken my yoke in pieces, and thou hast said: I will not serve: Yet many things are done against the law of God not from contempt, but from ignorance, or frailty. Whence D. August. says in the place cited, Many things are done wrongly which are not done proudly.

EX HIS you have that Pride is a vice, not only capital, but the head, and beginning of almost every sin: Whence S. Gregorius 31. Moral. cap. 31. names it not a capital vice, but the Queen of vices.

IT is however difficult to avoid, as S. Doctor, LL. CC. especially, lib. 3. Compendii Theol. cap. 15. and D. Thom. art. 16. ad 1. warns; for pride insinuates itself even into goods. This he pursues at length and most beautifully in S. Doctor, in Diaeta, tit. 1. cap. 3. which I beseech you to read, treating the various and apt similitudes of Pride.

I ASSERT lastly, that this is the beginning of every sin. Eccl. 11. Pride is the beginning of all sin.

THE REASON is, because the aversion from God, which formally completes the nature of sin, pertains to Pride per se; but to the other sins consequently. It is called therefore the beginning of all sin, both because the first sin of Lucifer and of Man issued from Pride; and because every sin is aptly born to be begotten from Pride, even if not all necessarily arise from it, as Tannerus, disp. cit. says.

To these the S. Doctor adds, Compend. Theol. lib. 3. cap. 15. that every sin, since it is an aversion from God, is a certain contempt of God. That therefore which D. Prosper lib. de vita Contempl. cap. 2. says: No sin can, or could be, or will be able to be without Pride, is understood materially, inasmuch as in every sin there is a certain appetite for something above that which befits man subject to the divine laws, namely for the very transgression itself, under the notion of a certain excellence and loftiness; which is the proper object of Pride, which is a special vice, as Valentia notes disput. 9. quaest. 3. puncto 1. with Bonaventura, in the place cited.

HE notes truly, with the S. Doctor, at the beginning of cap. 1. that all Pride can be venial on account of the imperfection of an act not fully deliberate, as happens also with other vices.

THE SIGNS of Pride, from D. Prospero, lib. 3. de vita Contempl. cap. 8. the S. Doctor relates in the Speculo ad Novitios, parte 2. cap. 5.

THE REMEDIES against Pride the S. Doctor brings forward at the end of the Speculum animae, namely, simple Obedience, subjection, the showing of humility toward all, exercise in humble works; to walk with humble bearing, in humble habit, to flee honors, always to choose to minister rather than to be ministered to, to avoid boasting about those things which ultimately conduce to the excellencies of one's family, or of other things; finally to avoid all signs pretending vanity.

THE TWELVE fruits of Pride the S. Doctor relates p. p. Centilog. sect. 17. from D. Bernardo Tract. de gradib. Humilit. and they are: Curiosity, lightness of mind, Inept joy, Boasting, Singularity, Arrogance, Presumption, Defense of sins, Simulated Confession, Rebellion, Liberty of sinning, Custom. By these steps the proud man ascends.

CURIOSITY is, when the Proud man inquires into rumors, namely what is said of him. Lightness of mind is, when someone is lightly changed from delight at words of praise into sadness at words of blame. Inept joy is, when he rejoices at the defects of others. Boasting is, when he narrates those things which he has, that he may be praised. Singularity, when beyond custom he does some things singularly, that he alone may both appear and be praised. Arrogance is, when he boasts of having what he does not have. Presumption is, when he thrusts himself into doing what does not pertain to him. Defense of sin is, when one openly defends and excuses his error and sin. Simulated confession is, when he secretly excuses his sin. Rebellion, when he dissents, namely from superiors, equals, and inferiors: he opposes superiors, oppresses inferiors, molests and disturbs equals. Then the liberty of sinning succeeds, because neither fearing God nor reverencing men, he sins freely, accustomed to evils, falling into the depth of sins.

HE GATHERS cap. 18. the difference between Pride and vainglory.

For Pride is the appetite of one's own excellence, from D. Bernardo, epist. 42. Or it is the love of one's own excellence, from D. Augustino, lib. 11. de Genes. ad litt. cap. 14. Or it is the appetite of perverse loftiness, from the same, lib. 14. de civit. cap. 13.

BUT Vain glory is the appetite of the manifestation of one's own excellence, as S. Bonavent. says there, and D. Thomas, quaest. 162. art. 8. and Taner. num. 201. From both however many daughters arise. See the S. Doctor, in the place cited, where he says they are distinguished by reason, unless you should say that vainglory is a daughter of Pride, because from the excessive affection for one's own excellence arises the appetite of manifesting oneself.

Against those he acts, S. Doctor, parte 3. Stimuli Divini amoris, cap. 10.

¶ MANY most illustrious things he heaps together from the Fathers, lib. 2. Pharetrae, cap 6.

LIKEWISE he gathers much from the Scriptures in the Bibliis pauperum, cap. 98. He treats of Boasting in cap. 99.

HE EXPLAINS truly in 2. dist. 42. dub. 4. how those two propositions are true, namely: Pride is the beginning of all sin, Eccles. in the place cited: and that one: The desire of money is the root of all evils, as it is said ad Timoth. ultimo.

HE ANSWERS, that it is different to say Beginning, and Root; for Beginning signifies that from which the motion begins: but Root signifies that from which the nourishment is drawn.

THEREFORE since sin signifies a falling away from God, from which it begins through contempt, at least implicit, of God, and the refusal to be subject to him; hence it is that the Beginning is from Pride, because there follows the conversion to a changeable good, toward which the appetible power tends, taking nourishment from the appetite of that coveted good. Hence Cupidity is called the root of all evils. And because in every sin there is an aversion from God: and a covetous conversion to the creature; hence Pride is called the Beginning, and Cupidity, the Root of every sin.

BUT a capital vice differs from a Root; for that is a complete vice, from which the others take their sense and motion, as the members from the head: but Root signifies something less complete; therefore it does not name a determined sin, but the pronity of concupiscence, which concurs to every sin.

BUT they note that both the root, and the beginning of sins, is taken in three modes.

Root is taken first most generally; as when it is said, concupiscence, or cupidity, is the root of all evils: Generally, when it is said: there is a double root of sin, Love kindling badly; and Fear humbling badly; for love is taken with respect to a good; and Fear with respect to an evil. Thirdly it is taken less generally, as when it is said: the root is triple, the concupiscence of the flesh, the concupiscence of the eyes, and the pride of life, by comparison to a triple good; Inferior, Exterior, and Interior.

SIMILARLY the beginning of sin is said in three modes. First, as it signifies the falling away of the free will from the law of God, and thus it is called Pride, as contempt. Secondly, as it falls away from the law of truth, and it is called Error. Thirdly, as it falls away from the law of goodness, and thus it is Folly, which is contrary to Wisdom. Hence D. Chrysostomus on Psal. 27. From before my foolishness, says: The beginning of every sin is folly.

THAT all the other capital vices arise from Pride the S. Doctor concludes in Psal. 81.

BUT there is also a beginning in the other extreme opposed to Pride, as the SS. DD. Seraphicus, and Angelicus intimate above art. 1. ad 8. and it is called the application of the mind to viler things than humility requires, Just as the pusillanimous falls short of the virtue of Magnanimity, as Tannerus noted num. 195. and it is called Pusillanimity, contrary also to humility. It is rarely however mortal, unless it inflict grave loss on oneself, or on one's neighbor, as Valentia notes, disput. 9. quaest. 3. puncto 1. ad finem.