Question I: Whether fortitude is a virtue, and what virtue

I ASSERT first, that Fortitude is a virtue. It is the teaching of St. Augustine lib. de moribus Ecclesiae, cap. 15. and of Aristotle 3. Eth.

IT IS PROVED by St. Bonavent. first ad 8. Sap. where under the name of Virtue it is counted among the other moral Virtues.

IT IS PROVED secondly by the Holy Doctor in Diaeta, tit. 5. cap. 7. That which makes a man morally good is a virtue: Such is fortitude: Therefore. The major is Aristotle's 2. Eth. cap. 6. the minor is proved, because it removes the impediments that repel one from rectitude, which are the difficulties opposed. So it is had in Proverb. 31. Who shall find a valiant woman? etc. She hath sent her hand to strong things 2 fortitude, and her garment is comeliness. The Holy Doctor proves this by the examples of the Apostles, who, having received through the Holy Spirit the virtue and gift of fortitude, confronted Tyrants Act. 1. and he shows the same of the holy Martyrs, especially the Virgins, Catherine, Cecilia, Agnes, and others, who went rejoicing to prisons and to tortures. Because, namely, they were strengthened by God. For fortitude is from heaven, as is said in 1 Machab. 3. See the Holy Doctor.

HENCE again this assertion is proved in the opusc. de septem itiner. aeternitatis, dist. 5. because it gives strength for overcoming the perils opposed to rectitude, and the very punishments and deaths, and for hastening intrepidly toward the virtues. It proves the assumption in the opusc. de septem Donis, de Dono fortitudinis, cap. 1. from Aristotle 3. Eth. cap. 8. and 9. where he says: He is brave who does not fear terrible things, and endures, as he ought, for the sake of good, and from Paulinus to Jerome, where he says: He who is truly brave neither dares rashly nor fears imprudently, and from St. Augustine lib. 5. de civit. cap. 17. where he relates that many underwent death bravely for the good of the Republic, and from Tully de offic. where he says there were two precepts of Plato, for those wishing to benefit the Republic. The first, that they so uphold the citizens' welfare that whatever they do they refer to it, forgetful of their own advantages. The second precept is that they care for the whole body of the Republic principally, not merely uphold some part while deserting the rest; and therefore this fortitude is ordered to an end that is within the limits of nature.

IT IS PROVED by the Holy Doctor thirdly in Compend. Theol. lib. 5. cap. 36. from Macrobius lib. 1. in somn. Scipionis, cap. 8. for fortitude raises the mind above perils, teaches one to fear nothing but what is base, not to dread the onset of death, and to summon the tamed passions intrepidly to virtue.

NEXT, because it has marvelous effects; for it makes men victorious against the enemies of God, as is said in 1 Machab. 6. Secondly it preserves a man's own goods: When the strong man is armed, etc. Thirdly, because it enriches with goods, Proverb. 10. The hand of the strong hath prepared riches. Fourthly it storms the kingdom of heaven, Matth. 11. The violent take it by force. Fifthly it adorns, Proverb. 31. Fortitude, and her garment is comeliness. Sixthly it secures one in extremities, Proverb. 30. The lion, mightiest of beasts, will fear no one's approach. Seventhly it awaits a recompense, Proverb. 31. Who shall find a valiant woman? Afar, and from the uttermost coasts, is the price of her, etc.

IT IS PROVED fourthly by St. Bonavent. in Pharetra, lib. 2. cap. 31. for it moderates and reduces to the norm of honesty the passions of Fear and Daring, and that in regard to the most difficult objects, namely, the perils of death. It proves the assumption from the Fathers.

St. GREGORY 7. Moral. cap. 8. says: The fortitude of the implanted is to conquer the flesh, to withstand one's own pleasures, to extinguish the delight of the present life, to love the hardships of this world for the sake of earthly things, to despise the allurements of prosperity, to overcome in heart the fear of adversity. The same is had in lib. 4. cap. 30. and lib. 5. cap. 13.

St. JEROME, lib. 16. in Isa. cap. 57. Fortitude, and constancy is the royal road; from which he declines to the right who is rash and pertinacious: to the left, he who is fearful and timorous.

St. AUGUSTINE epist. 19. ad Hieronymum: He who is truly strong in virtue neither dares rashly nor fears imprudently.

St. AMBROSE lib. 1. de offic. cap. 30. he is brave who consoles himself in some sorrow: And truly it is rightly called fortitude, when each one conquers himself, restrains his anger, is softened and swayed by no enticements, is not disturbed by adversity, is not exalted by prosperity, and is not carried about, as it were by a wind, by the change of varied affairs. The same is had in cap. 39. and lib. 5. in Lucam, cap. 6.

SENECA, epist. 59. The wise man and the brave man is fortified and intent against every onrush; if poverty, if grief, if ignominy, if pain makes its assault, he will not give ground, undaunted, but will go against those things, and stand amid them.

IT IS OBSERVED, however, by the Holy Doctor in the places alleged, with St. Thom. ad 1. ex Aristotele 3. Eth. cap. 8. that others exercise acts of the virtue of fortitude that are not true, but like it.

I ASSERT secondly: Fortitude is a special virtue. IT IS PROVED from what has been said, because it has a special honesty in taming the passions, especially daring and fear. Although by the Fathers cited it is extended to the taming of nearly all vehement passions, as St. Thom. also teaches art. 2. ad 2.

I ASSERT thirdly, that Fortitude is a Cardinal virtue. So St. Bonav. in the places cited, St. Thom. quaest. 127. art. 11. IT IS PROVED by the Holy Doctor ex S. Sap. where it is numbered with the Cardinal Virtues in those words: She teacheth Sobriety, and Prudence, and Justice, and Virtue. The Holy Doctor proves the same in the places cited, from the Fathers alleged.

IT IS CONFIRMED because the Cardinal virtues are so called either because through them we enter into the other virtues; or because the order of human life is directed and regulated in the four Cardinals of the lesser world, in likeness of the greater, as the Holy Doctor says serm. 6. Hexaëmer. Such is fortitude: Therefore.

IT IS PROVED also by the reasoning of St. Bonaventure in 3. dist 33. passim, especially quaest. 4. because it belongs to the Cardinal virtues, or, as he says at the end, principal virtues, that which is chiefly attended to in virtue; but among the others one is placed to work firmly, as is clear from Aristotle 2. Eth. cap. 4. and Fortitude claims to itself the praise of working firmly.

From what has been said you have that the object of fortitude is the passions of Daring and Fear, moderating by the mean. So St. Thom. quaest. 123. art. 3. and St. Bonaventure in the places cited, and serm. 5. Hexaemer. from Aristotle lib. 2. Eth. cap. 7. and lib. 3. cap. 6. but it is mediately concerned with perils, especially of death, as the objects of those passions. Aristotle indeed says 3. Eth. cap. 3. and 9. that fortitude is chiefly about the perils of death, which is in war.

St. Thom. art. 6. ADDS, with Aristotle 3. Eth. cap. 9. that fortitude is more concerned with repressing fears than with moderating daring; therefore the principal act of fortitude is to endure, that is, to stand immovable in perils, rather than to attack. The reason is, because it is more difficult to repress fears in perils than to moderate daring. First, because he who endures suffers from another, as from a stronger; but the daring man attacks, as against a weaker; and it is more difficult to fight with a stronger than with a weaker. Second, he who endures already feels the perils imminent; but he who attacks has them as future. Third, to endure is lasting; but to attack can be sudden: and it is more difficult to remain immovable for a long time than to move suddenly.

OBSERVE, that the end, as it were proximate, of fortitude is to express the likeness of its habit in act; but its remote and ultimate end is beatitude, that is, God. So St. Thomas art. 7.

OBSERVE secondly, that the brave man, from the consideration of the honesty of his act, does indeed take delight, yet from the suffering of hardships, in which he is engaged, he grieves. So St. Thom. art. 8. ex Aristotele 3. Eth. cap. 9. The Holy Doctor adds above, that from the abundance of God's grace the pain and sadness are often swallowed up, as happened to the tender holy Virgins.

OBSERVE thirdly, that fortitude is seen chiefly in sudden events. So St. Thom. art. 9. ex Aristotele 3. Eth. cap. 8.

OBSERVE fourthly, that the brave man employs anger, but moderated by reason, for the act of fortitude. So St. Thom. quaest. 127. art. 10. ex Aristotele 3. Eth. cap. 8. and St. Bonavent. in 3. loco citato.

I ASSERT fourthly, that fortitude is inferior to Prudence and Justice, but superior to Temperance.

IT IS PROVED by the Holy Doctor 3. dist. 33. quaest. 4. for the Cardinal Virtues order man in those things that are toward the end, which are all something created; but since man is compared both to himself and to another, the Cardinal Virtues are the moderators of these: if in respect of himself, it can be about the rational, and behold Prudence; or about the Concupiscible, and behold Temperance; or about the Irascible, and behold Fortitude. But if it order toward another, thus it is Justice, because there is one ratio by which he is compared to another, which is the ratio of the due; and because this ratio can be attended to according to the act of each power, hence Cardinal Justice is said to go round about all the powers, and yet is one, on account of the one ratio of ordering toward another. From this you have that Justice is the most noble, then Prudence, which moderates reason, inferior to the will. Thirdly Fortitude, which moderates the concupiscible, even the sensible, inferior to reason and will: lastly Temperance, which is concerned with the concupiscible, which is the lowest.

NOTE, that St. Ambrose, cited by St. Bonaventure in Pharetra, prefers Fortitude to the others, but understand it secundum quid, namely, either in respect of a certain general utility, since it is useful both in warlike and in civil affairs, as St. Thom. answers art. 12. ad 1. Or because fortitude is concerned chiefly with difficulties.